Chapter 4

Magnetic Particle Testing

Magnetic particle testing is a nondestructive method that detects discontinu-
ities that are either buried slightly below or open to the material or weld
surface. Its advantage over visual inspection is that it can detect defects that
are buried below the surface as well as surface opening defects that are too
small to be visible by the naked eye. The sensitivity of the method is
dependent on several factors as described in this chapter.
The process is limited to such materials that have ferromagnetic properties
responding to magnetic principles. This implies that this method is not
applicable for nonferrous and nonmagnetic material.
Because a wide variety of discontinuities can be located by this method, the
training and experience of the tester are of great importance. For example, a
person experienced in interpreting castings may not find it easy to interpret
defects in welding or wrought material; the same is true for an experienced
weld defect interpreter if asked to interpret castings.
The process requires some fundamentals to be correctly identified and
agreed to before the testing. These are often written or referenced documents
called specifications. They address the following essential points:
l Objective of testing
l Identification and description of the test object
l Details of the testing techniques to be used
l Acceptance criteria
l Rework and retesting details
This technique is not a substitute for radiography or ultrasonic testing of any
material or weld. As stated at the beginning of this section, each nondestructive
testing (NDT) process has its advantage and limits. The engineer specifying the
test must make decisions about the objective of testing and what types of dis-
continuities are being expected. A selection of test methods must be made on this
basis, it is possible and practical to consider more than one NDT method to capture
various types of discontinuities that may be expected in a particular weldments.

PRINCIPLES OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

The basic principle of magnetic particle testing is that when a magnetic field is
established in a ferromagnetic material containing one or more discontinuities

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328 SECTION j 3 Nondestructive Testing

in the path of magnetic flux, minute magnetic poles are set up at the opposite
faces of the discontinuities. These poles have stronger attraction for the
magnetic particles than the surrounding surface of the material, thus making it
clearly visible against the contrasting background or under fluorescence of
black light.
The most apparent characteristics of a magnet are its ability to attract any
magnetic material placed within its field. This property is attributed to its
tendency of line of force that passes through the magnetic materials because
they offer a path of lower reluctance than a path through the surrounding
atmosphere; these lines of force tend to converge in to the magnetic material.
The object for inspection is magnetized either by an electromagnet or a
permanent magnet. In a permanent magnet system, the north and south poles
are at opposite ends; this is a longitudinal magnetization. These poles produce
flow of imaginary lines of force between them to create a magnetic field in the
surrounding material. This is explained by the following experiment with a bar
magnate.
If a bar magnet is notched as shown in Figure 3-4-1, the flux distribution or
flow of the lines of force will be markedly changed in the area surrounding the
notch. The distortion in the line diminishes as the distance from the breach in
the magnetic field increases. In this condition, each face of the notch assumes
an opposite polarity, producing flow of leakage flux across the air gap. This
leakage flux permits the detection of defects by the magnetic particle method.
Irrespective of what method is used to magnetize the test object, the attribute
of the magnet remains the principle of the test method.

Flux leakage
S
N
S

N S Magnetic field

FIGURE 3-4-1 Magnetic field and flux leakage.

 Magnetic Particle Testing Chapter j 4 329

The electromagnetic method is more often used. In this method, the test
object is magnetized by introducing high current or by putting the test object in
a current-carrying coil. The magnetic field in the test piece is interrupted by
any discontinuities producing a magnetic field leakage on the surface. The area
to be inspected is covered by finely divided magnetic particles that react to
magnetic field leakage produced by the discontinuity. The magnetic particles
form a pattern of indication on the surface because magnetization of these
magnetic particles assumes the approximate shape of the discontinuity.
Some of the commonly used methods for magnetizing a test object are
based on how the magnetizing field in a given object will be induced and
managed to the best advantage. We shall briefly describe them.

l Longitudinal magnetizing using coils

l Circular magnetizing using coils
l Magnetizing by use of current carrying conductor
l Prod magnetization

CALCULATING MAGNETIZING CURRENT

The importance of the correct amount of current to be used for testing is never
overemphasized. Just to illustrate the point, two extreme conditions are listed
below. Too small current will produce low magnetic field and will not be able
to detect all possible discontinuities. On the other side of the spectrum, too
large current may produce too strong magnetic fields that would mask the
small and too tightly adhering faces of a crack.
Magnetic current should be established by standards or specification or
given within the purchase order. When a specification is not available, the
current requirement may be calculated as given below:
1. Longitudinal magnetizing: 3000 to 10,000 amperes turn
2. Over all circular magnetizing: 100 to 1000 amperes per inch (or 4e40 A/mm)
of the outside diameter of the part
3. Prod magnetization: 100 to 125 amperes per inch (or 4e5 A/mm) of the
prod spacing
Dry magnetization: Prod spacing of 3 to 12 in (75e340 mm)
Wet method: Prod spacing of 2 to 12 in (50e340 mm)
Typical longitudinal magnetizing with an electromagnetic yoke is shown in
Figure 3-4-2.

TYPE OF MAGNETIZING CURRENT

High-ampere low-voltage current is commonly used for testing. Alternating
current (AC), direct current (DC), and rectified current are used for testing.
Most of the portable equipment used for field testing either uses permanent
330 SECTION j 3 Nondestructive Testing

FIGURE 3-4-2 Longitudinal magnetic field developed by electromagnet.

magnets or electromagnets, but these have limitations because they are capable
of detecting surface opening defects, but they are not very efficient in detecting
subsurface defects.
Alternating current is used when subsurface evaluation is not required
because only the surface of the test material is magnetized. This method is
effective for locating surface opening discontinuities.
Direct current magnetization produces field that penetrates throughout the
part. As a result, it is more sensitive in detecting subsurface discontinuities.
Three-phase full-wave rectified current produce results comparable to the
results obtained by battery-powered magnetization.
Half-wave rectified single-phase current provides maximum sensitivity.
The pulsating field increases particles mobility and enables the particles to line
up more readily in weak leakage fields. The pulse peaks also produces a higher
magnetization force.

Inspection Method
There is a specified sequence of operation for a successful test process. These
are listed below.

Precleaning of the Test Surface

1. Precleaning of the test surface
2. Application of the current: continuous or residual application
3. Application of inspection media: dry, wet, color contrast, florescent, and so on
4. Inspection method and evaluation: use of visual aids, including ultraviolet
(black) light
 Magnetic Particle Testing Chapter j 4 331

5. Demagnetizing: residual magnetism

6. Reporting
The surface preparation is very important for obtaining a satisfactory
results in testing.
The condition of surface is an important variable to obtain good results
from the testing. The material to be tested may be in as-welded, as-rolled,
as-cast, or as-forged condition. The test surface of material may contain
various process contaminates that may mask the test result or mislead
interpretation of the test. Hence, the surfaces of the parts to be tested are
prepared by grinding, machining, solvent or water cleaning, or other
methods that are not capable of blocking the surface opening of the possible
discontinuities.
Before the magnetic particle examination, an area about 100 mm around
the actual test areas on the surface is visually examined to ensure that the
material is dry and free of all dirt, grease, lint, scale, welding flux, weld
spatter, paint, oil, and other extraneous matter that could obscure surface
openings or otherwise interfere with the examination.

DRYING AFTER PREPARATION

Surfaces to be examined are dried after cleaning. Drying is done by normal
evaporation or by blowing with forced hot or cold ambient (z20oC) air. It
must be ensured that the cleaning solution has evaporated before application of
the magnetizing current and magnetic particles.

APPLICATION OF THE CURRENT

High-amperage, low-voltage current is usually used, but for AC, DC or
rectified current can be used for magnetizing the parts to be inspected.
Portable equipment that makes use of electromagnet and sometimes per-
manent magnets is also used. Both of these methods are able to detect only the
surface cracks.

ALTERNATING CURRENT
When an alternator produces AC voltage, the voltage switches polarity over
time in a very particular manner. If this polarity over time wave trace is
graphed, it is seen as changing rapidly but in a smooth transition over the
cross-over line (point zero). The shape of the curve so produced is called a sine
wave.
One cycle of this reversal is termed the wave cycle. The rate of this
alternating is called frequency, and it is measured in Hertz (Hz). In the United
States, the electrical supply from the grids is at 60 Hz, but in most of the
Europe, the frequency is at 50 Hz.
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Because of the sine wave, the penetration of the current to magnetize the
material is only surface deep; thus, only the surface of the metal is magnetized
by AC. The method is effective for locating discontinuities that extend to the
surface, such as fatigue or service cracks. Similarly, in welds, the surface
opening can be detected by AC current magnetizing. As stated in the intro-
duction, this type of magnetizing is not able to detect subsurface
discontinuities.

DIRECT CURRENT
Unlike the AC current, the wave of travel in DC is linear and flat. Because of
this, the DC magnetizing of metals is able to penetrate through the material;
hence, it is more sensitive than AC magnetizing for detection of subsurface
discontinuities.
Full-wave, three-phase, rectified current produces results essentially com-
parable to DC obtained from batteries.
Half-wave, single-phase, rectified current provides maximum sensitivity.
The pulsating field increases particle mobility and enables the particles to line
up more readily in weak leakage fields. The pulse peaks also produce a higher
magnetizing force.
The operational sequence of magnetizing and application of the inspection
medium has an important bearing on the sensitivity of the method.

CONTINUOUS OR RESIDUAL APPLICATION OF CURRENT

The continuous method is the process in which the magnetizing and appli-
cation of dry-magnetic powder is simultaneous. In fact, the application of
media (dry powder) is done only as the current is flowing in the test material.
This condition offers maximum sensitivity because the magnetic field is at
peak during entire process. If the current is stopped during the application of
media, only the residual current will be able to hold the indications.
If wet suspension is used, along with continuous method, the media sus-
pended in wet suspension is allowed to flow over the material as the magne-
tizing current is applied. The inspection is carried out as the media is applied
and current is applied in the burst of about one-half second.
The residual method is as the name implies; it depends on the residual
magnetic field to detect discontinuities. The current is applied and magnetic
fields developed, and then the current is switched off as the indicating media is
applied. The accuracy and sensitivity depend on the strength of the residual
magnetic field. It is obvious that the application of this method is most
effective on materials that have higher magnetic retentivity.
Knowledge of magnetic permeability and retentivity of material being
magnetized and or tested will help establish the best method for magnetizing
and testing. If available, the hysteresis curve of particular metal must be
 Magnetic Particle Testing Chapter j 4 333

reviewed. This will help develop an effective magnetizing or demagnetizing

procedure.
A hysteresis curve is a plot of flux density versus magnetic force. A hys-
teresis curve could be either wide loop curve or a slender loop curve; they both
signify specific properties of the magnet. The following are the typical char-
acteristics of a hysteresis curve.
A wide loop curve signifies:
l Low permeability of the metal being magnetized
l High magnetic retentivity of magnetized material
l High coercive force, required to remove magnetism from the material
l High reluctance (difficult to magnetize)
l High residual magnetism
A slender loop curve signifies:
l High permeability of the metal being magnetized
l Low magnetic retentivity of magnetizing material
l Low coercive force, required to remove magnetism from the material
l Low reluctance (easy to magnetize)
l Low residual magnetism

Dry Method of Inspection

The method, as the name suggests, is based on the use of dry powder media for
inspection. The method uses finely divided ferromagnetic particles in dry
powder form. The particles are coated to allow for greater mobility. These
particles are uniformly dusted over the inspection surface. Dusting bags,
atomizers, or spray guns are used for dusting. These particles are given in a
variety of colors to easily distinguish the formed patterns against the back-
ground while inspecting.

Wet Method of Inspection

In the wet magnetic particle inspection method, the material to be inspected
can be sprayed, flowed, or immersed in a bath of the suspension. The method
is used both as color contrast and as fluorescence under ultraviolet (black)
light.
The size of particles used for the wet method is smaller compared with the
case in the dry powder method. This is because the particles are suspended in a
liquid bath of light petroleum distillate. These particles are either in dry
concentrate form or in a paste from; the final formulation for use is prepared
either with oil or with water bath. These are specific formulations and
generally cannot be interchanged from oil base to water base. The smaller size
of particles makes the wet method more sensitive to fine surface defects but is
334 SECTION j 3 Nondestructive Testing

limited in detecting the subsurface defects. When the bath method is used, it is
to be continuously agitated to prevent from settling of particles. The water-
based suspension has advantage, as it is as sensitive as oil based but is not a fire
hazard as flammable liquids like kerosene oil which is often the base for
magnetic particle bath.

Viewing Conditions
The viewing conditions for nonfluorescent wet particle testing require that the
parts being inspected is illuminated to at least 200-ft candles (2 52 Lux) of
visible light.
When using fluorescent material, it is necessary that ultraviolet light (also
called black light) is used to view the indications present by fluorescent
particles.

Inspection Under Ultraviolet (Black) Light

Ultraviolet light supplies the correct wavelengths to cause florescent material
to fluoresce. The equipment essentially consists of a regulating transformer, a
mercury arc lamp, and a filter. The mercury arc bulb and the filter are con-
tained in the reflector lamp housing, and the transformer is housed separately.
A deep red-purple filter is designed to pass only the wavelengths of light that
will activate the fluorescent material.
For correct test results, the lamp should be able to produce an intensity of
minimum 800 mw/cm2 (microwatts per centimeter square) in a 3-in circle at a
15-in distance.
After the switch is turned on, it takes about 5 minutes for the light to attain
its full intensity. After being turned on, the light is kept on for the entire
duration of the testing to keep the light ready for inspection without
interruptions and because frequent switching on and off shortens the life of the
arc bulb.
The dust and dirt sticking on the filter glass significantly reduce the
intensity of the light. This requires that the filter glass is always kept clean.