COMPONENT VALUES

Kinal, Technical Center

IndeX
Looking for and interpreting specific
information related to electronics . . . . .
....... 3

Expressing abilities .............

. . . . . . . 14

Expressing disabilities .............

. . . . . . . 14

Differentiating facts from opinions

............ 18

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LOOKING FOR AND INTERPRETING

INFORMATION RELATED TO ELECTRONICS
A brief history of Electronics
“Electronics has different meanings to different people and in different countries.
Hence, let me define the term in the sense that it is used here:
“Electronics is the science and the technology of the passage of charged particles in
a gas, in a vacuum, or in a semiconductor”. Please note that particle motion
confined within a metal only is not considered electronics.

Before electronic engineering came into existence electrical engineering

already flourished. Electrical engineering is the field which deals with devices that
depend solely on the electrons in metals; for example a generator, a motor, a light
bulb or a telephone. The principal benefactors of these devices are the wire
telephone or telegraph companies and the power industries.

Both electronics and electrical engineering owe their existence to the pioneering
work in electricity and magnetism of scientific giants such as Coulomb, Ampere,
Ohm, Gauss, Faraday, Henry, and Maxwell in about 1865, put together the
researches of the others into a consistent theory of electromagnetism, now called
Maxwell’s equations.

Here is a historical example of theory being ahead of experiment for although

Maxwell’s theory predicted that electromagnetic waves, it was not until 23 years
later (in 1888) that Hertz produced such radiation, using a spark-gap oscillator. In
1896 Marconi succeeded in transmitting Hertzian waves and detecting them at a
distance of about 2 miles. Wireless telegraphy had its feeble origin in this
experiment.

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This history is divided into 2 periods of time, referred to simply as the past and
present. By past is meant the era of the tube-the vacuum tube or the gas tube.
The present starts with the invention of the transistors in 1948. Also included is a
section speculating briefly on the future.

The Past
The beginning of the electronics came in 1895 when H. A. Lorentz postulated the
existence of discrete chargers called electrons. Two years later J. J. Thompson
found these electrons experimentally. In the same year (1897) Braun built what
was probably the first electron tube, essentially a primitive cathode-ray tube.

Discovery of Vacuum Tubes

It was not until the start of the 20 th
century that electronics began to take
technological shape. In 1904 Fleming
invented the diode which he called a
valve. It consisted of a heated wire
which emitted electrons separated a short
distance from a plate in a vacuum.

For a positive voltage applied to the plate electrons were collected, whereas for
a negative potential the current was reduced to zero. This valve was used as a
detector for wireless signals. Two years later, Pickard tried a silicon crystal with a
cat`s whisker (a pointed wire pressed into silicon) as a detector. This was the first
semiconductor diode. This device was very unreliable, was soon abandoned, and
semiconductor electronics died a premature death in 1906.

The most important milestone in this early history

of electronics came in the same year (1906) when De
Forest put a third electrode (a grid) into the Fleming
valve, and thus invented the triode tube which he called
an audion. A small change in grid voltage resulted in a
large plate-voltage change. Hence, the audion was the

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first amplifier. It took about five years to improve the vacuum in the audion and to
add an efficient oxide-coated cathode in order to obtain a reliable electronic device.
Thus the age of practical electronics began in about 1911.

Radio and Television

The first application of electronics was to radio and simultaneously with the birth
of electronics, the IRE (the institute of Radio Engineers) was founded in the United
States in 1912.
In the period from 1936 to 1960 the new devices were closely spaced electrodes
(for a high-bandwidth product), miniature glass tubes, and, toward the end of the
period, color television tubes.
Major Armstrong in 1933 invented frequency modulation. About five years later
the first FM receiver was available. Electronic black and white television began in
about 1930 and commercial color television began around 1950, and many new
functions had to be performed.

This is an old model of a radio device.

This is one of the modern models of TV devices.

Electronic Industries
This can fit into one or more of the following four principal groups, which shall be
called the four C´s:
Components, Communications, Control and Computation. The “Components”
companies up to this time were those which came onto existence to supply the

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various types of tubes just described and others referred to later as well as the
passive-circuit elements, such as resistors, capacitors, coils, transformers and
others.
“Communications” refers to the industry built up around AM and FM radio, hi-fi
systems, and black and white as well as color TV receivers and transmitters.
“Control” was making itself evident in what was then referred to as “industrial
electronics”. Industrial electronics may be defined as “the use of electronic devices
in the control and operation of machines in industry (other than in communication
and computation)”.

The devices for industrial electronics were gaseous diodes and triodes
(thyratrons), pool-cathode devices, such as the Mercury arc rectifier, and high-
voltage and high-power tubes. The circuits for this period were power rectifiers,
high-voltage rectifiers, power amplifiers, high-voltage transmitting circuits,
induction and dielectric heating, power inverters (from dc to ac), measurements,
motor control, and the control of industrial processes. The “Computer” had barely
made its appearance at this time and, hence, this industry is discussed in detail in
the following.

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Well, now write on your own words the answer for the following questions:
1.- What is Electronics ? ______________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

2.- What was the first application of electronics ? ________________________

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

3.- Write the four C`s of Electronic industries: __________________________

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

4.- What may be the definitions for Industrial electronics ? ________________

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

5.- What is a vacuum tube? _________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

6.- What is de difference between electronics and electricity? ________________

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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7.- Who invented frequency modulation? _______________________________

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

The Present

The Integrated Circuit

Shortly after joining Texas Instruments in
1958 Kilby conceived the monolithic idea, that
is, the concept of building an entire circuit out
of germanium or silicon. He used the bulk
semiconductor to form a resistor, and he also
fabricated a diffused-layer resistor.
He built a capacitor by using an oxide layer
on silicon, and he also thought of the p-n
junction capacitor. To demonstrate the feasibility of his concept, he built a phase-
shift oscillator and then a multi vibrator using these resistors, capacitors, and a
transistor, all made from germanium with thermally bonded gold connecting wires.
However, in the patent application, he
indicated that laying down conducting material
could interconnect components. This way, in
1959 the solid circuit, later called the
integrated circuit was born.

Semiconductor Memories
A number of transistor configurations have been devised for storing digital data.
These are called random access memories (RAMs), and Intel and Fairchild sold
the first RAMs commercially in 1970. These early RAM´s stored approximately
1,000 binary bits of information. By 1973 16,000-bit memories were introduced by
Intel and Mostek, and 65,000-bit RAMs are expected to be commercially available in
1979.

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The Computer Industry

The most dramatic outgrowth of the
microelectronic revolution, however,
was the creation of an entirely new
industry “the computer industry”.
There has been a great deal of interest
in computing machines for over 300
years. For example, in 1633
Schickhard in Germany described a
mechanical computer to do addition,
subtraction, multiplication and
division. About the same time Pascal, 1642 and Leibnitz, 1671, also had similar
ideas. But the first really serious effort to build a mechanical calculator was made
about 200 years later (1833) by Babbage, a
mathematics professor in England. However,
the technology simply was not available to
convert his ideas into a practicable machine.
The first calculator was electromechanical,
not electronic, and IBM engineers built it in
1930. IN 1970 IBM introduced the 370
systems, which included the first
semiconductor memories. In the present
time, electronics has experienced a great development and, microelectronics has
allowed the invention of compact devices that, no matter its size, people can store a
lot of information there.
New devices contain compact
accessories, this situation is very
convenient for people because this way
they can take those devices anywhere and
work, communicate or store a great deal of
data no matter where they are due to the

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short size of such devices as for example: Lap tops, cell phones, digital cameras,
USB flash memories, etc.

In the present time, engineers have invented many devices for different uses.

1. - Write the name of 5 electronic devices created for domestic use.

a) _________________________________________________________
b) _________________________________________________________
c) _________________________________________________________
d) _________________________________________________________
e) _________________________________________________________

2. - Write the name of 5 electronic devices created for industrial use.

a) _________________________________________________________
b) _________________________________________________________
c) _________________________________________________________
d) _________________________________________________________
e) _________________________________________________________

3. - Write the name of 5 electronic devices created for military use.

a) _________________________________________________________
b) _________________________________________________________
c) _________________________________________________________
d) _________________________________________________________
e) _________________________________________________________

4. - Write the name of 5 electronic devices created to use in the space.

a) _________________________________________________________
b) _________________________________________________________
c) _________________________________________________________

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d) _________________________________________________________

Taking a look at Electronics Field

In the electronics field you will find that there are many common concepts which
every body recognizes without any problem, but…. the question is people able to
give a definition about those common concepts? … How about you? … are you able
to define common concepts ? Well, let’s check out some of them:

Pulse code: It’s a code in which groups of pulses are used to represent
information. Morse code is an example of this.

Fuse: It’s a protection device.

Ground: It’s a low resistance connection to the earth, or to a big conductor body
like the chassis of a vehicle or electronic equipment.

Conductivity: It’s the property of some objects to transport an electrical current.

Clock: It’s a device that marks hours, minutes and seconds.

Binary counter: It’s a circuit producing one output pulse by every two input
pulses. If input pulses are irregular the circuit is usually considered a counter,
otherwise it’s considered a frequency divisor.

Interface: It’s a separation between two devices with different functions, or

between systems in which data are expressed in different way.

Capacitor: It’s a component that fundamentally consists of two plates or

electrodes separated by dielectric material. It’s used because of its capability of
electrical charge storage.

Transformer: It’s a very common electronic device used to change the tension of
an alternating power, to adapt impedances, to isolate when a physical connection to
the net is not required.

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Semiconductors: The physical characteristics, which allow us to distinguish among

an insulator, a semiconductor, and a metal, are discussed. The current in a metal is
due to the flow of negative charges (electrons), whereas the current in a
semiconductor results from the movement of both electrons and positive charges
(holes). A semiconductor may be doped with impurity atoms so hat the current is
due predominantly either to electrons or to holes.

The junction transistor:

A junction transistor consists of a silicon (or germanium) crystal in which a layer
of n-type silicon is sandwiched between two layers of p-type silicon. Alternative, a
transistor may consist of a layer of p-type between two layers of n-type material.

Integrated Circuit: An integrated circuit consists of a single-crystal chip of silicon,

typically 50 by 50 mils in cross section, containing both active and passive elements
and their interconnections. The same processes used to fabricate individual
transistors and diodes produce such circuits.

LED (light emitting diode): It’s a p-n joint that emits visible radiation.

Proto board: It’s a surface where projects can be elaborated.

Clockwise: It indicates that you must follow the same direction as the clock hands.

Counter clockwise: It indicates that you must follow the opposite direction as the
clock hands.

Electron: It’s the particle of the atom negatively charged and principle of the
electronics.

Electricity: It’s the flow of electrons in a conductor material. This definition is not
related to electronics at all but it is important that you have it in mind.

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Now it’s your turn. Ask to any electronics student, investigate in a book or
dictionary and give the definition for the following concepts.

1. - Logic gates: (Puerta Lógica)Logic gates are the building blocks of

digital circuits. Combinations of logic gates form circuits designed
with specific tasks in mind. For example, logic gates are
combined to form circuits to add binary numbers (adders), set and
reset bits of memory (flip flops), multiplex multiple inputs, etc.

2. - Strobe: 1n muestreo m 2 vt muestrear

address strobe n muestreo de direcciones m

3. - Timer: Temporizador
n
1 a device for measuring, recording, or indicating time
2 a switch or regulator that causes a mechanism to operate at a specific time or at
predetermined intervals
3 a person or thing that times

4. - ASCII: n acronym for American standard code for information interchange: a computer
code for representing alphanumeric characters

5. - Full-adder:

6. - Open collector: ______________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

7. - Full-subs tractor: ______________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

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_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
8. - Clock up: ____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

9. - Clock down: ____________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

10. - Integer / real: _________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

11. - Half-subs tractor: ______________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

12. - Half-adder: ____________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

EXPRESSING ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES

Everything people do, it’s because of their abilities, it means, everyone is able to
do something, some people are able to do more than one thing and It’s really
amazing the fact that there have been people with great abilities. An example of
these people is the antique Greek
philosophers. They managed
various sciences such as
mathematics, physics, arts, and
architecture. Other people can
practice many sports. People can
have two types of abilities.

Natural abilities

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Everyone is born with a range of abilities unique to him or her. It’s fair to say
that these abilities are essentially hard-wired. They mature during infancy and can
be measured in most individuals after the age of fourteen.

One example of an innate ability is manifested when an individual is confronted

with a number of seemingly unrelated objects or facts and is asked to organize
them into their unifying relationship. We call this ability Classification. Individuals
who score high in this ability are good at solving new problems and like change and
challenge. Persons who score low will find that they work best when their tasks are
well defined and organized.
It’s very important to define all the abilities to determine the patterns or
“clusters” into which each person’s abilities fall. Armed with this knowledge, the
individual is able to avoid stress and achieve satisfaction in his every day activities.

Acquired abilities
You can acquire abilities by studying and training with a defined program, but if
you acquire abilities according to your natural abilities, this might provide better
results in your new acquired ability. One example of an acquired ability is to realize
the basic arithmetic operations; you develop your abstract and logical abilities. As
shown in the picture computer programmers have acquired the ability of designing
different programs
such as a “website”,
an “interesting
game”, “Pedro” and
so on.
In the other
hand, pronouncing a
speech is an ability
that you can get by
developing your
verbal ability. It’s
easier and more
convenient to

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acquire abilities according to your natural abilities, this way you will be a better
professional, a better athlete, a better soccer player, a better architect, a better
engineer and so on.
Acquired abilities can be also gotten when you study a technical career as for
example: mechanics, electronics, electricity, paint, etc. or when you practice some
sport as for example surfing, skiing, rugby, etc.

Now, read the following expression: “a leader is born” or “a leader is done”

what do you think? Give your opinion, if you give the correct answer, you have
given a step analysis skill, otherwise you must read a bit more.

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It’s very important to identify natural abilities to acquire other abilities. Now, find
out 5 natural abilities and 5 acquired abilities and write them in the blanks.
Natural Abilities
1) _______________________________________________
2) _______________________________________________
3) _______________________________________________
4) _______________________________________________
5) _______________________________________________
Acquired Abilities
1) _______________________________________________
2) _______________________________________________
3) _______________________________________________
4) _______________________________________________
5) _______________________________________________

Now, find out 3 natural abilities, 3 acquired abilities and 3 disabilities you
have. Use to express your abilities, the expressions: “I can” or “I’m able to”. Use
to express your disabilities, the expressions “I can’t” or “I’m not able to”.

a) Natural Abilities
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
b) Acquired Abilities
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
c) Disabilities
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

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______________________________________________________________

DIFFERENTIATING FACTS FROM OPINIONS

You reader, are not only expected to read for pleasure and entertainment, but to
gather information for your own writing projects. Distinguishing between fact and
opinion is an analytical reading skill.
This analytical reading skill will help you to recognize an author’s opinion and
separate it from facts. By recognizing facts and opinions, you will be able to form
and support your own opinions on controversial issues.

Can you tell me what an opinion is? Ask your partner to give examples of
statements that are opinions that do not use the words, “I think.” For example,
“Everyone knows that California is the best place to live.”
How do we know that all people feel that California is the best place to live? We
could find people who would argue that statement.

Let’s now discuss how facts are

different from opinions.
Opinions can be argued, facts
cannot.
Facts can be proved, “The
state of California is located in
the United States.” As you use
your critical thinking skills, you
will start to see that facts and
opinions are not always a black
and white issue, especially when
a particular point of view is not
an accepted fact.

Can you tell me what a fact

is? Ask your partner to give
examples of statements that are

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facts. How do you differentiate between fact and opinion in the society? Make sure
you understand that you are able to explain why you feel a statement is an opinion
or a fact. In order to differentiate between facts from opinions, always remember
this:
A fact is something that matters with independency of your will, for example:
“the year has 365 days”, or “in summer days are longer than nights”, or “sunset
takes place at the end of the afternoon”; you cannot change these situations, you
can only prove them.
Instead, an opinion is a commentary about any situation; it means that an
opinion is what you think about situations or facts. Opinions usually are expressed
with the words “I think . . .” “I guess . . .” or something so. Actually, there are as
much opinions as people in this world (or maybe much more); even people can
express lots of opinions about exactly the same subject.
But, even though there are many similar opinions about a specific subject, it
does not mean that opinion will become a fact, this situation is called a “general
truth”. A general truth will never change a fact, it will only modify people behavior
for some weeks, months or even some years (such as fashions), for example: “In
summer, many people travel to Caribbean islands”, or “adults use to watch TV at
night”, or “Surfing is very exiting”, or “the best TV programs are transmitted in the
morning”. In concern to these general opinions, there are thousands people who
share the same idea, but there are also thousands people who do not share that
idea; this is exactly the reason that marks the difference between a fact and an
opinion.

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Next you will find several expressions; your mission is to figure out which is an
opinion and which is a fact. To complete this task successfully, you have to analyze
every expression, decide if it is an opinion, a fact or a general truth.
You will be able to ask your partner, you family or if you find this task a bit
difficult, ask to your teacher. Underline the word you consider is correct option.

1, - Water becomes a gas when it starts boiling.

a) Opinion b) fact c) general truth

2, - People sleep at night.

a) Opinion b) fact c) general truth

3, - Guatemala is a very nice country.

a) Opinion b) fact c) general truth

4, - Matter states are: liquid, solid and gas.

a) Opinion b) fact c) general truth

5, - North Pole is very cold.

a) Opinion b) fact c) general truth

6. - North Pole is a nice place to meet.

a) Opinion b) fact c) general truth

7. - The moon orbits the earth.

a) Opinion b) fact c) general truth

8. - Electrons spin around the nucleus.

a) Opinion b) fact c) general truth

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