KARACHI UNIVERSITY BUSINESS

SCHOOL

GROUP ASSIGNMENT
SUBMITTED TO: Dr.Sohaib uz Zaman
SUBMITTED BY: NISHA ZAFAR, UNZILA
NAEEM, RUDA SIDDIQUE, MUNIBA FAZAL
SEMESTER: 5B EVENING
DATED: 3-3- 2022

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.NO NAME TOPIC PG-

NO
1 RUDA ETHICAL 3-8
SIDDIQUI RELATIVISM
INTRODUCTION

2 UNZILA ETHICAL DILEMMIA 8-11

NAEEM
3 NISHA ETHICAL REASONING 11-15
ZAFAR AND LAWRENCE
KOHLBERG STAGES
OF ETHICAL
REASONING

4 MUNIBA REAL WORLD 15-19

FAZAL ETHICAL PROBLEMS
CONCLUSION

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 ETHICAL RELATIVISM
INTRODUCTION
When the limitations of each of the ethical theories are reviewed, it becomes clear
that there is no truly comprehensive theory of ethics, only a choice that is made
based on your personal value system. In this context, it is easier to understand why,
when faced with the requirement to select a model of how we should live our lives,
many people choose the idea of ethical relativism.

WHAT IS ETHICAL RELATIVISM?

Ethical Relativism is the view that there are no moral absolutes, no moral right and
wrongs. Because different societies have different ethical beliefs, there is
no rational way of determining whether an action is morally right or wrong, but it
can be right relative to a particular individual or society that happens to hold that
belief.

In saying that moral beliefs are relative, we mean that they are a function of, or
dependent on, what those individuals or societies do, in fact, believe.
In other words, ethical relativism would mean that our morals have evolved, that
they have changed over time, and that they are not absolute.
The best a company can do is follow the old saying,

"When in Rome, do as the Romans do."

TWO VERSIONS OF ETHICAL RELATIVISM

1.INDIVIDUAL OR PERSONAL ETHICAL
RELATIVISM
According to the individual or personal ethical relativism all moral principles are
justified only by the individual, and do not necessarily apply to people other than

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the individual who accepts them. I have my ethical views and you have yours,
neither my views nor your views are better or more correct. In a sense we are all
equally correct, insofar as whatever we believe is true, or looked at differently.
This is sometimes also called ethical subjectivism.

EXAMPLE OF INDIVIDUAL OR PERSONAL

ETHICAL RELATIVISM
The statement, “What is right for you may not be right for me” is an
example of ethical relativism, more specifically ethical subjectivism.

Well individual ethical relativism in business ethics would be, if Ali thinks that
business fraud is morally acceptable when one needs money, while John does not
thinks that business fraud is ever morally acceptable. Here fraud IS wrong for Ali,
but is NOT wrong for John.

2.SOCIAL OR CULTURAL ETHICAL

RELATIVISM
According to the social or cultural ethical relativism all moral principles are
justified only by their cultural acceptance, and are not binding upon other cultures.
Although societies may differ or disagree as to what is right or wrong, for an
individual to decide what is right or wrong, one must simply look to the norms of
the society in which they live. Right and wrong simply IS what a given society
says it is. And although a society may believe that its views are the correct ones,
cultural ethical relativism insists that no society’s views are better or more moral
than any other society’s beliefs.

EXAMPLE OF SOCIAL OR CULTURAL

ETHICAL RELATIVISM
Many oil companies, for example, operate in the United States which professes
that men and women should be treated as equals and where bribery is considered

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wrong, while simultaneously operating in several Middle Eastern countries where
women are regarded as subordinate to men and bribery is widely accepted.

WHY IS ETHICAL RELATIVISM

IMPORTANT?
Ethical relativism reminds us that different societies have different moral beliefs
and that our beliefs are deeply influenced by culture. It also encourages us to
explore the reasons underlying beliefs that differ from our own, while challenging
us to examine our reasons for the beliefs and values we hold.

NOW, ONE MIGHT WONDER IF MORAL

RELATIVISM IS ALL THAT BAD?
Well we might be inclined to agree on the relativistic side since we all have
different ethical standards, perspectives, experiences, and feelings. It only seems
natural to allow freedom of choice and diversity to have their say. But, a closer
look reveals that we humans are a lot more alike in this regard than we think.

Look around you and you'll see the evidence of this everywhere. Our diverse
society shares a surprising amount of common moral beliefs. No matter whom you
voted for, for president, what religion you are, or your position in life, your basic
moral standards of right and wrong are much the same. These are not "social
norms'' but moral absolutes.

Stealing is wrong. Lying is wrong. Honesty, patience, dependability, fairness, and

responsibility are right. You can take these moral absolutes to the bank. If you grab
onto them and wrap yourself in them, you will be following a model of success
that has stood the test of time. When you focus like a laser beam on what is good
and right and take out all the emotion and distraction, what remains are moral
absolutes that are universal to all humanity.

The challenge for us is to latch on to these moral absolutes in a busy, hectic,

morally-mushy business world. When you're facing a tough situation at work,
grab on to the security of timeless moral absolutes. It's a matter of getting

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back to basics, getting rid of the emotion and self-interest. Be convinced that
there are moral absolutes and close the door on ethical relativism.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

ETHICAL RELATIVISM
ADVANTAGES
WIDE VARIETY OF CULTURAL PRACTICES
One advantage of ethical relativism is that it allows for a wide variety of cultures
and practices. It also allows people to adapt ethically as the culture, knowledge,
and technology change in society. This is a good and valid form of relativism.

DISADVANTAGES
TRUTH, RIGHT, WRONG AND JUSTICE ARE
ALL RELATIVE
The disadvantage of ethical relativism is that truth, right and wrong, and justice are
all relative. Just because a group of people think that something is right does not
make it so.

Slavery is a good example of this. Two hundred years ago in

America, slavery was the norm and morally acceptable. Now it is
not.

ABSENCE OF ABSOLUTE SET OF ETHICS

Ethical relativism also does not allow for the existence of an absolute set of ethics.
Logically, if there are no absolute ethics, then there can be no Divine Absolute
Ethics Giver. Requiring an absolute set of ethics implies an Absolute Ethics Giver
which would be opposed to ethical relativism.

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PROBLEM OF SELF CONTRADICTION
Furthermore, if ethics have changed over time, there is the problem of self-
contradiction within the relativistic perspective. 200 years ago slavery was socially
acceptable and correct. Now it is not. There has been a change in social ethics in
America regarding this issue. The problem is that if slavery becomes acceptable
again in the next 200 years, who is to say if it is right or wrong? We would have a
contradictory set of right and wrong regarding the same issue.

NO CONSENSUS OF RIGHT AND WRONG

Within ethical relativism, right and wrong are not absolute and must be determined
in society by a combination of observation, logic, social preferences and patterns,
experiences, emotions, and "rules" that seem to bring the most benefit. Of course,
it goes without saying that a society involved in constant moral conflict would not
be able to survive for very long. Morality is the glue that holds a society together.
There must be a consensus of right and wrong for a society to function well.
Ethical relativism undermines that glue.

DANGER FOR THE SOCIETY

Most ethicists reject the theory of ethical relativism. Some claim that while the
moral practices of societies may differ, the fundamental moral principles
underlying these practices do not. For example, in some societies, killing one's
parents after they reached a certain age was common practice, stemming from the
belief that people were better off in the afterlife if they entered it while still
physically active and vigorous.

While such a practice would be condemned in our society, we would agree with
these societies on the underlying moral principle -- the duty to care for parents.
Societies, then, may differ in their application of fundamental moral principles but
agree on the principles.

IN A NUTSHELL

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Ethics is an inquiry into right and wrong through a critical examination of the
reasons underlying practices and beliefs. As a theory for justifying moral practices
and beliefs, ethical relativism fails to recognize that some societies have better
reasons for holding their views than others.

ETHICAL DILEMMA:
An ethical dilemma (ethical paradox or moral dilemma) is a problem in
the decision-making process between two possible options, neither of
which is absolutely acceptable from an ethical perspective. Although we
face many ethical and moral problems in our lives, most of them come
with relatively straightforward solutions.

CONDITIONS OF ETHICAL DILEMMA:

There are three conditions that must be present for a situation to be
considered an ethical dilemma. The first condition occurs in situations
when an individual, called the “agent,” must make a decision about
which course of action is best. Situations that are uncomfortable but that
don’t require a choice, are not ethical dilemmas. For example, students
in their internships are required to be under the supervision of an
appropriately credentialed social work field instructor. Therefore,
because there is no choice in the matter, there is no ethical violation or
breach of confidentiality when a student discusses a case with the
supervisor. The second condition for ethical dilemma is that there must
be different courses of action to choose from. Third, in an ethical
dilemma, no matter what course of action is taken, some ethical
principle is compromised. In other words, there is no perfect solution.

TYPES OF ETHICAL DILEMMAS:

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An ethical dilemma arises when one has to choose between ethical
values and rules in order to determine the right-thing-to-do. These
dilemmas are in three broad categories:

 Personal Cost Ethical Dilemmas arises from situations in which

compliance with ethical conduct results in a significant personal
cost to the decision maker in a difficult situation.
 Right-versus-Right Ethical Dilemmas, arises from situations of
two or more conflicting sets of bonafide ethical values.
 Conjoint Ethical Dilemmas, arises when a careful decision-
maker is exposed to a combination of the above-indicated ethical
dilemmas in searching for the “right-thing-to do”.

Situation of Ethical Dilemma:

Conflict of Interest:
A conflict of interest occurs when an individual’s personal interests –
family, friendships, financial, or social factors – could compromise his
or her judgment, decisions, or actions in the workplace.
Conflict b/w values of public administration:
A value conflict occurs when individuals or groups of people hold strong
personal beliefs that are in disagreement within themselves or in
disagreement with the institution’s/ organization’s values.
Justification for the Institution:
In this situation an individual should make a justified decision.

Steps to take when facing ethical dilemma:

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Identify the ethical Dilemma
most critical step. Recognize the problem. Once the problem has been
recognized, the decision maker must clearly state the ethical question,
considering all aspects. If the decisions at hand are a simple matter of
right and wrong, no process of ethical decision making is required.

Collect info
gather information to make an informed decision. Information regarding
the values of the parties involved, including those of the health care
provider is needed.

State the options

Brainstorming to identify all possible options. Often the best decision is
not the first to come to mind. This step forces one to stop and view the
situation from all angles. It requires an open mind to recognize there is
often more than one answer to a problem.

Apply the Ethical principles to the options

Focus on the ethical principles (autonomy, beneficence, no maleficence,
and justice) and ethical values and concepts (paternalism,
confidentiality, and informed consent). One or more of these will apply
to most situations. State how each alternative will impact on the ethical
principle or rule by developing a list of pros and cons. Do this for each
option. This process will help you see what ethical principles are in

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conflict in the situation. Refer to the ADHA Code of Ethics for
guidance.

Make the decision

While keeping in mind the Pros and Cons list made, weigh the options
with pros VS cons. Then weigh the seriousness of the cons,
remembering that the patient's needs/interests are first. Most of the time
the decision becomes obvious. The practitioner should "replay" each
principle against the decision to see if it still upholds.

Implement the Decision

If this step is not taken the whole decision process would be futile. Many
appropriate decisions are never implemented because this step is
omitted.

ETHICAL REASONING AND LAWRENCE

KOHLBERG STAGES OF ETHICAL REASONING
When we are attempting to resolve an ethical dilemma, we follow a
process of ethical reasoning. We look at the information available to us
and draw conclusions based on that information in relation to our own
ethical standards. Lawrence Kohlberg developed a framework that
presents the argument that we develop a reasoning process over time,
moving through six distinct stages (classified into three levels of moral
development) as we are exposed to major influences in our lives.

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Level 1:
Pre-conventional.
Pre-conventional morality is the first stage of moral development, and
lasts until approximately age 9. At the pre-conventional level children
don’t have a personal code of morality, and instead moral decisions are
shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or
breaking their rules.
At this lowest level of moral development, a person’s response to a
perception of right and wrong is initially directly linked to the
expectation of punishment or reward. For example, if an action leads to
punishment is must be bad, and if it leads to a reward is must be good.
Authority is outside the individual and children often make moral
decisions based on the physical consequences of actions.

• Stage 1: Obedience and punishment orientation.

The first stage highlights the self-interest of children in their decision
making as they seek to avoid punishment at all costs. The
child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is
punished, they must have done wrong.
Behaviour is determined by consequences. The individual will obey in
order to avoid punishment.
example : A child should not steal something as he may get punished. A
child’s reasoning to the above example may include “it’s bad to steal,”
• Stage 2: Individualism, instrumentalism, and exchange.
As a more organized and advanced form of stage 1, a person is focused
on satisfying his or her own needs—that is, something is right or wrong
because it helps the person get what he she wants or needs.

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 Children at this stage are not motivated by friendship or respect but by
the personal advantages involved. An example would be when a child is
asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks “what’s in it for me?”
and the parents offer the child an incentive by giving him an allowance.
Level 2:
Conventional.
Conventional morality is the second stage of moral development, and is
characterized by an acceptance of social rules concerning right and
wrong.At this level, a person continues to become aware of broader
influences outside of the family.
The next period of moral development is marked by the acceptance of
social rules regarding what is good and moral. the emphasis shifts from
self-interest to relationships with other people and social systems. The
individual strives to support rules that are set forth by others such as
parents, peers, and the government in order to win their approval or to
maintain social order.
Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to
personal and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules
of authority figures, but this is now due to their belief that this is
necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order.

Stage 3: “Good boy/nice girl” orientation.

At this stage, a person is focused on meeting the expectations of family
members—that is, something is right or wrong because it pleases those
family members.
The individual wants to maintain or win the affection and approval of
others by being a “good person.”this stage is focused on living up to
social expectations and roles.
Example: The man should take care of his wife in order to be a good

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partner.
• Stage 4: Law-and-order orientation.
At this stage, a person is increasingly aware of his or her membership in
a society. This stage is focused on ensuring that social order is
maintained. At this stage of moral development, people begin to
consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on
maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty, and
respecting authority. Rules and regulations are to be followed and
obeyed.
Example: I am personally against the war, but would never publicly
protest it on campus without the administration's permission.

Level 3:
Post-conventional.
Throughout the post-conventional level, a person’s sense of morality is
defined in terms of more abstract principles and values. People now
believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or eliminated.
This level is marked by a growing realization that individuals are
separate entities from society and that individuals may disobey rules
inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live
by their own ethical principles—principles that typically include such
basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful
but changeable mechanisms, rather than absolute dictates that must be
obeyed without question. Because post-conventional individuals elevate
their own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their
behavior, especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused with that of
those at the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that
many people may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.

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Stage 5: Social contract legalistic orientation.
At this stage, a person is focused on individual rights and the
development of standards based on critical examination. The individual
views laws and rules as flexible tools for improving human purposes.
That is, given the right situation, there are exceptions to rules. When
laws are not consistent with individual rights and the interests of the
majority, they do not bring about good for people and alternatives
should be considered.
Example: This stage acknowledges the introduction of abstract
reasoning as people attempt to explain specific behaviors. In our
example the man should not steal the medication from the pharmacy as
he may go to jail if he is caught. But, the man should steal the
medication for his wife because she is deathly ill and the laws do not
take the circumstances into account.
• Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation.
At this stage, a person is focused on self-chosen ethical principles that
are found to be comprehensive and consistent—that is, something is
right or wrong because it reflects that person’s individual value system
and the conscious choices he or she makes in life.
Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based on universal ethical
principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these
internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and
rules.
Example, it is okay for the man to take the medication without paying as
objects or property are not as valuable as his wife’s life.
SUMMARY
In the first stage, children obey the rules taught and believe what society
says is right. Avoiding punishment is a leading factor in their desire to
obey authority. This has diminished by stage two, where children can
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see that they are multiple points of view to the matter in question. They
tend to reason according their own self-interests, including bartering
with others.

In stage three, people value a supportive community and therefore have

the desire to be a good, helpful member. This changes as they move into
stage four, where they seek instead to meet the goals of the society,
which includes maintaining law and order. Throughout both stages, we
see how young teens value the morals and ethics of the group of which
they are part.

In stage five, people evolve from the idea of being ‘good’ into what
would be the right thing to do. They seek to create morals and values for
a good society instead of maintaining the society for the sake of doing
so. They take these ideas one step further in stage six, where they work
to incorporate justice and creating a fair society for all.

REAL WORLD ETHICAL PROBLEMS

The theories are applied into the real world and new problems are faced
by the individuals and in an organization workplace . according to a
survey by the institute of leadership and management in UK asked the
managers about the most occurring unethical behavior by employees in
the workplace and the following results were shown:

1. LIES:
In and out of the office, lying is a quality that is disliked. It
destroys trust, impacts negatively on relationships, and even puts
individuals in fear. There are different situations where employees
lie in the workplace with just one lie opening the floor for many

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 others. A lot of employees start lying from their CV, by adding
experiences they didn't acquire, and the skills they don't have.
Employees need to understand that lying about work may
eventually get them in trouble and needs to stop before they lose
their job and according to the research lying about personal
mistakes are recorded at 72%, lying about colleague’s mistakes
was about 63% and lying about skills and experiences was about
54%.
2. Taking Credit for Others Hard Work:
It is very common for managers to take credit for their team
member's hard work when reporting to the management. By taking
credit for another person's work, you will be denying the person a
promotion, bonus or commendation for a job well done. This will
discourage the person from sharing ideas that will benefit the
company in the future and the research shows 63% of such cases in
companies.
3. VERBAL ABUSE:
Employees need to stay away from using foul language on
coworkers in and out of the workplace. This is very important
when dealing with customers. Customers are known to get angry
and may result in verbal abuse due to a bad product or service.
They may even get insult you when they are at fault and the
reported cases in the research are about 68%.

REAL WORLD APPROACH TO ETHICAL PROBLEMS

The study of ethics and theories create a mindset to solve the real world
ethical problems. It makes managers to think or act in certain ways to
avoid such unethical behaviors at workplace which are as follows:
1.BECOMING MORE ETHICAL IN CAREER:
Ethical professionals are better professionals. Lawyers, engineers,
doctors, accountants, and journalists must avoid conflicts of interest and
be sensitive to the ethical requirements of their jobs. However, keep in
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mind that being ethical in your profession can lead to surprising results.
Lawyers, for instance, have to defend some pretty shady characters in
order to give everyone a fair defense.

2.RESPECTING AND DEFENDING HUMAN RIGHTS:

It’s based on basic human managers should be able to protect the rights
of individuals such as women’s rights, free speech, and welfare all focus
on human rights.

3.JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS:

Managers who are fair in dealings are generally more successful in
motivating their subordinates than those who are not. A reputation for
being unfair or biased is surely going to be a liability in managerial
success .

4.IMPROVE DECISION MAKING:

Managers can improve the unethical behavior by the right decision they
make at the right moment so for the right decisions managers have to
improve the decision making criteria after fully finding the problem and
evaluating it in every possible way that impacts the ethical behaviors of
the employees.

4.KINDER TOWARDS THE ENVIRONMENT:

The managers of the company not only work for the betterment of
unethical behavior at workplace but also work to protect the surrounding
which is harmed due the activities of the organization so for that they
support the environment that is taking parts in planting and conserving
the environment.

5.PROTECTING WILDLIFE :

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After all, animals feel pain and suffer just like humans. Perhaps this
possibility of pain and suffering entitles them to rights and
considerations that you’re ethically expected to respect.

CONCLUSION
As mentioned above the facts and theories are important for
implementing personal and professional ethics. Professional ethics will
act as a standard to keep a healthy life of social well being, its important
to maintain the ethical standards of an organization CSR must be
performed to make a penetrative role in the society.

As in a famous quote it is said:

“Great people have great values and great ethics”

Jeffery Gitomer

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