Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy &
Physiology
Anatomy & 23 Skeletal system
physiology 32 Muscular system
Contents The muscles of the face, head and neck

Task
Label the diagram of the muscles of the head, face and neck and complete
the missing position/action within the table.
Frontalis
Corrugator
Temporalis
Orbicularis
oculi
Masseter
Buccinator Zygomaticus
Splenius capitis
Orbicularis oris
Splenius cervicis
Risorius Mentalis
Digastric
Sterno-cleido mastoid
Platysma
1 Introduction Muscles of the face, head and neck

Muscle Position Action
Frontalis Forehead/upper part of Lifts the eyebrows which
cranium cause horizontal creases
to appear
Corrugator In between the inner Draws the eyebrows
2 Cells and tissues Orbicularis oculi

eyebrows
Round muscle that

together, as in frowning
Closes the eyes and can

surrounds the eye cause wrinkles at the
corner of the eye
Temporalis Extends over the ears, Raises the jaw when we
down to the corner of the chew
jaw
8 Structure of the skin

Cross Section Of The Skin And It’s Appendages
Task
Label the diagram of the cross section of the skin
45 Circulatory system
Hair shaft
59 Lymphatic system
NVQ Level 3 Bea uty Th erap y—Anatomy & Ph y siolo gy
Sebaceous Epidermis
gland
Papillary
Blood layer of
Lymphatic System
supply dermis
Hair Nerve
Arrector pili ending
follicle
muscle
Reticular
layer of Introduction
dermis The lymphatic sy s- back through the tem is the
secon- capillarywalls. dary circulatory Unlike
the circula-
Dermal
papilla
Did you know?
system that drains tory system, the When the body is away tissue fluids lymphatic
system
Subcutaneous a n and waste products does not have a
Sweat illwith
layer infection, your and filters the heart to pump it
gland
glands swell up. lymph protecting around the body;
Many of these against infection. instead its onward
glands are lymph It is a one way movementis
nodes. When you drainage sy stem assisted by the
are healthy they that drains excess pumping action of
are about the size tissue fluid and the muscles that
of a pea or grape, transports it back surround the lymph
15
but during illness into the venous vessels, the posi-
Functions of the skin they can be as big system of the tion of valves to
as golf balls. blood supply. It prevent backflow
also returns to the and the negative blood any large pro- pressure created in
Lymph nodes con- tein molecules that the thorax during tain billions of were
unable to pass inspiration.
plying rapidly to Functions of the lymphatic system

fight the
white invading
cells, multi- The
17 Hair growth cycle germs.

tissues During ill-system:
and cells.
lymphatic water clogging of the against infection.
Produces antibodies ness they fill with Filters bacteria, Transports
proteins to fight bacteria. millions of extra foreign materials, back into the blood
Absorbs fat from white cells and also toxins and any harm- supply.the intestine and
dead germs.ful materials.Produces lympho- transport it to the
Drains away excess cytes which protect liver.
fluid to prevent and defend the body
18 Effects of ageing on the skin
22 Anatomical terms
66 Nervous system
76 The olfactory system 97 Urinary system
Urinary System
79 Respiratory system The urinary system filters out excess fluid and other substances from
the bloodstream. Some fluid gets reabsorbed by the body but most is
expelled as urine.
NVQ L evel 3 B eaut y Th erap y — Ana tomy & P hysi olog y

How does the urinary system work?
The body makes chemical waste products that it can't use. These pass
into the bloodstream and then pass into the kidneys where the excess
fluid and chemicals that the body can't use are filtered out. At the same
time the kidneys also make sure that the blood is the right consistency
Respiratory System i.e. not too thin/thick, salty, or overloaded with excess vitamins, minerals
or wastes made by other parts of the body.
The organs of the urinary system include:
The structures of the urinary system
Illustration of the respiratory system
1. Two kidneys - situated either side of
Sinuses the spine at waist level, they are
responsible for filtering the blood to
Throat produce urine.
Oxygena ted blood Deoxygena ted blood to the Larynx

heartfrom the heart
Trachea
2. Two ureters – tubes that connect
Lung Bronchial tube the kidneys to the bladder.
Bronchus
Bronchiole Bronchioles
Blood
capillaries 3. Bladder – stores the urine until it is
ready to be expelled.
Diaphragm Alveoli 1
2 4. Urethra – tube that provides a

Alveoli
passageway to allow the urine to be
expelled from the body.
The process of respiration 3
4
The respiratory system trachea, bronchi and then into expands, the diaphragm flattens
consists of the structures the bronchioles situated inside and the intercostal muscles lift
leading to and including the the lungs. The bronchioles the ribs upwards and outwards,
lungs. Air that you breathe in divide into alveoli which are to allow the lungs to fill with air.
passes through the nose only one cell thick, thus As we breathe out, the
where it is warmed, filtered allowing the diffusion of oxygen intercostals muscles relax and
and moistened. It then passes and gasses into the blood the diap hragm becomes dome
through the pharynx, larynx, stream. As we breathe in, the
chest
shaped.
99 The reproductive system
81 The digestive system
83 Endocrine system
NV Q L e v e l 3 Be a u t y Th era p y — A n a t omy & Ph y s
iol o g y
Endocrine System
Introduction to the endocrine system

In general, the endocrine system is in charge of body processes that
happen slowly, such as cell development, digestion,
excretion,and
sexual activity. Faster processes like breathing and body movement
are monitored by thenervous system. But even though the nervous
What is a and endocrine
hormone? systemsare
separate,they endocrine system is the body and are often work made
A hormone is a up of a series responsible for se-
chemical messen-
ger that is produced
by an endocrine
gland. The
hormones are
secreted into the
blood stream, where
they travel along to
their target
organ.
Hormones are
specific, meaning
they only carry out
one type of
reaction, therefore
together to help ofendocrine creting hormones. the body function
there is only a
glands, which are
certain place for
properly.
them to travel to. The positioned around
What is an endocrine gland?
An endocrine gland and release them  Pituitary has no duct
linking directly into the  Thyroid it to another part blood stream to
be  Thymus
of the body, so it is carried around the  Para-thyroid often called
a body.The  Pancreas - islets ductl essgland. endocrine glands ofof
Langer hans Theseglands the body are: Adrenals produce hormones 
Hypothalamus Gonads
1
Anatomy And Physiology
In order for you to be able to competently carry out your treatments and
understand the effects and benefits, you will need to have knowledge of
the relevant anatomy and physiology. One or more organs functioning
together are called a system. An overview of each system is provided in
the table below:
System Structures Function
Integumentary Skin, hair, nails, sebaceous & Protective layer that helps to
sudoriferous glands, arrector maintain homeostasis.
pili muscle.
Skeletal Axial and appendicular Framework that supports,
skeleton, joints, cartilage and protects and facilitates
tendons. movement.
Muscular Muscles of the skeleton. Facilitates movement.
Circulatory Heart, blood vessels and blood. Transports oxygen/nutrients
and removes waste products.
Lymphatic Lymph fluid, lymph vessels, Fights infection by filtering
lymph nodes and the spleen. harmful bacteria and waste.
Nervous Central nervous system – brain Communication system within
and spinal cord, peripheral the body and between the
nervous system and the sense body and the external
organs. environment.
Digestive Mouth, oesophagus, pancreas, Breaks down food, absorbs
liver, gall bladder, stomach, nutrients and eliminates
small and large intestines. waste.
Respiratory Nasal cavities, mouth, trachea, Facilitates gaseous exchange
bronchii, bronchioles and lungs. between the body and the
environment.
Urinary Kidneys, bladder, ureters and Stores and eliminates urine.
urethra.
Reproductive Male – testes, sperm duct and Hormonal regulation,
penis. menstruation and continuation
Female – ovaries, uterus, vagina of the human race.
and mammary glands.
Endocrine Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, Slow communication system
hypothalamus, adrenal, islets of that regulates many body
Langerhans, ovaries and testes. functions.
Clare Hargreaves-Norris Anatomy & Physiology - Student 2005

2
Cells And Tissues
Cells are the basic structural building blocks of the human body. There
are many different types of cells; for example, muscle, nerve, and blood.
These minute cells can only be viewed using a microscope and contain
three main structures – cell membrane, nucleus and cytoplasm. Within the
cytoplasm are different structures that are referred to collectively as
organelles
Task
Label the diagram of the cell
Task
Research and describe each of the cell structures.
Structure Description
Cell membrane
Nucleus
Cytoplasm

3
Mitochondria
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes
A tissue is a group of cells that perform a specific function. The basic

types of tissues in the human body include epithelial, muscle, nervous, and
connective tissues.
Epithelial tissue
Epithelial tissue covers the outer body surfaces, surfaces of the internal
organs, forms glands and lines the internal body cavities. The cells have a
simple shape and fit closely together and may be a single layer as in simple
epithelium or several layers as with compound or stratified epithelium.
Their functions include movement of materials in/out or around the body,
protection and secretion. There are six classifications of epithelial tissue
which are classified according to their shape:
1. Squamous epithelium – flat, scale like cells that form the walls of the
blood capillaries, epidermis, lining of the mouth cavity and air sacs of
the lungs.
2. Cuboidal epithelium – cube shaped cells that are found in the lining of
the sweat glands, kidney tubules and thyroid gland.
3. Columnar epithelium – elongated cells that line the stomach, intestines
and urinary ducts.

4
4. Ciliated columnar epithelium – elongated cells that cover wet surfaces

and are interspersed with goblet cells that secrete mucus. The hair
like cilia help to move particles along, and it is found in the air
passages where it helps to filter the air breathed in.
5. Compound transitional epithelium – several layers of cells when
relaxed but only one/two layers when stretched. Therefore found in
areas where the tissue needs to stretch such as the bladder wall.
6. Glandular epithelium – simple or compound cells that secrete
necessary chemicals and are found in the glands such as sweat glands,
sebaceous glands, mammary glands and salivary glands.
Connective tissue
Connective tissue connects, fills in spaces, supports and binds all other
types of tissue. Inside the connective tissues are living cells, as well as
the matrix, collagen and elastin fibres (which are all non-living
structures). The collagen fibres are produced by fibroblasts and are
required to provide a supporting fibrous framework. The elastin fibres
allow areas of the body to stretch as they have elastic qualities. The
connective tissue usually has a rich blood supply and cells that are not
tightly packed together. There are five types of connective tissue:
1. Loose connective tissue or areolar tissue – smooth and moist tissue
that has a loose network of collagen and elastin fibres, few
blood/nerve cells, however some fat cells. It forms a tough
transparent lining in between the organs and attaches the skin to the
underlying muscles.
2. Adipose tissue – loose connective tissue that contains a network of
fat cells that provide energy reserves and insulation for the body. It
also protects the delicate organs. It can be found in the subcutaneous
layer of the skin, around the heart and kidneys.
3. Dense connective tissue – contains bundles of strong collagen fibres
and fibroblasts, it is very tough and looks silvery to white in colour. It
can be found in the tendons, ligaments and fascia surrounding the
muscles.
4. Cartilage – this is a tough, elastic tissue that contains cells called
chondrocytes and is separated by fibres. This tissue does not have a
blood supply and is located in-between the vertebrae where it forms
the intervertebral discs.
5. Bone tissue – basically a specialised type of cartilage which has
undergone ossification. It has collagen fibres to provide strength;
mineral salts provide rigidity and a rich blood supply to provide
nutrients. It is the tissue that makes up the human skeleton.

5
Muscle tissue
There are three types of muscle tissue that the body is comprised of:
 Voluntary or Skeletal
 Involuntary or Cardiac
 Smooth
1. Voluntary Muscle
 Is attached to the skeleton and is controlled voluntarily by the brain
and nervous system.
 When viewed under a microscope it has visible stripes and is therefore
called striated.
 Each muscle tissue consists of bundles of parallel muscle fibres.
 Each fibre has an outer membrane that binds together smaller fibrils,
many of which have nuclei.
 It is responsible for maintaining posture and allowing movement of the
body.
 It has the power to perform a great deal of work, however tires very
easily.
2. Cardiac muscle
 Is found only in the walls of the heart.
 Is made from short, striated muscle fibres.
 Structured so it only has a single nuclei per fibre.
 Contracts automatically and rhythmically without any nervous
stimulation.
 Is developed to allow communication between the cells enabling
sequential contraction of the cells from the bottom of the ventricle to
the top, facilitating maximal ejection of blood during contraction.
 Is regulated by the autonomic nervous system and adrenalin.
 Does not tire readily - it works continuously throughout life to make
the heart beat.
3. Smooth muscle
 Located in the walls of the food canal, blood vessels and urinary
system.
 Cells are spindle shaped, interlock with each other and each cell has
only one nucleus.
 Made up of contractile fibres which are not striated.
 The autonomic nervous system and adrenalin regulate smooth muscle
tissue.
 This tissue is capable of slow contraction and does not tire easily.

6
Nervous tissue
Nervous tissue consists of nerve cells called neurones and their function
is to transmit messages or nervous impulses from inside/outside the body
to the tissues within the body.
Each neuron has:

 A cell body – containing the nucleus, mitochondria and other
organelles.
 Dendrites – several short projections that receive information from
other cells and transmit the message on to the cell body.
 Axon – one long projection that conducts messages away from the cell
body. Axons have a myelin sheath which insulates them to prevent
against loss of electrical impulses and therefore increase the speed at
which the impulse is conducted.
Task
Complete the table below to briefly explain the basic structure of each
type of tissue and examples of where each is located.
Epithelial Tissue
Tissue Structure Location
Squamous
epithelium
Cuboidal
epithelium
Columnar
epithelium
Ciliated columnar
epithelium
Compound
transitional
epithelium
Glandular
epithelium

7
Connective Tissue
Loose connective
tissue
Adipose tissue
Dense connective
tissue
Cartilage
Bone tissue
Muscle Tissue
Voluntary Muscle
Cardiac muscle
Smooth muscle
Nervous Tissue
Nervous

8
Structure Of The Skin
Task
Complete the missing sections.
1
The skin is made up of three main layers:
Epidermis
Dermis 2
Subcutaneous layer
1. Epidermis 3
This is the layer of the skin (the part that

you can see). The epidermis is made from epithelial tissue and does not
have a of its own; it is made up of five layers:
 Stratum corneum – the outer layer of the skin, this is made up of
that are continuously shed (corn flakes).
 Stratum lucidum - this is made up of small through
which light can pass. This layer is only present in the palms of the
hands and soles of the feet.
 Stratum granulosum – this layer is usually 1-3 layers thick. The cells
have distinct granules and is produced in this layer.
 Stratum spinosum – this layer is thick and the cells
are constantly dividing.
 Stratum germinativum – a single basal layer of cells, which contain the
that produce the pigment melanin. The cells of
the epidermis are produced in this layer and each has a distinct nuclei.
These cells by a process known as .
Stratum corneum - horny layer

Stratum lucidum - clear layer
Stratum granulosum - granular layer
Stratum spinosum - prickle cell layer
Stratum germinativum - germinating

layer

9
The melanocytes produce extra melanin when activated by UV rays,

however they sometimes hyper-secrete resulting in
i.e. darker patches of skin colour. If
the melanocytes hypo-secrete or cease to secrete melanin hypo-
pigmentation occurs, this skin condition is referred to as .
2. Dermis
This layer is often referred to as the true skin as it forms the bulk of
the skin. The dermis has a provided by
. The
dermis is made up of connective tissue and is divided into two layers:
 Papillary Layer – lies directly , it is
quite thin and has cone like projections called papillae. It provides
nutrients and oxygen to the .
 Reticular Layer – this lies and is the
of the dermis. Within the reticular
layer are collagen and elastin fibres. gives the skin a
and and is a white fibrous
tissue made up of proteins. gives the skin its
and is made up of yellow elastic tissue.
These fibres are produced by the and are all held
together in a ground substance. Whilst this network is strong, the skin
will remain youthful and firm; however, as the fibres start to harden
and split the network collapses and the ageing process starts to
become visible.
Located within the dermis are various other structures known as

appendages.
3. Subcutaneous Layer
This is located and is mainly made up of
(adipose tissue). This fatty layer provides the
of the body, , ,
and a if needed. A certain
amount of fat in the face is beneficial as it plumps out the facial contours
making the face look more youthful. If a client loses a lot of weight
quite rapidly, you will notice that they look as though they have aged.

10
Cross Section Of The Skin And It’s

Appendages
Task
Label the diagram of the cross section of the skin
Hair
follicle

11
Appendages Of The Skin
The dermis houses many different structures that allow the skin to
function effectively.
Sweat glands
The sweat glands, which are sometimes referred to as the sudoriferous
glands, extend from the epidermis into the dermis and are found all over
the body, however they are particularly numerous in the palms of the
hands and the soles of the feet They regulate the body temperature by
allowing sweat to evaporate from the body.
Research and explain the two different types of sweat glands.
Hair follicle
The hair follicle is an indentation of the epidermis with the walls of the
follicle being formed from a continuation of the cellular layer of the skins
surface.
Research and explain the three different sheaths of the follicle.

12
Hair
Hairs are dead structures that are made of a hardened protein called
keratin. Keratin provides the body with a protective toughness for its
entire surface.
The hair is comprised of three different areas; explain each in the

space below.
The hair is comprised of three layers - the cuticle, cortex and the
medulla.
1. The cuticle is the outer layer of scale like keratinised cells with each
scale overlapping another towards the tip of the hair. This layer contains
no pigment; it is translucent and allows the colour from beneath to show
through. The cuticle protects the hair.
2. The cortex is the main part of the hair, it contains elongated cells,
which are keratinised and cemented together. The pigment granules
(melanin for black/brown or pheomelanin for red/yellow) are present in
this layer. The strength, thickness and elasticity of the hair is
determined by how the cells are held together in the cortex.
3. The medulla is the middle, soft, spongy core of the hair. This layer
contains large, loosely connected, keratinised cells, which may or may not
be continuous. This results in air spaces, which determine the sheen and
colour tones by influencing the reflection of light. The medulla is often
not present in fine terminal and vellus hairs.
Blood supply
Blood is supplied to the skin by small blood vessels known as blood
capillaries. Arterioles supply oxygenated blood that is rich in nutrients
and venules remove waste products and carbon dioxide. All parts of our
body require a blood supply as it provides the vital oxygen and nutrients
that tissues require in order to survive. In addition, the capillaries also
help to maintain the body temperature by dilating (widening) and
constricting (narrowing).

13
What is the dermal papilla and what is its function?
Arrector pili muscle

This muscle is attached to the hair follicle and it contracts when you are
cold or frightened causing the hair to stand up on end.
What is the function of the arrector pili muscle?
Sebaceous glands
These glands are found all over the body except for the palms of the
hands and the soles of the feet and produce the natural oil of the skin -
sebum. The gland is attached to the upper part of the follicle and its
duct enters directly into the hair follicle. The sebaceous glands become
more active at puberty due to the increased levels of androgens (male
hormone) being produced. Men generally secrete more sebum than
women, and you will usually note that the sebaceous glands become less
active as we get older.
What is the function of sebum?
Nails
The nails are an extension of the epidermis and are therefore an
appendage of the skin. They are required to help with grasping and
protect the fingertips and toes.

14
Nerves
Sensory nerve endings are found in the skin and detect changes in the
environment such as heat, cold, touch, pain and pressure. These send
messages to the central nervous system which will send messages back via
the motor nerves to stimulate a response. There are different nerve
endings that detect the different sensations.
Research the different nerve endings and list the sensations they
detect.

15
Functions Of The Skin
There are seven main functions of the skin and these are:
Sensation
Heat regulation
Absorption
Protection
Excretion
Secretion
Vitamin D production
Sensation – Sensory nerve endings in the skin detect changes in the

environment such as heat, cold, touch, pressure and pain.
Heat regulation - Helps to keep body at a constant temperature of 37C

by dilation and constriction of the blood vessels. Sweat evaporation also
keeps the body cool. The subcutaneous fat insulates the body.
Absorption – The skin can absorb certain particles that are small enough
to be absorbed such as female hormones, nicotine patches, ingredients
within facial preparations etc.
Protection – The skin provides protection in the following ways:

a) The acid mantle of pH 5.5 (made up from sebum and sweat) discourages
growth of bacteria and fungi.
b) The horny layer of the epidermis acts as a filter against bacteria.
c) Melanin in the epidermis protects against damage from UV rays.
d) Fat cells provide protection for the internal structures.
e) Nerve endings detect sensations and provide a fast, protective
response.
f) Its waterproof coat protects the body against dirt, bacterial infection
and chemical attack.
Excretion – Waste products such as lactic acid, urea and salts are lost
through perspiration, however this is only a minor function.
Secretion - Sebum is secreted by the sebaceous glands.
Vitamin D production – Due to the reaction of sunlight on the skin, a

chemical reaction occurs resulting in the production of vitamin D.

16
Task
Complete the crossword to demonstrate your knowledge of the skin.
1
3 4
5 6
8 9
10
11
12
Across
2 Uppermost layer of the skin (9)
3 Help with body temperature regulation (5.7)
5 A function of the skin (10)
8 This is bactericidal and fungicidal (5)
10 This layer of the skin has cone like projections (9)
11 Type of tissue that the dermis is made up of (10)
12 Type of gland found in the underarms and groin area (8)
Down
1 Produces the fibres of the dermis (11)
2 Provides the skin with its elastic properties (7)
4 True layer of the skin (6)
6 Type of nerve (7)
7 Gives the skin plump and youthful contours (8)
9 Natural protection to UV rays (7)

17
Hair Growth Cycle
All hairs grow in cycles that

Anagen
occur at various speeds all
over the body. All hairs will
progress though this cycle
and then fall out making Catagen
way for new hairs to grow.

Early
There are three stages in
Anagen
the hair growth cycle and
these are known as anagen,
catagen and telogen. The
hair growth cycle is
repeated continuously as
long as there is
nourishment available.
Telogen
Explain the different stages of the hair growth cycle.
Anagen
Catagen
Telogen

18
Effects Of Ageing On The Skin
As the natural process of ageing occurs, you will notice many changes
within the skin. How a skin ages will depend on many factors, such as:
 Skin type.
 Skin thickness.
 Threats the skin has been exposed to.
 How the client has cared for the skin.
 Colour of the skin.
 Genetics inherited from parents.
Some changes in a woman’s skin during the ageing process can also be
closely linked with the altered production of hormones within the body.
From the age of 25, the skin will start to show signs of ageing. Below is a
list of changes that occur; they will become more noticeable over the
years:
 A slow down in sebaceous and sweat gland activity causes the skin to
become dryer and dehydrated.
 Loss of elasticity occurs as the elastin fibres harden.
 Hardening of the collagen fibres produces lines and wrinkles.
 Because the skin is not as firm, the pores appear more open & visible.
 Facial contours become slack as the muscle fibres lose their tone.
 Body contours become less defined, breast tissue starts to sag, upper
arms become loose, abdomen and back areas lose their tone and form
fatty pockets, fatty deposits are laid down over abdomen, upper arms,
buttocks and upper thighs.
 As cell replacement slows down, the epidermis grows slower and
appears thinner. As the skin is more transparent, broken capillaries
are more prone and appear more visible.
 The bone structure is more prominent as the adipose, skin and muscle
tissues become thinner.
 Fatty cells are unevenly distributed and form pockets leaving the skin
to appear lumpy in places, particularly around the eye area.
 Blood circulation slows down & therefore leaves the skin to look sallow.
 As the metabolic rate slows down, waste products and toxins are not
removed as rapidly and so puffiness often occurs.
 Liver spots and skin tags often develop and continue to increase in
number.

19
 Due to the change in hormone levels, facial hair growth usually occurs
on the upper lip and chin and this usually becomes coarser over the
years.
Effects of ageing on hair growth in women

During menopause, oestrogen levels decline resulting in an imbalance
within the body. Oestrogen suppresses the male hormones androgen and
testosterone and with reduced oestrogen levels, the androgens now
become more dominant. The androgens stimulate the hairs to:
 Grow thicker and coarser in texture
 Become darker in colour
 Grow faster
 Grow in the male pattern i.e. the upper lip and chin
Ageing affects areas of the face in different ways

The mouth area With age, naso-labial folds appear from the corner of
the nose to the corner of the mouth, and from the
corner of the lips to the jaw line. The lips develop
vertical and horizontal wrinkle around them. When we
smile, we show less of our teeth as we age and the
lips become thinner. The corners of the mouth also
begin to droop.
Jaw and chin With age, jowls appear and the jaw tends to merge
with the neck. The chin has a tendency to dip
downwards as we get older.
Forehead & Horizontal & vertical forehead wrinkles appear due to
Region around the expression lines formed by the frontalis muscle.
the Eyes The eyebrows sag and the corners of the eyes droop,
giving a sad expression.
Eye area Loose skin appears above the upper eyelid and this
can sometimes cover the whole of the upper eyelid.
Loose skin (bags) also appear below the eye area.
Creases appear at the side of the eyes, which are
called crow’s feet. The corners of the eyes tend to
droop, giving a sad expression. Skin tags form around
the eye area.
Neck Wrinkles appear with age and the skin forms bands.
Skin tags often appear on the neck area
Ageing also limits the effectiveness of the treatments, as the body is not
as responsive to external stimulus as it gets older. Treatments are less
effective on degenerative tissue.

2
Task
Answer the following questions to demonstrate your knowledge on the
ageing of the skin.
1. What happens to the sebaceous and sweat glands as a client gets

older?
2. What happens to cell replacement with the ageing process?
3. The ageing of the skin is closely related to the production of what

within the body?
4. Explain the effects of ageing on hair growth in women.
5. What happens to the body contours as we get older?

21
6. What will occur around the forehead & region around the eyes, as we
get older?
7. What changes will you notice to the eye area of a mature client?
8. State how ageing affects the results of the treatments.
9. What advice can you give to prevent signs of ageing on the face?

2
Anatomical Terms
Planes of the body

A - Frontal - This line divides the body into front and back.
B - Transverse - Divides the body into upper and lower parts.
C - Median - Divides the body into right and left halves.
Task
Please complete the missing sections within the table to describe the
anatomical terminology commonly used.
Terminology Description
Anterior
Posterior
Lateral
Medial
Inferior
Superior
Proximal
Distal
Flexion
Extension
Abduction
Adduction
Circumduction
Rotation
Supination
Pronation
Inversion
Eversion
Elevation
Depression
Plantarflexion
Dorsiflexion

2
Skeletal System
Task
Explain the main functions of the skeleton.
1. Support –
2. Movement –
3. Protection –
4. Muscle attachment –
5. Source of red blood cells –
6. Calcium storage –
Bones of the skull

The 22 bones that make up the head are collectively known as the skull.
The skull forms our facial features, supports other structures such as
the eyes and protects the brain. They can be divided into two categories:
 Facial bones – 14 bones form the face
 Cranial bones – 8 bones form the rest of the head
Task
Label the diagram of the skull.

2
Task
Research the position of the missing bones
Bones of the skull

Bone Position
Frontal x1 Forms the forehead and upper eye sockets
Parietal x2
Temporal x2 Found at the side of the head, around the ears
Sphenoid x1
Ethmoid x1 Forms the medial portion of the eye orbits, houses

the nerves of the eyes, separates the nasal passages
Occipital bone x1
Bones of the face

Bone Position
Mandible x1
Maxilla x2
Zygomatic bones x2
Turbinate x2 The spongy bones that increase the surface area of

the nasal passages
Lacrimal x2
Palatine x2
Vomer x1 Inside the nose, divides the nasal passages
Nasal x2 Forms the bridge of the nose

2
Bones of the skeleton

The skeleton is divided into two parts:
 The axial skeleton is made up of 80 bones comprising of the skull, rib
cage and vertebral column.
 The appendicular skeleton is made up of 126 bones comprising of the
arms, legs, pelvic girdle and shoulder girdle.
Task
Label the diagrams of the skeleton.

2
Task
Research the position of the missing bones
Axial skeleton
Bone Position
Cervical vertebrae
x7
Thoracic vertebrae
x12
Lumbar vertebrae x5 The part of the spine situated in the lower back
Sacrum x5
Coccyx x4 fused The coccyx (or tail) is the lowest part of the
bones vertebral column
Sternum x1
Ribs x24 Forms the cage for the chest cavity in the upper body
Appendicular skeleton
Bone Position
Clavicle x2 The collar bone, runs from the shoulder to the breast
bone, below the neck
Scapula x2
Humerus x2 The bone of the upper arm
Radius x2
Ulna x2 Runs from the elbow to the little finger side of the
forearm
Carpals x16
Metacarpals x10 The bones of the hand
Phalanges x 28
Pelvic bones x2 These bones form the pelvic girdle
Femur x2
Patella x2 The knee bone
Tibia x2
Fibula x2 Lateral bone of the lower leg

Tarsals x14 Ankle bones
Metatarsals x10
Phalanges x28 The bones that make up the toes

2
Bones of the hand and wrist

Task
Label the diagram of the hand
Scaphoid Lunate
Trapezium Triquetral
Trapezoid
Pisiform
Capitate Hamate
The forearm consists of two bones - the radius and ulna. The radius is
the lateral bone of the forearm & is found on the thumb side. The ulna is
the medial bone of the forearm & is found on the little finger side. They
form a hinge joint with the humerus, which allows flexion and extension.
The wrist consists of eight small carpal bones: scaphoid, lunate,

triquetral, pisiform trapezium, trapezoid, capitate and hamate. These
bones form a gliding joint and glide over one another to allow movement.
There are five metacarpal bones, which form the palm of the hand.
The long bones of the fingers are called the phalanges and these are
made of three bones in the fingers and two bones in the thumb.

2
Bone tissue
When the skeleton is developing in the embryo it is made from a flexible
tissue called cartilage. This is gradually replaced by hard bone tissue by a
process known as ossification. Bone tissue is rigid and contains
approximately 67% calcium and 33% organic materials of which collagen
forms the main percentage.
Task
Research the two types of bone tissue.
The process of ossification is controlled by two types of cells that cause

the bone tissue to either develop or deconstruct. The two cells that
maintain this balance are:
 Osteoblasts – produce new bone tissue by secreting collagen to form

a strong and flexible network. Calcification occurs whereby mineral
salts are deposited within the network to provide hardness to the
bone tissue. The osteoblasts become trapped within the network and
develop into osteocytes, which secrete further calcium.
 Osteoclasts – destroy old bone tissue by secreting enzymes which

digest the protein and minerals within the bone.

2
Classification of bones
Task
Complete the table below:
Type of bone Structure Examples

Long Femur
Humerus
Short Short, lightweight cancellous bone

tissue surrounded by a thin layer
of compact bone.
Flat Frontal
Irregular Cancellous bone tissue surrounded

by a thin layer of compact bone.
Sesamoid Oval bone, located in
shaped
tendons.
Bones and joints

Bones are connected to each other by connective tissue and where two
bones meet a joint is formed. Without joints the skeleton would not be
able to move or have very limited movement. Fibrous connective tissue is
used for immovable joints such is the cranium, whereas fibro-cartilage is
used for semi-moveable joints such as the vertebrae. However the most
common joints are synovial joints and these hold freely moveable joints
together by a connective tissue called a ligament.
Synovial joints have a fibrous capsule that is lined with the synovial
membrane which secretes the synovial fluid to lubricate the joint.
Articular cartilage coats the ends of the bones to protect against wear
and tear by reducing friction at the joint. Extra ligaments may surround
the outside of the joint to provide extra strength and some also contain
discs of cartilage to maintain stability. However, the main support to the
joints is provided by muscles.

3
Synovial joints
Task
There are different types of synovial joints, complete the location for
each type of joint.
Type of joint Location Movement

Ball and socket The ball and socket
joint is one of the most
mobile joints and allows
movement in three
planes - flexion,
extension, abduction,
adduction, rotation.
Hinge joint The hinge joint allows

movement in one plane –
flexion and extension.
Pivot joint The pivot joint also

allows movement in one
plane – rotation,
pronation and
supination.
Saddle joint The saddle joint allows

two planes of motion -
flexion, extension,
abduction, adduction
with a small amount of
rotation also allowed.

31
Type of joint Location Movement

Gliding joint Movement at the
gliding joint occurs as
two flat surfaces slide
over each other. In the
hand, the carpals will
slide over each to allow
flexion, extension, and
radial or ulnar
deviation. Likewise, in
the foot, the tarsals
slide over each other
during pronation and
supination.
Condyloid joint The condyloid joint
allows primary
movement in mainly one
plane - flexion and
extension with small
amounts rotation also.
Effects of ageing on the skeleton

 Nutrition and the efficiency of the digestive system affects how the
skeleton ages. Less calcium is absorbed from the diet, more so in
women than men, leading to osteoporosis in post menopausal women.
 A slow down in vitamin D production affects calcium transportation
from the digestive system to the bones, resulting in new bone tissue
being produced at a slower rate than old bone tissue is destroyed.
 During middle and old age the bones also start to shrink, this is why
the skin starts to appear saggy over the bones.
 Loss of water from the disks in-between the vertebrae makes them
flatter and less flexible causing problems with lifting etc.
 Joints become less flexible as the synovial fluid reduces in volume and
the synovial sheath degenerates.
Advise the client to maintain regular exercise, for example walking, to
prevent bone mass loss. Sunlight will encourage the production of vitamin
D which is good for healthy bone production. The diet should contain
adequate amounts of calcium to produce new bone tissue. HRT has a
positive effect on calcium metabolism and lowers the risk of osteoporosis.

3
Muscular System
The main functions of the muscles are to:

1. Produce movement of the body or within the body
2. Maintain posture or facial contours
3. Cause heat production to maintain body temperature
4. Assist with venous return
Muscle attachment
Muscles are attached by tendons at both ends to either the bones of the
skeleton, ligaments, tendons, skin or sometimes other muscles. The origin
of the muscle is the part where the muscle originates (where it is
attached to the bone). The insertion is the other end, which is attached
to a moveable part, tissue or fascia. During contraction the port of the
muscle moves, acting as a lever to bring about an action. Many muscles
work antagonistically, meaning one muscle contracts to move the bone one
way and the other contracts to move the bone back, for example, the
biceps and triceps.
Muscle tone
If all the muscles in the body were to relax at one time the body would
simply collapse. Even when a muscle appears to be resting it is always
partially contracted and, therefore, ready to produce the required action.
This state of partial contraction is known as muscle tone. Muscle tone is
needed to help the body stand upright. Flexors are muscles that bend a
limb and extensors are muscles that straighten a limb. We can only keep
upright if the flexor and extensor muscles at a joint are partially
contacted, as this keeps the joint stable. Muscle tone can vary between
different people depending on the amount of exercise performed, genetic
build inherited from parents; diet i.e. protein intake, lifestyle and age.
Other factors that can affect muscle tone are temperature, electrical
currents, infra red rays and massage. Muscle tone could also deteriorate
if the nerve supply to the muscle was damaged in some way.
Muscle tissue characteristics

Muscles are made up of tiny elastic fibres that have the ability to:
 Shorten or contract.
 Spring back to the original form after contraction - like elastic.
 Stretch when relaxed.
 Respond to stimuli provided by nerve impulses.

3
Skeletal muscle tissue

Skeletal muscle tissue is controlled voluntarily by the brain and nervous
system. When viewed under a microscope, it has visible stripes and is
therefore called striated. Each muscle tissue consists of bundles of
parallel muscle fibres. Each fibre has an outer membrane that binds
together smaller myofibrils, many of which have nuclei. Each muscle fibre
also has a rich blood and nerve supply. The blood brings fresh oxygen,
nutrients, and adrenalin and removes waste products such as lactic acid
and carbon dioxide. The nerves carry impulses that stimulate the muscle
to contract or relax.
Running the length of the muscle tissue are two kinds of protein filaments
called actin and myosin. Actin filaments are the thinner filaments and
myosin are thicker; they are arranged in alternating bands resulting in a
striated appearance.
Bundles of Muscle fibre

muscle fibres bundle
Nucleus
Blood supply
Muscle
Muscle fibre
composed of
myofibrils
Actin
Myofibril made filament
from actin and
Myosin
myosin filaments
filament
Contraction in voluntary muscle

In order for the muscle to contract, it must receive a stimulus from the
motor nerve attached to the muscle fibre and have a sufficient energy
supply. The energy comes from an energy rich compound called ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) which is rich in glucose and oxygen. Once these
two factors are in place, it will result in the actin filaments sliding
further in-between the myosin filaments, therefore shortening the
muscle fibres.

3
The muscles of the face, head and neck

Task
Label the diagram of the muscles of the head, face and neck and
complete the missing position/action within the table.
Muscles of the face, head and neck

Frontalis Forehead/upper part of
cranium
Corrugator Draws the eyebrows

together, as in frowning
Orbicularis oculi Closes the eyes and can

cause wrinkles at the
corner of the eye
Temporalis Extends over the ears,
down to the corner of the
jaw
Masseter Extends downwards from

the zygomatic bone to the
jaw, in the lower cheek
area

3

Zygomaticus – Extends upwards,
major and minor diagonally from the
corners of the mouth
Risorius Pulls the corners of the

mouth sideways as in
grinning
Orbicularis oris Round muscle that

surrounds the mouth and
forms the lips
Buccinator Deep muscle in between
the maxilla and mandible
Mentalis Lifts the skin of the chin

and turns the lower lip
outwards forming the
expression of doubt
Digastric This muscle has two
bellies and is located
under the chin
Splenius capitis Located beneath the

trapezius to just behind
the ear, in the back of the
neck
Splenius cervicis Located in the back of the
neck
Platysma Starts at the chest and

covers the front of the
neck up to the mandible
Sterno-cleido Flexes the neck, rotates

mastoid the head from side to
side, and bows the head
forward

3
Anterior muscles of the torso

Task
Label the diagram of the anterior muscles of the torso and complete the
missing position/action within the table.
Muscles of the anterior torso

Pectoralis (major Draws the arm and
and minor) shoulder in towards the
chest
Intercostals In-between the ribs,
running obliquely
downwards
Rectus abdominus Flexes the trunk

forwards, extending the
spine and maintains the
posture of the body
External obliques Flexes the trunk, when
acting alone it twists the
trunk
Diaphragm Mid chest separating the
thoracic and abdominal
cavities

3
Posterior muscles of the torso

Task
Label the diagram of the posterior muscles of the torso and complete the
missing position/action within the table.
Muscles of the posterior torso

Trapezius Elevates and depresses
the shoulders, also
draws the head
backwards
Rhomboids Braces shoulder and

rotates scapula
Latissimus dorsi Large muscle which
extends from the
thoracic and lumbar
vertebrae
Erector spinae Runs down the length of
the vertebrae

3
Muscles of the arm, shoulder and hand
Task
Label the diagram of the
muscles and complete the
missing position/action
within the table.
Muscles of the arm and shoulder

Deltoid Caps the shoulder joint
Biceps Front of the upper arm
Triceps Extends the forearm

Wrist flexors Anterior forearm –
comprises of 3 muscles
Wrist extensors Extends and straightens the
wrist and hand
Rotator cuff Allows for a full range of
movements at the shoulder
joint, moving the humerus
Brachioradialis Thumb side of forearm
Brachialis Front of lower part of the
upper arm, crossing elbow
Radialis Flexes the forearm
Thenar muscles Flexes and moves the thumb
Hypothenar Below the little finger, in

muscles the palm of the hand

3
Anterior muscles of the leg
Quadriceps Adductors
Task
Label the diagram of the
anterior muscles of the leg
and complete the missing
position/action within the
table.
Muscles of the Leg

Quadriceps (rectus Front of the thigh
femoris, vastus lateralis,
vastus medialis and vastus
intermedius)
Adductors (longus, magnus Adducts the hip and
and brevis) rotates the hip
Abductor (tensor fascia Lateral side of
latae) thigh
Sartorius Crosses the front
of the thigh to the
inner knee
Tibialis anterior Flexion and inversion of
the foot (drawing sole
inwards)

4
Posterior muscles of the leg
Task
Label the diagram of
the posterior muscles
of the leg and
complete the missing
position/action within
the table.
Muscles of the Leg

Gluteals (maximus, Abducts and rotates
medius and minimus) femur, extends the knee
Piriformis A deep muscle crossing

below the buttocks to the
hip joint
Hamstrings (biceps Back of the thigh
femoris,
semimembranosis,
semitendonosis)
Gastrocnemius Back of the calf
Soleus Flexion of the foot

41
Disorders of the muscular system

There are a variety of conditions that affect the muscles:
 Muscle fatigue - can be recognised by a muscle that fails to relax
completely resulting in the muscle going into spasm, which generally
causes some pain in the area. This is due to over exercising of the
muscles and could also occur using a faradic type unit. The blood flow
is restricted to the muscle fibres, as the blood can only flow through
the capillaries when the muscle is relaxing. The causes of muscle
fatigue are lack of oxygen and nutrients to the muscle and the
accumulation of waste products, mainly lactic acid.
 Cramps – Muscle cramps are involuntary and often painful contractions
of the muscle, which produces a hard, bulging muscle. The causes range
from dehydration, over exercise, lack of magnesium/calcium reserves
or more serious conditions such as hypothyroidism or kidney failure.
The muscle cramp can be stopped by stretching the effected muscle.
 Shivering – as the muscles become colder, the tone of the muscle
increases and the muscle starts to shiver by contracting
spasmodically. It does this to increase heat to help raise the body
temperature.
 Muscle strain - is the stretching or tearing of muscle fibres within a
muscle. Symptoms of a muscle strain include pain, tightness, swelling,
tenderness, and the inability to move the muscle very well. A muscle
strain can be caused by sports, exercise, a sudden movement, or trying
to lift something that is too heavy.
Task
Answer the following questions to test your knowledge on the muscular
system:
1. What are the main functions of muscles?
2. How are muscles attached to the bones etc.?

4
3. Explain the difference between origin and insertion.
4. What does it mean when muscles are referred to as working

antagonistically?
5. What is muscle tone and why is it necessary?
6. What job do flexors carry out?
7. What factors can affect muscle tone?

4
8. List the characteristics of muscle tissue.
9. What protein filaments is muscle tissue made from?
10. What does a muscle need in order for it to contract?
11. How does the muscle contract?
12. How would you recognise muscle fatigue?
13. What is a muscle strain and what are the symptoms?

4
Task
Match the muscle with its location:
Buccinator Calf
Chin
Mentalis
Back of upper leg
Adductors
In the cheeks
Soleus
Lower back
Hamstring
Inner thigh
Front of lower leg

Tibialis anterior
In the neck
Latissimus dorsi
Rhomboids
In-between scapula
Biceps
Forehead
Splenius capitis
Front of upper arm

Frontalis

4
Circulatory System
The circulatory system is comprised of:

1. Blood, this fluid transports vital substances to all areas of the body.
2. Blood is transported in vessels known as arteries, veins and capillaries.
3. The heart acts as a pump to move the blood around the body.
The functions of blood

Blood has four main functions:
1. Transportation
• Red blood cells carry oxygen to the cells of the body.
• Carbon dioxide is carried back to the lungs.
• Nutrients such as glucose, vitamins and minerals are transported
around the body.
• Hormones are secreted into the blood and attach to the plasma so
that they can be transported around the body to their target organs.
• All waste materials such as urea are carried in the blood to be
removed and excreted.
2. Defence
• The white blood cells fight against disease and microbe entry.
• The white blood cells engulf the bacteria and destroy them.
• Lymphocytes (specialised white blood cells) produce antibodies which
give the body future resistance to re-infection.
3. Regulation
• The blood regulates body heat by absorbing it from the liver and
muscles as it passes by, and then transports it around the body.
4. Clotting
• Platelets will clot a damaged area where blood loss has occurred.
• Clotting prevents excess blood loss and protects against microbe
entry.
Composition of blood
Blood is made from
1. Plasma (55%) a straw-coloured fluid Task
2. Erythrocytes (red blood cells) Complete the
3. Leucocytes (white blood cells) functions in the table
4. Thrombocytes (platelets) on the next page.

4
Structure Function
Plasma 90% water and other
substances such as - blood
proteins, mineral salts, food
substances, waste material,
gases, enzymes, hormones,
and antibodies make up the
remaining 10%.
Erythrocytes These are minute biconcave
(red blood cells) discs that obtain their red
colour from haemoglobin
combining with oxygen to
form oxyhaemoglobin.
These cells are made in the
red bone marrow and take
approximately 7 days to
form; they then function
for approximately 4 months
until they are destroyed by
the liver or spleen.
Leucocytes Are colourless cells, contain
(white blood a nucleus, and are larger
cells) than red blood cells. There
are less white cells than
red, with their ratio being
approximately 1 to every
600 red cells.
Thrombocytes Platelets are formed in the

(platelets) red bone marrow and are
tiny fragments that are
even smaller than red blood
cells.

4
Blood vessels
Blood vessels are tubular in shape and their function is to form a network
to transport the blood around the body, there are three types of vessels:
Arteries
 Carry blood away from the heart
to the rest of the body Outer layer
Inner layer
 Carry oxygenated blood except Collagen &
Endothelium
elastin
the pulmonary artery
 Blood travels at a higher pressure
 The arteries eventually form into
smaller vessels called arterioles Middle layer
 Contain no valves Smooth muscle
 Tend to lie deeper in the body & elastic tissue
 Have thicker muscular walls Elastic

Lumen tissue
Veins
 Carry blood to the heart from the
body Outer
 Carry deoxygenated blood except layer
Inner layer
Collagen &
Endothelium
the pulmonary vein elastin
 Blood travels at a lower pressure
 The veins eventually form into
Valve
smaller vessels called venules
 Veins are situated in between
Middle layer
muscles & contain valves to
Smooth muscle
prevent the blood flowing
backwards Lumen Elastic
tissue
 Lie more superficially in the body
 Have thinner muscular walls
Capillaries
1. Narrow blood vessels which have
very thin walls, just one cell thick
2. Substances can pass through
3. Exchange oxygen and nutrients
for carbon dioxide and wastes
One layer of
within all cells and tissues endothelium
4. Forms the link between arterioles tissue
and venules

4
Journey of the blood

Task
Complete the missing words:
1. When the of the heart contract, blood
is forced out of the heart from the side, and on its journey
around the body in vessels called .
2. The oxygenated blood travels at a pace and under
pressure due to the force of the heart pumping it around the body.
3. Eventually the blood will pass into smaller vessels called .
4. The arterioles eventually form into even smaller vessels called
.
5. Because capillaries are so small, they form an intricate
around all of the tissues and cells within the body.
6. The capillary walls are only cell thick and allow certain
substances to pass out through the capillary walls to the
cells with vital oxygen and nutrients.
7. products and are produced by
the cells and these pass back into the capillaries via a similar process.
8. The capillaries take away the waste products and carbon dioxide and
eventually form into larger vessels called .
9. The venules eventually form into larger vessels called .
10. Veins carry the blood back to the heart under
pressure, as the blood starts to slow down after its
long journey around the body.
11. To assist the return of the deoxygenated blood the veins are located
in-between . When the muscles contract they squeeze
the veins forcing the blood upwards and onwards.
12. are also located within the veins to prevent the blood
from flowing .
13. On its journey, any waste products are filtered from the blood and
removed from the body via the and systems.
14. Eventually the blood returns back to the heart where it is then
pumped onto the to be replenished with oxygen and have
the carbon dioxide removed.
Heart structure
The heart is a hollow, cone shaped organ with cardiac muscle forming its
walls. There are three layers which form the walls of the muscle: the
pericardium, myocardium and endocardium. The heart is approximately 10
cm long and is situated in the thoracic cavity, behind the sternum, lying to
the left side. The heart is divided into a right and left side with the

4
septum separating each side. The heart contains four chambers; two
upper chambers called the right and left atriums and two lower chambers
called the right and left ventricles. The valves separate the atrium and
ventricle chambers and when they open and close they change the
pressure within the chambers. When the cardiac muscle contracts (at
systole) it forces the blood out of the heart and into the arteries which
carry the blood around the body. When the cardiac muscle relaxes (at
diastole) the heart fills with blood. This mechanism of contraction and
relaxation is known as a heart beat.
The blood flows through the heart following a specific sequence:

1. The oxygenated blood from the lungs enters into the left atrium of
the heart via the pulmonary veins.
2. The blood is squeezed through the bicuspid valve into the left
ventricle.
3. It is then forced into the largest artery of the body - the aorta,
which transports the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body.
4. Deoxygenated blood returns from the body via the superior and
inferior vena cava into the right atrium of the heart.
5. The blood is squeezed through the tricuspid valve into the right
ventricle.
6. It is then forced out into the pulmonary artery which transports the
deoxygenated blood to the lungs to become oxygenated.
Task
Label the diagram of
the heart
Diagram of a cross section of the heart

5
Pulmonary and systemic circulation

The circulatory system can be divided into two distinct systems:
 Pulmonary circulation – transports blood from the lungs to the heart
and back again. It carries deoxygenated blood from the right
ventricle of the heart via the pulmonary artery and is transported to
the lungs. The lungs enrich the blood with oxygen and the pulmonary
veins carry the oxygenated blood back to the left atrium of the heart.
 Systemic circulation – transports blood from the heart to the rest
of the body and back again. It carries oxygenated blood from the
left ventricle via the aorta to the body organs and tissues. The aorta
then branches off to supply the various areas of the body. As the
blood travels around the body, the oxygen is removed and the blood
becomes deoxygenated. The superior and inferior vena cava returns
the deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
Head
Lungs
Liver
Intestines
Kidneys
Theillustration
explains how the
circulatory system
supplies bloodtothe
Legs and
whole body. feet

51
Arteries of the head and body
Task
Label the diagrams of the
main arteries of the head
and body.
The oxygenated blood is

transported to all cells
and tissues in the
different areas of the
body via the arteries.
The aorta is the main
artery that leaves the
heart. This then
branches off to form
further arteries that
are responsible for
supplying certain areas
of the body.

5
Task
Complete the function of each of the main arteries
Arteries
Artery Location Function
Aorta Several sections
commencing at the heart
and ending in the abdomen
Pulmonary artery From the heart to the lungs

in the thoracic cavity
Common carotid Each side of the neck –

artery forms into two branches
Internal carotid Neck and inside the skull
artery
External carotid Neck and head – has three
artery branches
Subclavian artery From the aorta in the chest
cavity – also forms branches
to the neck
Brachial artery Upper arm – forms two
branches (radial and ulna)
Radial artery Lateral (thumb) side of
forearm
Ulna artery Medial (little finger) side of
forearm
Digital arteries Fingers and thumb
Iliac artery Pelvic region – one on either

side of the body
Femoral artery Upper leg – forms two
branches at the knee
(anterior & posterior tibial)
Popliteal artery Knee
Anterior tibial Front of the lower leg

artery
Metatarsal artery Foot
Digital artery Toes

5
Veins of the head and body
Task
main veins of the head
and body.
The deoxygenated blood is

transported from all cells and
tissues in the different areas of
the body in venules which
eventually form veins. The
deoxygenated blood returns
from the body via the superior
and inferior vena cava into the
heart.

5
Task
Complete the function of each of the main veins
Veins
Vein Location Function
Superior vena cava Superior to the heart in the
upper thoracic cavity
Inferior vena cava Posterior to the heart in

the abdominal cavity
Pulmonary vein From the lungs to the heart

in the thoracic cavity
Jugular vein Each side of the neck
Internal jugular vein Neck and inside the skull
External jugular Neck and head – has three

vein branches
Subclavian vein Passes under the clavicle
Brachial vein Upper arm
Median antibrachial Forearm

vein
Digital veins Fingers and thumb
Iliac vein Pelvic region – one on either

side of the body
Femoral vein Upper leg
Popliteal vein Knee
Anterior tibial vein Front of the lower leg
Saphenous vein On the medial side of the

lower leg, from the ankle to
behind the knee
Digital veins Toes

5
Blood pressure and pulse

The level of pressure exerted on the arteries walls as blood flows
through them is referred to as blood pressure. The pressure is greatest
in the large arteries leaving the heart, and falls slightly in the arterioles
and is barely apparent in the capillaries. Blood pressure is lower in the
veins as the force of the heart pumping the blood is much weaker.
Blood pressure is measured in the upper arm by a piece of equipment

called a sphygmomanometer in mm of mercury. An average blood pressure
should be around 120/80. The higher number indicates the pressure at
systole/contraction, and the lower number at diastole/relaxation. Blood
pressure above this could indicate hypertension or high blood pressure
and above 140/95 could indicate a stroke or heart attack is imminent. Low
blood pressure or hypotension can occur after a shock or haemorrhage
for example, and can be dangerous if insufficient blood reaches the vital
organs. Blood pressure never falls to zero due to the contraction of the
muscles in the walls of the arteries.
Factors that can affect a person’s blood pressure are:

 Age
 Weight
 Exercise
 Stress
 Gender
 Diet
A pulse is felt when the left ventricle performs its pumping action.
Because this action is so strong, it can be felt as a pulse in arteries that
are at a considerable distance away from the heart. When the ventricles
relax, there is a short wait until another contraction takes place and again
you will feel a pulse of pressure. A normal pulse rate varies between 60
and 80 beats per minute, however will increase as the blood flow
increases, for example during activity and exercise.
Factors affecting the blood clotting process

When the blood clots to form a scab it is producing a natural protective
seal to the area, and for this reason you must discourage your clients
from picking any scabs which occur (particularly after an electrical
epilation treatment). You must reinforce that they are the skin’s natural
protective seal, and if they are removed scarring or infection can occur.
It is important that you are aware that certain factors can affect the

5
blood clotting process, particularly when performing electrical epilation

treatments, as incorrect probing may result in the piercing of a capillary,
which then requires the blood to clot in order for the site to heal. The
health and efficiency of the blood supply can be affected by:
1. Smoking
2. Alcohol
3. Poor nutrition intake
4. Anti-coagulant drugs such as warfarin and aspirin. Some clients do
take aspirin before electrical epilation treatments as a mild form of
pain relief and you should advise them of the effects of aspirin on the
rate of healing.
Task
Answer the following questions to demonstrate your knowledge on the
circulatory system.
1. What does the circulatory system comprise of?
2. List the four main functions of the blood.
3. What does blood transport?

5
4. Explain the difference between arteries and veins.
5. What are the three layers of the walls of the heart called?
6. How many chambers does the heart have and what are they called?
7. What does systole mean?
8. When the cardiac muscle relaxes, what is this referred to as?
9. Where does the oxygenated blood enter the heart?

5
10. How does the deoxygenated blood enter back into the heart?
11. Explain the function of the capillaries.
12. What is blood pressure?
13. What factors can affect a person’s blood pressure?
14. Where is the jugular vein located?
15. Where is the femoral vein located?
16. Explain the difference between the pulmonary and systemic

circulatory system.

5
NV Q Le ve l 3 Bea uty Th erap y— An at omy & P hs i o l o g y

y
Lymphatic System
Introduction
The lymp hatic sy s- back through the
tem is the secon- capillary walls.
dary circulatory Unlike the circula-
Did you know? system that drains tory system, the
away tissue fluids lymphatic sy stem
When the body is
and waste products does not have a
ill with an
and filters the heart to pump it
infection, your
lymph protecting around the body;
glands swell up.
against infection. instead its onward
Many of these
It is a one way movement is
glands are lymp h
drainage sy stem assisted by the
nodes. When you
that drains excess pumping action of
are healthy they
tissue fluid and the muscles that
are about the size
transports it back surround the lymph
of a pea or grape,
into the venous vessels, the posi-
but during illness
system of the tion of valves to
they can be as big
blood supply. It prevent backflow
as golf balls.
also returns to the and the negative
blood any large pro- pressure created in
Lymph nodes con- tein molecules that the thorax during
tain billions of were unable to pass inspiration.
white cells, multi-
plying rapidly Functions of the lymphatic system
to
fight the invading defend the body
The lymphatic water clogging of
germs. During ill- system: the tissues and cells.
ness they fill with  Filters  Transpo
millions of extra bacteria, rts proteins
white cells and also foreign materials, back into the
dead germs. toxins and any harm- blood supply.
ful materials.  Produce
 Drains away excess s lympho-
fluid to prevent cytes which
protect and
6
against infection.
 Produces
antibodies to
fight bacteria.
 Absorb
s fat from
the intestine
and transport
it to the liver.

61
Structures of the lymphatic system

The lymphatic system is comprised of:
 Lymph fluid – is a transparent, colourless, watery fluid that is similar
to blood plasma, however contains more waste products and fewer
nutrients.
 Lymph capillaries – fine, hollow elastic tubes which are similar to
blood capillaries in structure, however, they are wider. The cell walls
are made from a single layer of epithelial tissue and are more
permeable than blood capillaries, therefore allowing larger substances
to pass through their walls. Lymph capillaries are blind ended and
transport the lymphatic fluid away from the cells and tissues.
 Lymph vessels – these larger vessels run closely alongside veins and
transport the lymphatic fluid through one or more sets of lymph
nodes. They have collapsible walls, carry lymph at a steady pressure,
and are similar to veins in structure, as they contain valves called semi
lunar valves. The lymph enters the node through the afferent vessel
and leaves through the efferent vessel.
 Lymph nodes - tiny clusters of glands, which filter out bacteria and
toxins, therefore, protecting the body against infection. Lymphocytes,
macrophages and phagocytes are numerous here; these white blood
cells produce antibodies and ingest bacteria and foreign materials to
fight against infection. When a person is suffering from an infection
the lymph nodes swell and become tender, as the white blood cells
fight the infection.
 Lymph ducts - the vessels that allow the collected tissue fluid to
return back into the blood stream. The right lymphatic duct drains
lymph from the right side of the head, neck, chest and right arm, the
thoracic duct drains from the left side of the head and neck, left
arm, left side of chest area and both legs.
 Spleen – situated behind the stomach and is responsible for producing
antibodies and lymphocytes, and destroying old red blood cells.

6
Task
Complete the table to summarise the main functions of each structure:
Structure Function
Lymph fluid
Lymph capillaries
Lymph vessels
Lymph nodes
Right lymphatic duct
Thoracic duct
Task
What are the functions of the lymphatic system?

6
Lymph nodes of the head and body
Task
main lymph nodes of the
head and body.
Artery
Vein
Lymph fluid enters the lymph node in the afferent vessel,

is filtered, and then exits via the efferent vessel.

6
Task
Complete the location of each of the main lymph nodes
Lymph Nodes
Node Location Function
Buccal nodes Drains the eyelids, nose and
the facial skin
Parotid nodes Drains the eyelids, nose and
ears
Posterior auricular Drains behind the ear and
nodes temple
Occipital nodes Drains the back of the scalp
and the upper neck region
Submental nodes Drains lower lip, chin and
the floor of the mouth
Submandibular Drains the chin, lips, nose,
nodes cheeks and tongue
Superficial cervical Drains lower part of ear,
nodes parotid area and neck
Deep cervical nodes Drains the back of the scalp
and neck
Axillary nodes Drains the pectoral area and
the upper arm
Supratrochlear Drains the fingers, thumb,
lymph nodes hand and forearm
Intestinal lymph Drain abdominal viscera
nodes
Iliac nodes Drains the pelvic area
including reproductive
organs and the bladder
Inguinal nodes Drains the pelvic area and
legs
Popliteal nodes Drains the toes, feet and
lower legs
Cisterna chyli Receives lymph from the
lower abdomen, lower limbs,
and pelvis and conveys it
into the thoracic duct

6
Composition of lymph fluid

Lymph is a transparent, colourless, watery fluid. It is similar to blood
plasma, as this is what it is formed from, however contains fewer proteins
and nutrients and more waste products. Lymph usually contains the larger
particles that could not re-enter the blood supply. Lymph is made up of:
• Plasma (watery substance)
• Proteins
• Waste products and toxins
• Fats
• Urea
• Gases
• Lymphocytes
Lymph formation and its journey

Task
1. The leaks out into the tissue spaces and becomes
.
2. The tissue fluid bathes the cells with nutrients and picks up
materials.
3. Some of this tissue fluid is collected up in the and
is now known as .
4. The lymph capillaries unite to form larger lymph .
5. Lymph vessels follow the lymphatic pathways and convey the excess
fluid and waste to the .
6. vessels enter the lymph nodes.
7. Lymph nodes the lymph, preventing bacteria etc. entering
the blood stream.
8. Lymph exits the lymph nodes in vessels.
9. These vessels eventually form into two large – the
thoracic and right lymphatic ducts.
10. Lymph traveling from the right side of the head, neck, chest and right
arm drain into the .
11. Lymph travelling from the of the head and neck, left arm,
left side of chest area and both legs drains into the .
12. The lymph now drains back into blood stream via the .
afferent filter lymph nodes right lymphatic duct

ducts efferent thoracic duct subclavian veins
lymph nodes vessels lymph fluid lymph capillaries
blood plasma waste tissue fluid left side

6
Interaction between blood and lymph

The blood and lymph supply work closely alongside each other and interact
at numerous points:
 Primary interaction occurs within capillary exchange.
 Small lymph vessels run alongside the arteries and veins collecting
lymph from tissues.
 Lymph vessels transport lymph fluid to the lymph nodes for filtering,
thereby preventing foreign substances entering the blood stream.
 Production of fresh lymphocytes are activated which circulate around
the body in both lymph and blood vessels.
 Lymph transports fat from the digestive tract to the blood.
 Lymph returns to the blood supply via the lymphatic ducts and into the
subclavian veins.
Arteriole Lymph capillary

with semi
permeable walls
Red blood
cells
Cells and
Blood tissues
capillary
with semi
permeable
Lymph fluid
walls
Venule Tissue fluid

bathing cells
and tissues
The above processes are continuously repeated to allow fresh

lymphocytes, antibodies and proteins to be supplied to the blood stream.
Factors affecting lymphatic drainage

 General blood circulation - a good strong circulation ensures that the
flow of tissue fluid into the lymph vessels is maintained.
 Exercise - the action of the muscles speeds up the movement of lymph
through the vessels.
 Massage - enhances the drainage by forcing the movement of lymph
through the vessels.

6
Nervous System
The nervous system is the main communication system for the body and is
responsible for receiving and interpreting information between the
various parts of the body and the brain.
Task
Complete the missing sections about the nervous system.
The three main sections of the nervous system are called:
Central nervous system

The central nervous system comprises of the:




The spinal cord is a continuation of the medulla oblongata and extends

downwards through the vertebral column, finishing on a level with the
lumbar vertebrae. It is protected by the vertebral column, 3 meninges
and the cerebro-spinal fluid.
The functions of the spinal cord are:

 It conveys sensory impulses from one area of the spine to another and
from the skin and muscles of the trunk and limbs to the brain.
 It allows and co-ordinates spinal reflex actions, which are a rapid
response to a stimulus without any conscious thought of the brain. This
action protects the body from danger before any harm is caused.
The brain is the most important part of the nervous system, as it is the
main communication centre. As the brain is such a vital organ, it has
various safety features designed to protect it. It is protected firstly by
the cranial bones of the skull, then by the cranial meninges, which are 3
membranes that cushion the brain and contain blood vessels. Finally the
subarachnoid space, which contains the cerebro-spinal fluid, acts as a
further cushion and supplies nutrients.

6
The brain is responsible for:
Areas of the brain

Part Position Function
Cerebrum The largest Enables vision, touch,
region of the taste, smell and
brain, spilt into hearing. Controls
2 hemispheres muscular movements,
and has a emotions, thought
surface called processes and
grey matter. personality traits.
Diencephalon Part of the The thalamus relays
(comprises of forebrain. sensory impulses to
the thalamus & the cerebrum. The
hypothalamus) hypothalamus controls
the autonomic nervous
systems and regulates
heart rate, body
temperature, water
content, appetite and
sleeping patterns.
Cerebellum The posterior Maintains muscle
aspect of the tone, posture and
brain. controls motor skills.
Pons and Continuation of It controls what you
Medulla the spinal cord. have no conscious
oblongata control over such as
(brain stem) blood pressure or
body temperature.

6
Nerves
Neurones, more commonly known as nerves, are made from a collection of
nerve fibres and all emerge from the CNS.
There are 3 types of nerves:
 Motor (efferent) nerves –
 Sensory (afferent) nerves –
 Mixed nerves
- Each neurone
has:
 A cell body – containing the nucleus, mitochondria & other organelles.
 Dendrites – several short projections that receive information from
other cells and transmit the message to the cell body.
 Axon – one long projection that conducts messages away from the cell
body. Axons have a myelin sheath, which insulates them to prevent
against loss of electrical impulses and therefore increase the speed at
which the impulse is conducted.
Direction of
impulse
Direction of
impulse
Direction of
impulse
Task
Direction of
Label the neurone
impulse
diagram

7
Transmission of nerve impulses

Messages pass along the nerve fibres as electrical impulses, which are the
result of changes that are present inside and outside the nerve
membrane. When an impulse reaches the end of the nerve fibre, a
chemical is released called a neurotransmitter substance. The chemical
passes across a tiny gap called a synapse and generates an electrical
impulse in the next neurone. When the neurone reaches a muscle fibre, it
is referred to as a motor end plate. A similar reaction occurs at the
motor end plate, however a chemical transmitter substance is released
from the synaptic vesicle this time.
Motor nerve
Synaptic knob
Mitochondria
Muscle fibre
Synapse
Diagram of synapse
Synaptic vesicle
at nerve muscle
junction known as
motor end plate
Chemical transmitter substance
Passage of a nerve impulse

Task
1. A in the picks up a message from the
outside world, for example heat, cold, touch, pain or pressure.
2. The message, in the form of an , conveys from the
dendrites to the cell body and then along the .
3. The electrical impulse travels along the axon until it reaches the next
neuron, whereby a substance is released to
allow the impulse to pass the small gap called a .
4. The impulse crosses the gap and onto the of the
adjacent sensory neuron, where it continues on its journey until it
eventually reaches the .

71
5. The brain perceives the and sends a message back via

; until the message reaches a neuro-muscular
junction known as a .
6. The synaptic vesicle releases a transmitter substance,
allowing the impulse to reach the .
7. The impulse tells the muscle fibres to or ,
thereby bringing about a .
Sometimes the impulse does not pass to the brain, it is dealt with by the
spinal cord, and this is called a spinal reflex. This occurs as an involuntary
response to a stimulus whereby a very fast response is required, which we
refer to as a reflex action. The message will be sent on to the brain
after the event to make you aware of what has occurred.
Task
Can you think of any examples of reflex actions?
Motor point
The motor point is the position where the into
the at its most point. Therefore, it is
the most accessible way to stimulate the motor nerve in order to produce
a muscle .
Peripheral nervous system

This is composed of the parts of the nervous system outside of the
central nervous system and consists of:



Cranial nerves
There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves that originate from the brain, most
are confined to the head and neck, but the tenth nerve has branches in
the trunk. Some of these nerves are mixed, while others are either motor
or sensory. The table on the next page gives details of the cranial nerves.

7
Cranial Nerves
Number Name Role
st Olfactory nerve Sense of smell from the nose to the
1
brain
nd Optic Vision from eyes to brain
2
rd Oculomotor Takes impulses from the brain to
3
the muscles of the eye
th Pathetic (trochlear) Takes impulses from the brain to
4
the superior oblique eye muscle
th Trigeminal:
5
Ophthalmic Receives impulses from skin of
scalp, forehead, eye and upper nose
Maxillary Receives impulses from the upper
jaw, lower nose and cheeks
Mandibular Receives impulses from the lower
jaw and muscles of mastication
th Abducens Takes and receives impulses
6
between the eyeball muscles
th Facial:
7
Temporal Takes impulses to frontalis,
orbicularis oculi and corrugator
Zygomatic Takes impulses to orbicularis oculi
Buccal Takes impulses to procerus,
buccinator, orbicularis oris,
zygomaticus and levator muscles
Mandibular Takes impulses to the risorius,
mentalis and triangularis muscles
Cervical Takes impulses to the platysma
th Auditory Receives impulses relating to
8
hearing and balance
th Glosso-pharyngeal Sends and receives impulses related
9
to swallowing, taste buds and
salivary glands
th Vagus Takes/receives impulses related to
10
the pharynx, thorax and food canal
th Accessory Cranial part supplies pharynx and
11
larynx, spinal part supplies/receives
impulses related to trapezius and
sterno-cleido mastoid muscles
th Hypoglossal Takes and receives impulses related
12
to the tongue muscles

7
Spinal nerves
There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves, which emerge from in-between the
vertebrae of the spinal column. All spinal nerves are mixed nerves and
they have two points of attachment to the spinal cord and these are
referred to as roots. The dorsal root carries sensory axons whose
impulses are passing inward. The ventral root carries motor axons whose
impulses are passing outwards. The names of the 31 pairs of spinal nerves
depend on the region of the spine they emerge from:
 Eight pairs of cervical nerves
 Twelve pairs of thoracic nerves
 Five pairs of lumbar nerves
 Five pairs of sacral nerves
 One pair of coccygeal nerves
Each spinal nerve divides into branches, with the posterior branches
supplying the muscles and skin of the back. The majority of the anterior
branches form plexuses (networks) on either side of the body:
 Cervical plexuses cover the neck, head and upper shoulder region.
 Brachial plexuses supply the skin and muscles of the arms, shoulders
and upper chest.
 Lumbar plexuses supply the abdomen and part of the leg; the femoral
nerves are the largest nerves of the lumbar plexuses, and these supply
the front of the thigh.
 Sacral plexuses supply the buttocks and some of the leg; the sciatic
nerves from these plexuses are the largest nerves in the body, and
supply the muscles of the legs and feet.
Autonomic nervous system

This is the involuntary part of the peripheral nervous system and
therefore controls the body activities that are not under conscious
control.
 The sympathetic system – is mainly active at times of stress and is
comprised of interlinked nerves called plexuses. They are divided into
the solar plexus which supplies the abdominal viscera, the cardiac
plexus which supplies the thoracic viscera, and the hypogastric plexus
which supplies the pelvic region.
 The parasympathetic system – is mainly active at times of peace and
is composed mainly of the vagus nerve, which passes through the neck
into the thorax and abdomen.

7
These systems work antagonistically, meaning that they produce opposite

effects. In general the parasympathetic system is concerned with energy
conversion, whereas the sympathetic system is concerned with increasing
the body’s use of energy. Together they maintain homeostasis, as one
system counteracts the effects of the other.
Task
Complete the following table to illustrate the functions of the autonomic
nervous system:
Sympathetic Stimulation Parasympathetic Stimulation
Example of how these systems work together in a stressful situation:

• The sympathetic impulses become stronger as a reaction to stress; the
heart beats faster, blood vessels dilate, hairs stand on end. The sweat
glands produce more sweat and blood pressure rises due to the
constriction of small arterioles in the skin. Adrenaline is produced and
the metabolic rate is increased.
• When the stressful situation passes the parasympathetic nerves take
over and help the function of the organs return to normal and prepare
the body for rest.

7
Task
Answer the following questions to demonstrate your knowledge of the
peripheral and autonomic nervous system.
1. How many cranial nerves are there in the human body?
2. What is the name of the first cranial nerve?
th
3. List the three branches of the 5 trigeminal nerve and explain their
role.
th
4. List the five branches of the 7 facial nerve and explain their role.

7
5. How many pairs of spinal nerves are there in the human body?
6. What are the names of the spinal nerves?
7. What is the largest nerve in the body called and where does it supply?
8. Provide a brief description of the autonomic nervous system.
9. What are the two parts to the autonomic nervous system called and
briefly describe each system.

7
The Olfactory System
The first cranial nerve is called the olfactory nerve and this gives us our
sense of smell. The olfactory system receives impulses and transmits
them to the appropriate area of the brain, where the messages will be
perceived as the sense of smell. To understand the process of olfaction,
you need to be aware of the:
 Nasal cavity
 Olfactory membrane containing the olfactory cells
 Olfactory nerves
 Olfactory bulbs
 Limbic area of the brain
Cerebrum Olfactory bulb

Olfactory nerves
Olfactory membrane
Olfactory tract Nasal cavity
Aromatic molecules
breathed in through
the nostrils
Process of olfaction
Task
1. Aromatic particles enter the nasal cavity via the .
2. The nasal cavities are coated with a watery , which
enables some chemicals to within the mucous.
3. They are then carried into the upper part of the , where
they flow past a lining called the , containing the
. The olfactory receptor cells are
which produce the sense of smell. These cells

7
are embedded within mucous, and fine hair-like detect the

tiny odorous particles.
4. The nerve fibres from the olfactory sensory receptors join to form
the , which pass through the .
The information they detect is sent via the axon of the olfactory
nerve to the .
5. The olfactory bulbs are a pair of swellings, which are located below
the frontal lobes of the .
6. Nerve fibres run away from the olfactory bulb within the
, and take the impulses via the
to the in the .
This is where the impulses are interpreted as sensations of .
The limbic system is a v-shaped structure which is situated on top of the

brain stem. The limbic system receives sensory messages from the
olfactory, auditory, visual, balance and the equilibrium systems. This
information is processed and then channelled into the cerebral cortex,
thus allowing integration of the emotion and reason. In addition, the
limbic system also connects to the thalamus, hypothalamus, and pituitary
gland; this explains why the olfactory sensory receptors can have an
influence on the endocrine function. Therefore essential oils can have an
effect on the endocrine system, for example helping to balance the
menstrual cycle.
The complexity of the limbic system and the link between the olfactory
receptor cells and the limbic area of the brain explains why an aroma can
affect an emotional response and cause a memory recall from the past.
The limbic system is involved in emotions such as pain, pleasure, anger,
fear, sorrow, affection and sexual attraction. Aromatherapy takes
advantage of the limbic system by using the effects of the essential oils
to evoke feelings or well-being, relaxation, uplifting etc.
Task
Please answer the following questions to demonstrate your knowledge of
the olfactory system.
1. Which nerve is responsible for giving us our sense of smell?

7
2. What type of nerve is the olfactory nerve?
3. Provide a brief overview of the olfactory system.
4. What structures belong to the olfactory system?
5. Where is the limbic system located?
6. What link does the limbic system have that an aromatherapy

treatment takes advantage of?

8
NVQ L evel 3 B e a u t y T h e rap y — A n a t oh y s i o l o g y

my & P
Respiratory System
Illustration of the respiratory system
Sinuses
Throat
Oxygena ted blood Deoxygenated blood Larynx

to the heart from the heart
Trachea
Lung Bronchial tube

Bronchu s
Bronchiole Bronchioles
Blood
capillaries
Diaphragm Alveoli
Alveoli
The process of respiration
The respiratory system trachea, bronchi and then expands, the diaphragm
consists of the into the bronchioles flattens and the
structures leading to situated inside the lungs. intercostal muscles lift
and including the lungs. The bronchioles divide the ribs upwards and
Air that you breathe in into alveoli which are only outwards, to allow the
passes through the nose one cell thick, thus lungs to fill with air. As
where it is warmed, allowing the diffusion of we breathe out, the
filtered and moi stened. oxygen and gasses into intercostals muscles relax
It then passes through the blood stream. As we and the diap hragm
the pharynx, larynx, breathe in, the chest becomes dome shaped.

81
Task
Complete the missing sections of the table:
Structures Of The Respiratory System
Structure Description Function
Nose Lined with mucous membranes
and small hairs, the nostrils
lead into the nasal cavities.
Leads into the pharynx.
Pharynx The pharynx is part of the
respiratory and digestive
systems however can not be used
by both simultaneously.
Breathing momentarily ceases
whilst swallowing occurs.
Larynx Situated in-between the
pharynx and the trachea. Made
from several cartilages
including the epiglottis.
Trachea The trachea has an epithelial
lining which secretes mucous and
contains cilia. Together they
trap any dust and sweep it away
from the lungs.
Bronchii The bronchii lead from the

trachea to the lungs. There is
one either side, with the left
bronchi being slightly narrower
to make space for the heart.
Bronchioles Carry the air from the bronchii
into the lungs.
Alveoli Bronchioles branch off to form

tiny sacks called alveoli, made
from epithelial tissue, allowing
gaseous exchange to occur.
Capillary Gaseous exchange from the
networks alveoli to the blood capillaries
occurs, allowing the oxygen to be
transported to the heart &
supplied to the rest of the body.

8
The Digestive System
The digestive system is a complex series of organs and glands which facilitate
chewing, swallowing, digestion, absorption and elimination of food. In order to use
the food we eat, our body has to break the food down into smaller molecules that
it can process and be easily absorbed into the bloodstream.
Mouth – food is mechanically broken down and chewed by the

teeth. It is then mixed with saliva where enzymes start to chemically
break down the food.
Pharynx – prevents the food entering the windpipe.
Oesophagus – once swallowed, food enters this muscular canal

where wave like peristalsis movements force the food bolus down
to the stomach.
1
2
Stomach – this large sack like organ bathes the food in gastric acid,
the digested food is now called chyme.
3
Liver – produces the digestive juice, bile.
Pancreas – secretes pancreatic digestive juice.

5
4
6 Small intestine - after the stomach, food enters the duodenum, the
first part of the small intestine. It then enters the jejunum and finally
8 the ileum. In the small intestine, bile, pancreatic, and other digestive
7 enzymes produced by the inner wall of the small intestine help
breakdown the food.
Large intestine - the first part of the large intestine that the food
enters is the caecum. Food then travels upward in the ascending
colon, across the abdomen in the transverse colon, goes back down
the other side of the body in the descending colon, and then
through the sigmoid colon. Some of the water and electrolytes are
removed from the food and many microbes in the large intestine
help in the digestive process.
Rectum – solid waste is stored in the rectum until it is eliminated by

the anus.

8
Task
Please answer the following questions to demonstrate your knowledge of
the digestive system.
1. Why does our food need to be broken down into smaller molecules?
2. Where and how does the digestive process begin?
3. How does the food move down the oesophagus?
4. How does the stomach help to break down the food?
5. Name the three sections of the small intestine.
6. Explain how the digested food moves through the large intestine.

8
N V Q Le v e l 3 B e a uty T h e r a p y — A n a t o m yys i o l o g y
& Ph
Endocrine System
Introduction to the endocrine system

In general, the
endocrine system is
in charge of body
processes that
happen slowly, such
What is a
as cell develop-
hormone? ment, digestion,
excretion, and
A hormone is a
sexual activity.
chemical messen-
Faster processes
ger that is
like breathing and
produced by an
body movement
endocrine gland.
are monitored by
The hormones are
the nervous
secreted into the
system. But even
blood stream,
though the nervous
where they travel
and endocrine
along to their
systems are
target organ.
Hormones are separate, they endocrine system the body and are
often work is responsible for se-
specific, meaning
together to help made up of a series creting hormones.
they only carry out
the body function of endocrine
one type of
properly. The glands, which are
reaction, there- positioned around
fore there is only What is an endocrine gland?
a certain place for
An endocrine gland and release them  Pituitary
them to travel to.
has no duct linking directly into the  Thyroid
it to another part blood stream to be  Thy mus
of the body, so it is carried around the  Para-thyroid
often called a body. The  Pancreas - islets
ductl ess gland. endocrine glands of of Langerhans
These glands the body are:  Adrenals
produce hormones  Hypothalamus  Gonads

8
How does the body know when to produce hormones?

The hypothalamus controls the endocrine system, it is located in the brain
and can detect if the body needs a particular hormone. The hypothalamus
then stimulates the pituitary gland to bring about the production of the
necessary hormone. When the hormone levels in the body reaches the
required level, the hypothalamus is stimulated by a process called
negative feedback; it then stimulates the pituitary to inhibit any further
production of the hormone.
Task
Label the diagram of the endocrine glands.
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus controls the endocrine and autonomic nervous systems.
It secretes hormones such as thyrotrophin-releasing hormone (TRH),
growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) and many others. When these
hormones are released into the blood supply they travel directly to the
anterior lobe of the pituitary gland where they can bring about their

8
effects. Because the hypothalamus controls the endocrine system, it has

an affect on many of the body’s functions such as:
 Pituitary gland secretions
 Autonomic nervous system
 Emotions
 Sexual activity
 Appetite
 Body temperature
 Metabolism
 Water balance
Pituitary gland
The pituitary gland is often referred to as the master gland, and is
situated in the base of the brain; it has two sections, both of which have
different functions. The anterior lobe is stimulated by the release of
chemicals from the hypothalamus. The posterior lobe is stimulated by
nervous control from the hypothalamus.
Hormones Produced By The Anterior Pituitary Gland

Hormone Target Function
Somatotrophin Hard tissues of Causes growth in children and
the body maintains size in adults.
Thyroid stimulating Thyroid gland Regulates the metabolism and
hormone (TSH) the break down of fat.
Adrenocorticotrophin Adrenal cortex Stimulates adrenal cortex to
(ADH) secrete corticosteroids.
Follicle stimulating Gonads Stimulates secretion of
hormone (FSH) oestrogen (controlling maturation
of ovaries) and sperm.
Lutenising hormone Gonads Stimulates secretion of
(LH) progesterone, forming corpus
luteum in the ovaries and
preparing the breasts for
lactation during pregnancy.
Hormones Produced By The Posterior Pituitary Gland
Anti-diuretic hormone Kidneys Controls water balance within
(vasopressin) the body.
Oxytocin Pregnant uterus Stimulates contraction of the
uterus in childbirth.

8
Pituitary gland disorders

Over secretion of the anterior pituitary may result in excess growth
hormone somatotrophin being produced, which results in gigantism or
acromagaly. Acromagaly results in the bones becoming enlarged in the
hands and feet and coarsening of facial features to resemble a gorilla
type appearance. The jaw and frontal bone will become enlarged, with the
possibility of separation of the lower teeth. Excess hair growth also
accompanies this condition.
Under secretion of the anterior pituitary may result in too little growth
hormone - somatotrophin being produced, which results in dwarfism.
Pineal gland
The pineal gland projects from the top of the diencephalon of the brain.
It is well developed in young children, however starts to degenerate from
the age of seven. The hormone it secretes communicates information
about environmental lighting to various parts of the body. Ultimately, it
affects biological rhythms and has important effects on the body’s
reproductive functions. The fact that light affects the pineal gland has
led some to call the pineal the third eye.
Hormones Produced By The Pineal Gland

Melatonin Ovaries Stimulates hormones
secreted by the ovaries
Various organs Controls the sleeping and

waking patterns of the body
Thyroid and parathyroid glands

The thyroid gland is situated in the front of the neck and controls the
rate at which the body’s cells work – the metabolic rate. There are 4
small parathyroid glands, 2 embedded in the posterior surface of each
lobe of the thyroid gland and they control the calcium levels within the
body.

8
Hormones Produced By The Thyroid Gland

Thyroxide Cells and tissues Regulates the metabolism,
Triiodothyronine increases urine production,
breaks down proteins and
increases glucose uptake by
the cells.
Hormones Produced By The Parathyroid Gland
Parathormone Increases the amount of
calcium in the blood.
Thyroid and parathyroid gland disorders

Over secretion of the thyroid gland may cause Graves’ disease
(thyrotoxicosis). In thyrotoxicosis, the rate of metabolism is increased,
and this results in most of the following symptoms:
 Weight loss in spite of increased appetite
 Rapid heart rate
 A fine tremor
 Increased nervousness and emotional instability
 Intolerance of heat, and excessive sweating
 Staring, bulging eyes
 Enlargement of the thyroid gland at the front of the neck
 Sparse and brittle hair growth
Over secretion of the parathyroid gland may cause the bones to become
brittle, the same as occurs with osteoporosis.
Under secretion of the thyroid gland may result in myxoedema, a

disease developing in adult life, most commonly in middle-aged women. The
symptoms include loss of energy and appetite, weight gain, inability to
keep warm, mental dullness, dry, puffy skin and hair growth becomes dry,
thin and prone to alopecia.
Under secretion of the parathyroid gland results in a low level of

calcium ions reaching the skeleton causing tetany, where the muscles go
into convulsive contractions.

8
Adrenal glands
The 2 adrenal glands are located one on top of each kidney. There are two
parts to each gland:
 Adrenal cortex - outer part of the gland
 Adrenal medulla - inner part of the gland
Hormones Produced By The Adrenal Cortex

Glucocorticoids i.e. Blood sugar and Controls metabolism of
cortisone and cortisol the liver carbohydrates and proteins
within the body. Converts protein
into glycogen for storage in the
liver and increases blood sugar
levels.
Mineralocorticoids i.e. Water content Regulates the salt and water
aldosterone of the tissues balance within the tissues and
regulates the mineral (sodium
and potassium) content of the
body fluids.
Sex hormones – Gonads Controls development and
androgen & oestrogen functioning of the sex organs
and secondary sex
characteristics.
Hormones Produced By The Adrenal Medulla
Adrenalin In-conjunction Prepares the body for fight or
with sympathetic flight by working with the
nervous system sympathetic nervous system i.e.
heart rate increases, blood is
brought to muscles, pupils dilate
and digestion slows down.
Noradrenalin Circulatory Contracts the blood vessels and

system raises the blood pressure.
Adrenal gland disorders

Over secretion by the adrenal cortex may result in high blood pressure
and ulcers. Cushing’s syndrome, muscular paralysis, virilism and adrenal
tumours may also develop.

9
Virilism is when females develop male sexual characteristics.
Cushing’s syndrome results in oedema, obesity of neck and trunk, weak

muscles in the arms and legs, thin skin, purple stretch marks, diabetes
mellitus. In this condition the client is often referred to as resembling a
lemon on match sticks. Predominant androgen levels cause menstruation to
cease and hirsutism results.
Adrenal tumours are usually single solitary nodules, they are also known
as neoplasm, and can occur at any age, although most common around the
30-40 age group. They can cause male pattern hair growth and increased
muscle mass which often results in deepening of the voice in women.
Adreno genital syndrome may also occur due to tumours of the adrenal
cortex resulting in over secretion of androgens. This is a very rare
condition which is commonly more noticeable in females. The effect of
the androgen disorder causes the female to take on male characteristics,
with the following symptoms being recognised in adult females:
 Male distribution of hair growth
 Atrophy of breasts
 Enlargement of external genitalia
 Deepening of voice
 Loss of menstruation
 Frontal hair loss
 Infertility
 Abdominal pain and backache
 Masculine appearance - broadening of shoulders
Under secretion of the adrenal cortex results in water loss from the
body and lowered pH levels of the blood. Addison’s disease may develop
with the following symptoms: muscular weakness, weight loss, low blood
pressure, anaemia, hyper-pigmentation and mental lethargy.
Over secretion of the adrenal medulla causes high blood pressure and
increased metabolic rate.
Islets of Langerhans
The islets of Langerhans are found in clusters, irregularly distributed
throughout the pancreas. There are two types of hormone secreting cells
in the islets: Alpha cells which produce glucagon and Beta cells which
produce insulin.

91
Hormones Produced By The Islets Of Langerhans

Glucagon Blood sugar Raises blood sugar levels by
converting glycogen to glucose in
the liver.
Insulin Blood sugar Controls the metabolism of
carbohydrates and lowers blood
sugar levels by converting
glucose to glycogen in the liver.
Islets of Langerhans disorders

Under secretion of the islets of Langerhans may result in diabetes
mellitus - a high blood sugar level due to a shortage of insulin.
Gonads
The gonads are the testes in the male and the ovaries in the female. The
testes produce the male sex hormones - androgens e.g. testosterone,
which stimulate the development of the secondary male sexual
characteristics such as deepening of voice, body hair pattern and
muscular development. The ovaries produce oestrogen and progesterone,
which control the menstrual cycle including the production of eggs and
pregnancy. They also produce small quantities of androgens.
Hormones Produced By The Gonads

Oestrogen Secondary sex Causes development of female
characteristics reproductive system, breast
in females development and regulates the
menstrual cycle.
Progesterone Structures Maintains pregnancy, involved in
relating to the development of the placenta
pregnancy and prepares breasts for
lactation.
Androgens Secondary sex Causes development of male
characteristics reproductive system and
in males secondary male characteristics
such as beard growth.

9
Disorders of the ovaries

Under secretion by the ovaries may result in Stein-leventhal syndrome
more commonly known as polycystic ovaries. Symptoms include enlarged
ovaries with numerous cysts, irregular menstruation, weight gain and the
development of excess hair growth. Polycystic ovaries are capable of
secreting large amounts of androgens.
Task
Answer the following to demonstrate your knowledge of the endocrine
system.
1. What is the function of the endocrine system?
2. What is the function of an endocrine gland?
3. List the endocrine glands of the body.

9
4. What is a hormone and where do they go?
5. What gland controls the endocrine system?
6. Which gland is referred to as the master gland?
7. Explain the cause and symptoms of acromagaly.
8. What is the function of the pineal gland?
9. Where are the thyroid and parathyroid glands located?

9
10. What is the function of the thyroid gland hormones?
11. Describe the cause and symptoms of thyrotoxicosis.
12. Describe the condition that occurs due to under secretion of the
thyroid gland.
13. Where are the adrenal glands located?

9
13. List the hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex.
14. List the hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla.
15. Explain the cause of Cushing’s syndrome and describe the symptoms.
16. Explain the cause and describe the symptoms of Adreno genital
syndrome.

9
17. Where are the islets of Langerhans located?
18. What condition may develop if the islets of Langerhans under

secrete?
19. What is the function of the ovaries?
20. What may occur is the ovaries under secrete?
21. What are the symptoms of Stein-leventhal syndrome?

9
Task
Match the gland to the hormone that it secretes.
Adrenalin
Adrenal cortex
Somatotrophin
Islets of
Langerhans
Thyroxine
Adrenal medulla
Glucocorticoids
Pituitary gland
Growth hormone-
releasing hormone
Thyroid gland
Glucagon
Ovaries
Parathormone
Hypothalamus
Parathyroid
Oestrogen

9
Urinary System
The urinary system filters out excess fluid and other substances from
the bloodstream. Some fluid gets reabsorbed by the body but most is
expelled as urine.
How does the urinary system work?

The body makes chemical waste products that it can't use. These pass
into the bloodstream and then pass into the kidneys where the excess
fluid and chemicals that the body can't use are filtered out. At the same
time the kidneys also make sure that the blood is the right consistency
i.e. not too thin/thick, salty, or overloaded with excess vitamins, minerals
or wastes made by other parts of the body.
The structures of the urinary system

The organs of the urinary system include:
1. Two kidneys - situated either side

of the spine at waist level, they are
responsible for filtering the blood to
produce urine.
2. Two ureters – tubes that connect

the kidneys to the bladder.
3. Bladder –storesthe
1 urine until it is ready to be
expelled.
2
4. Urethra – tube that
provides a passageway to allow
the urine to be expelled from the
3
body.
4

9
Task
The urinary system filters out and other

substances from the bloodstream. Its main structures include:




The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs situated towards the

surface of the body, level with the . The
right kidney is placed slightly than the left kidney to make
space for the liver. The actual occurs in tiny units inside
the kidneys called . Every kidney has about a million nephrons.
In the nephron, a glomerulus, which is a tiny , intertwines
with a tiny urine-collecting tube called a . Hundreds of times a
day the is filtered through the nephrons and the and
are . A complicated takes
place, as waste materials and water leave the blood and enter the urinary
system.
Initially, the tubules receive a combination of waste materials and

chemicals that the body can still use. The kidneys measure out chemicals
like , and and release them
back to the blood to return to the body. The kidneys therefore regulate
the body's level of these substances. The correct balance is necessary
for life, and excess levels can be harmful.
The wastes drip down and collect in the of the . The

kidneys are always working; producing and this then drips down the
tubes called and collects in a stretchy pouch called the .
The bladder is a muscular organ that is situated in the and is

lined with stretchy tissue. When the bladder
becomes too full, it sends a message to the making the person
aware that they need to urinate. When the time and place is right, the
brain orders the muscles around the bladder to start squeezing and for
the at the bottom of the bladder to . Urine
now travels down the and out through the urethral opening
in the body.

10
The Reproductive System
The male and female reproductive systems are different in shape and
structure, but both are specifically designed to produce, nourish, and
transport either the egg or sperm.
Unlike the male, the female reproductive system is located entirely in the
pelvis. The female reproductive system consists of: ovaries, fallopian
tubes, uterus, vagina, external genitalia and the mammary glands.
Task
Complete the function for each of the structures of the female
reproductive system.

Ovaries The ovaries are 2 oval-
shaped organs that lie to
the upper right and left of
the uterus. Each ovary
measures about 4 to 5
centimeters in a grown
woman.
Fallopian There are 2 fallopian

tubes tubes, each attached to a
side of the uterus. The
fallopian tubes are about
10 centimeters long and
about as wide as a piece of
spaghetti. At the other
end of each fallopian tube
is a fringed area that
wraps around the ovary
but doesn't completely
attach to it.

10
Uterus The uterus is shaped like

an upside-down pear, with
a thick endometrium lining
and muscular walls. These
muscles are able to expand
and contract to
accommodate a growing
foetus and then help push
the baby out during
labour.
Vagina The vagina is a muscular,
hollow tube that extends
from the labia to the
uterus. Because it has
muscular walls, it can
expand and contract. This
ability to become wider or
narrower allows the vagina
to accommodate something
as wide as a baby. The
vagina's muscular walls are
lined with mucous
membranes.
External The fleshy area located
genitalia above the top of the
vaginal opening is called
the mons pubis. Two pairs
of skin flaps called the
labia surround the vaginal
opening. The clitoris, a
small sensory organ, is
located toward the front
of the vulva where the
folds of the labia join.
Between the labia are
openings to the urethra.
Mammary The mammary glands are
glands located in the breasts and
consist of 15-20 glandular
lobes. Inside each lobe
are several smaller lobules.

101
Menstruation
Task
When a baby girl is born, her ovaries contain hundreds of thousands of

eggs, which remain inactive until begins. At puberty, the
, starts making hormones that stimulate the ovaries
to produce female sex hormones, including oestrogen. The secretion of
these hormones causes a girl to develop into a sexually mature woman.
Towards the end of puberty, girls begin to release eggs as part of the
cycle. Approximately once a month, during ovulation, an
ovary sends a tiny egg into one of the . Unless the egg
is fertilised by a sperm while in the fallopian tube, the
drop causing the egg to dry up and
the body about 2 weeks later through the . This process is
called menstruation. Blood and tissues from the inner lining of the uterus
combine to form the menstrual flow, which usually lasts from 3 to 5 days.
On average, the monthly cycle for an adult woman is , but
this may range from 23 to 35 days.
Many women also experience abdominal cramps during the first few days
of their period. These are caused by prostaglandin, a chemical in the body
that makes the in the .
Fertilisation
Sexual reproduction can not occur without the sexual organs of both
sexes. The female ovaries produce female gametes ; the male
testes produce male gametes . Natural fertilisation occurs
after sexual intercourse when the penis deposits seminal fluid into the
vagina. The sperm have a tendency to swim towards the
containing the ovulated egg due to that the sperm
respond to. They are also assisted in their journey by the that
are located in the cervix, wafting them along. Once the sperm fuses with
the egg, the egg adjusts to prevent any other sperm from
. After an egg is fertilised by the sperm, the fertilised
egg is called the . The zygote will develop into a foetus and
pregnancy will develop over a 40 week period.

10
The male reproductive system is located both inside and outside the
pelvis and consists of: testes, duct system, accessory glands such as
seminal vesicles and prostate, and the penis.
Task
Complete the function for each of the structures of the male
reproductive system.

Testes The two testicles are oval-
shaped and grow to about
5 centimeters in length
and 3 centimeters in
diameter. They are
suspended in the scrotum,
outside the body. Each
testicle contain
approximately 200-300
lobules.
Duct system Alongside the testicles

are the epididymis and the
vas deferens, which make
up the duct system. The
vas deferens is a muscular
tube that passes upward
alongside the testicles.
The epididymis is a set of
coiled tubes inside each
testicle.
Scrotum The scrotum is a pouch-
like structure that hangs
outside the pelvis. It
houses the epididymis and
the testicles.

10
Seminal Sac like glands that are

vesicle found at the base of the
bladder and are connected
to the prostrate gland.
Prostate gland Surrounds the ejaculatory

ducts at the base of the
urethra, just below the
bladder.
Penis The penis is actually made

up of two parts: the shaft
and the glans. The shaft is
the main part of the penis
and the glans is the tip
(sometimes called the
head).Inside the penis is
the urethra, the channel
that carries the semen to
the outside of the body.
At the end of the glans is
a small slit or opening,
which is where semen and
urine exit the body
through the urethra

Anatomy and Physiology

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Anatomy &

physiology 32 Muscular system

Contents The muscles of the face, head and neck

1 Introduction Muscles of the face, head and neck

2 Cells and tissues Orbicularis oculi

Round muscle that

Closes the eyes and can

8 Structure of the skin

plying rapidly to Functions of the lymphatic system

17 Hair growth cycle germs.

18 Effects of ageing on the skin

NVQ L evel 3 B eaut y Th erap y — Ana tomy & P hysi olog y

Oxygena ted blood Deoxygena ted blood to the Larynx

2 4. Urethra – tube that provides a

81 The digestive system

Introduction to the endocrine system

Anatomy And Physiology

Clare Hargreaves-Norris Anatomy & Physiology - Student 2005

Cells And Tissues

Clare Hargreaves-Norris Anatomy & Physiology - Student 2005

A tissue is a group of cells that perform a specific function. The basic

Clare Hargreaves-Norris Anatomy & Physiology - Student 2005

4. Ciliated columnar epithelium – elongated cells that cover wet surfaces

Clare Hargreaves-Norris Anatomy & Physiology - Student 2005

Clare Hargreaves-Norris Anatomy & Physiology - Student 2005

Each neuron has:

Clare Hargreaves-Norris Anatomy & Physiology - Student 2005

Clare Hargreaves-Norris Anatomy & Physiology - Student 2005

Structure Of The Skin

This is the layer of the skin (the part that

Stratum corneum - horny layer

Stratum germinativum - germinating

Clare Hargreaves-Norris Anatomy & Physiology - Student 2005

The melanocytes produce extra melanin when activated by UV rays,

Located within the dermis are various other structures known as

Clare Hargreaves-Norris Anatomy & Physiology - Student 2005

Cross Section Of The Skin And It’s

Clare Hargreaves-Norris Anatomy & Physiology - Student 2005

Appendages Of The Skin

Research and explain the two different types of sweat glands.

Research and explain the three different sheaths of the follicle.

Clare Hargreaves-Norris Anatomy & Physiology - Student 2005

The hair is comprised of three different areas; explain each in the

Clare Hargreaves-Norris Anatomy & Physiology - Student 2005

What is the dermal papilla and what is its function?

Arrector pili muscle

What is the function of the arrector pili muscle?

What is the function of sebum?

Clare Hargreaves-Norris Anatomy & Physiology - Student 2005

Clare Hargreaves-Norris Anatomy & Physiology - Student 2005

Functions Of The Skin

Sensation – Sensory nerve endings in the skin detect changes in the

Heat regulation - Helps to keep body at a constant temperature of 37C

Protection – The skin provides protection in the following ways:

Secretion - Sebum is secreted by the sebaceous glands.

Vitamin D production – Due to the reaction of sunlight on the skin, a

Clare Hargreaves-Norris Anatomy & Physiology - Student 2005

Clare Hargreaves-Norris Anatomy & Physiology - Student 2005

Hair Growth Cycle

All hairs grow in cycles that

way for new hairs to grow.

Explain the different stages of the hair growth cycle.