SSH

stands for Secure Shell or Secure Socket Shell. It is a cryptographic network protocol that
allows two computers to communicate and share the data over an insecure network such as
the internet. It is used to login to a remote server to execute commands and data transfer
from one machine to another machine.

Telnet

is a network protocol used to virtually access a computer and to provide a two-way,

collaborative and text-based communication channel between two machines.

It follows a user command Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

networking protocol for creating remote sessions. On the web, Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP) and File Transfer Protocol (FTP) simply enable users to request specific files from
remote computers, while, through Telnet, users can log on as a regular user with the privileges
they are granted to the specific applications and data on that computer.

What is the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)?

The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a network layer protocol used by network
devices to diagnose network communication issues. ICMP is mainly used to determine
whether or not data is reaching its intended destination in a timely manner. Commonly, the
ICMP protocol is used on network devices, such as routers. ICMP is crucial for error reporting
and testing, but it can also be used in distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks.

What is ICMP used for?

The primary purpose of ICMP is for error reporting. When two devices connect over the
Internet, the ICMP generates errors to share with the sending device in the event that any of
the data did not get to its intended destination. For example, if a packet of data is too large for
a router, the router will drop the packet and send an ICMP message back to the original source
for the data.

A secondary use of ICMP protocol is to perform network diagnostics; the commonly used
terminal utilities traceroute and ping both operate using ICMP. The traceroute utility is used to
display the routing path between two Internet devices. The routing path is the actual physical
path of connected routers that a request must pass through before it reaches its destination.
The journey between one router and another is known as a ‘hop,’ and a traceroute also
reports the time required for each hop along the way. This can be useful for determining
sources of network delay.
The ping utility is a simplified version of traceroute. A ping will test the speed of the
connection between two devices and report exactly how long it takes a packet of data to reach
its destination and come back to the sender’s device. Although ping does not provide data
about routing or hops, it is still a very useful metric for gauging the latency between two
devices. The ICMP echo-request and echo-reply messages are commonly used for the purpose
of performing a ping.

Unfortunately network attacks can exploit this process, creating means of disruption such as
the ICMP flood attack and the ping of death attack.

The ICMP echo request and the ICMP echo reply messages are commonly known as ping
messages. Ping is a troubleshooting tool used by system administrators to manually test for
connectivity between network devices, and also to test for network delay and packet loss.

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a protocol or procedure that connects an ever-changing

Internet Protocol (IP) address to a fixed physical machine address, also known as a media
access control (MAC) address, in a local-area network (LAN). 

This mapping procedure is important because the lengths of the IP and MAC addresses differ,
and a translation is needed so that the systems can recognize one another. The most used IP
today is IP version 4 (IPv4). An IP address is 32 bits long. However, MAC addresses are 48 bits
long. ARP translates the 32-bit address to 48 and vice versa.

What Does ARP Do and How Does It Work?

When a new computer joins a local area network (LAN), it will receive a unique IP address to
use for identification and communication. 

Packets of data arrive at a gateway, destined for a particular host machine. The gateway, or
the piece of hardware on a network that allows data to flow from one network to
another, asks the ARP program to find a MAC address that matches the IP address. The ARP
cache keeps a list of each IP address and its matching MAC address. The ARP cache is dynamic,
but users on a network can also configure a static ARP table containing IP addresses and MAC
addresses.

ARP caches are kept on all operating systems in an IPv4 Ethernet network. Every time a device
requests a MAC address to send data to another device connected to the LAN, the device
verifies its ARP cache to see if the IP-to-MAC-address connection has already been completed.
If it exists, then a new request is unnecessary. However, if the translation has not yet been
carried out, then the request for network addresses is sent, and ARP is performed.
 1. ARP Cache: After resolving the MAC address, the ARP sends it to the source where it is
stored in a table for future reference. The subsequent communications can use the MAC
address from the table

2. ARP Cache Timeout: It indicates the time for which the MAC address in the ARP cache can
reside

3. ARP request: This is nothing but broadcasting a packet over the network to validate
whether we came across the destination MAC address or not. 

1. The physical address of the sender.

2. The IP address of the sender.

3. The physical address of the receiver is FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF or 1’s (broadcast mac

address).

4. The IP address of the receiver

4. ARP response/reply: It is the MAC address response that the source receives from the
destination which aids in further communication of the data. 

What is a DNS server?

The Domain Name System (DNS) is the phonebook of the Internet. When users type domain
names such as ‘google.com’ or ‘nytimes.com’ into web browsers, DNS is responsible for finding
the correct IP address for those sites. Browsers then use those addresses to communicate with
origin servers or CDN edge servers to access website information. This all happens thanks to
DNS servers: machines dedicated to answering DNS queries.

The DNS recursor (also referred to as the DNS resolver) is a server that receives the query from
the DNS client, and then interacts with other DNS servers to hunt down the correct IP. Once the
resolver receives the request from the client, the resolver then actually behaves as a client itself,
querying the other three types of DNS servers in search of the right IP.
What is Application Infrastructure?

When we interact with software applications in our private lives, we usually see only the
presentation layer of the application known as a graphical user interface (GUI). A user
interface makes it easier for a human user to interact with the features and functions of an
application in a logical way. Without a user interface, application users might have to input
their requests in text or code instead of filling in fields with parameters or clicking on buttons.

What many users don't see, and what exists beyond the GUI, is a complete application
infrastructure whose components support all of the features, services, and functionality
offered by the application. Application infrastructure includes all of the computational and
operational infrastructure and components that are necessary to manage the development,
deployment, and management of enterprise applications.

There is no general model for application infrastructure design. Rather, the developers of an
application design an application infrastructure that is suitable for supporting the unique
features, capacity, and demands of the application. Application infrastructure components may
include things like servers, data storage, networking, application monitoring, and logging
capabilities, and application security services. Application infrastructure can be developed as an
on-premise IT infrastructure, or delivered as cloud-based infrastructure by a third-party public
cloud service provider.