UNIT NO: 01

Introduction to Engineering Materials

• Please do not blindly follow the
presentation files only, refer it just as
reference material.
• More concentration should on class
room work and text books or
reference books.
Introduction to engineering materials
 Introduction to engineering materials and their classification, properties and
applications, Crystal structures (BCC, FCC and HCP systems),
 Indexing of lattice planes & directions,
 Lattice parameters such as (coordination number, no. of atoms per unit cell,
atomic packing factor, density).
 Basic definitions : System, Phase, Variable, Component, Alloy, Solid solution.
Hume Ruther's rule of solid solubility,
 Concept of solidification of pure metals & alloys, Nucleation: homogeneous
and heterogeneous, Different Microstructures of metals, non-metals and
cast iron,
 Mechanism of elastic and plastic deformation, Dislocation theory and strain
hardening theory,
 Cooling curves, Plotting of Equilibrium diagrams,
 Lever rule, Coring, Eutectic system, Partial eutectic and isomorphous
system,
 Defects in Material
 MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

What is Material ?
• Basic substance that have mass and occupy space
• It can be natural or human made
• There are now about 3,00,000 different known materials
What is Materials Science?
• Materials science involve investigating the relationships that exist
between the structure and properties of materials
• Material science focuses on underlying relationship between
synthesis and processing, structure and properties of materials
What is Materials Engineering?
• Materials engineering involve, on the basis of these structure
property correlation, design/engineer the structure of a material
to produce a predetermined set of properties
• In material engineering focus is on how to translate or transform
4
materials into useful devices or materials 8/18/2020
 MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
Four components that involve in the design,
production and utilization of materials?
1. Processing
2. Structure
3. Properties
Classification: mechanical, electrical, thermal,
magnetic, optical and deteriorative/chemical.
4. Performance
The relationship between the four components:

5 8/18/2020
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING
MATERIALS

1. Metals
2. Ceramics
3. Polymer
4. Composites
5. Semiconductors

Fig.1 Venn diagram showing three basic

material types plus composites

6 8/18/2020
 CLASSIFICATION of ENGINEERING
MATERIALS

1. Metals
• Most Utilized Engineering Materials
• Properties that Satisfy a Wide Range of
Engineering Design Requirements
• General Properties:
• Strength & Stiffness 
• Toughness & Formability 
• Electrical & Thermal Conductivity 
• Usually used in Alloys (mixed of 2 or more metals
• Examples: Steel, Aluminium, magnesium, zinc,
cast iron, titanium, copper, nickel, etc.
7 8/18/2020
 CLASSIFICATION of ENGINEERING
MATERIALS

1. Metals

(a) (b)

(c)
(d)
8 Fig.2. Metals (a. Steel; b. Aluminium; c. Copper;8/18/2020
d. Titanium)
 CLASSIFICATION of ENGINEERING
MATERIALS

2. Ceramics
• A Compound containing metallic & non-metallic
elements formed by the action of heat
• General Properties:
• Hard & Brittle
• Compressive Strength 
• Resistance to chemical action and weathering
• Thermal Insulator  (Thermal Conductivity )
• Examples: sand, brick, glass, graphite, tile, pottery,
etc.

9 8/18/2020
 CLASSIFICATION of ENGINEERING MATERIALS

2. Ceramics

(a) (b)

(d) (c)
10
Fig.2. Ceramics (a. tile; b. pottery; c. sand; d. glass)
8/18/2020
 CLASSIFICATION of ENGINEERING
MATERIALS

3. Polymers
• Organic Compounds, formed by repeating structural unit (Mers),
where the atoms share electron to form very large molecules

Fig.3.
• General Properties:
• Light Weight
• Low Thermal & Electrical Conductivity
• Moderate Resistance on Inorganic Acids, Bases & Salts
• Examples: PVC, polyethylene, polypropylene, rubber, nylon,
Teflon,

11 8/18/2020
CLASSIFICATION of ENGINEERING
MATERIALS

3. Polymers

(a) (b)

(d) (c)
Fig.4. Polymers (a. polyethylene; b. PVC;
12 c. rubber; d. melamine)
8/18/2020
 CLASSIFICATION of ENGINEERING
MATERIALS

4. Composites
• Combination of Two or More Different Materials

• Combination of the Best Characteristics of Each

Components Materials

• Better properties than any individuals component

• Examples: fiberglass, textiles, vehicle tires, wood

papers, etc

13
 CLASSIFICATION of ENGINEERING
MATERIALS
4. Composites

(a) (b)

(d) (c)

Fig.4. Polymers (a. carbon fibres; b. fiberglass;

14 c. 8/18/2020
wood; d. textile)
Functional classification of materials. Notice that metals, plastics,
and ceramics occur in different categories.
15
A limited number of
examples in each category is provided
Crystal Structures

 Space Lattice – 3D  Unit Cell –

arrangement of Repeating unit of
atoms in space the space lattice is
called as unit cell

16 8/18/2020
 Unit Cell
 The unit cell and, consequently, the
entire lattice, is uniquely determined by
the six lattice constants: a, b, c, α, β and
γ.
• Only 1/8 of each lattice point in a unit
cell can actually be assigned to that
cell.
• Each unit cell in the figure can be
associated with 8 x 1/8 = 1 lattice
point.

Crystal Structure
17
Crystal Structure in Metals
Majority of Metals falls in either of the
following crystal structure

 BCC (Body Centered Cubic)

 FCC (Face Centered Cubic)
 HCP (Hexagonal Close Packed)

18 8/18/2020
Crystal Structure in Metals
BCC (Body Centered Cubic)

Examples:α-iron, Mo, W, V, Ta, Cr, Na, K

19 8/18/2020
Crystal Structure in Metals
BCC (Body Centered Cubic)

20 8/18/2020
Crystal Structure in Metals
 FCC (Face Centered Cubic)

Octahedral molecular geometry

Examples:γ-iron, Cu,Au,Ag,Al,Pb, Ni, Pt

21 8/18/2020
Crystal Structure in Metals
 FCC (Face Centered Cubic)

22 8/18/2020
Crystal Structure in Metals
 HCP (Hexagonal Close Packed)

Examples: Mg,Zn,Be,Cd,Co,Zr,Ti
23 8/18/2020
 Indexing of Lattice Planes
 Orientation of the plane in the lattice is indicated
by index of the plane
 Definition: Miller indices are the reciprocals of
the fractional intercepts which the plane makes
with the crystallographic axes.

24 8/18/2020
Indexing of Lattice Planes
The procedure for determining the Miller
indices for the cubic crystal plane is as follows :
 Step 1:Choose the plane that does not pass through the
origin at (o,o,o)

 Step 2:Determine the intercepts of the plane in terms

of the crystallographic axes x,y,and z. these intercepts
may be in fractions.

 Step 3:Find the reciprocals of these intercepts.

 Step 4:Clear fractions and determine the smallest set of

whole number which are in the same ratio as the
intercepts.
25 8/18/2020
Indexing of Lattice Planes
(001)
(100)

(010) (010)

26 8/18/2020
Indexing of Lattice Planes
(101)
(110)

(011) (110)

27
Origin
8/18/2020
Indexing of Lattice Planes
Origin
(111)

(111)
Origin
(111)

Origin

28 (111) 8/18/2020
Indexing of Lattice Planes

29 8/18/2020
Indexing of Lattice Directions
 Definition: Miller indices of crystallographic
direction are the vector components of the
direction resolved along each of the
coordinates axes and reduced to the smallest
integers.

30 8/18/2020
Indexing of Lattice Directions
The procedure for determining the Miller indices for
the Crystallographic Direction :

 Step 1:Draw a straight line OD passing through the

origin and parallel to RS
 Step 2:Take any point on line OD such as P and draw
perpendiculars on X-Y, Y-Z and Z-X planes.
 Step 3:Find the fractional intercepts of OL, OM and ON
in terms of axial units (i.e. OL/OA, OM/OB, ON/OC).
 Step 4:Converts these intercepts to smallest integers by
multiplication or division throughout
 Step 5:Enclose these in square brackets, which represent
the Miller indices of the line RS.

31 8/18/2020
Indexing of Lattice Directions
[101]

[110]
[011] [111]

32 8/18/2020
Indexing of Lattice Directions
[1 1 0]

[110] Origin
Origin
Origin

33
[1 1 1] 1/2 8/18/2020 [210]
Important Crystallographic Plans

(100)
(110)

(111)

34 8/18/2020
 Important Crystallographic Directions

[100]

35 8/18/2020
Parameters of Unit Cells
 Number of Atoms per Unit Cell

 Atomic Packing Factor

 Co-ordination Number

 Planar Atomic Density

 Linear Atomic Density

36 8/18/2020
 Parameters of Unit Cells
 No of Atoms per unit Cell
1. BCC:
No of Atoms at corners:8
No of Atoms at faces: 0
No of Atoms at center: 1
No of Atoms per unit cell
= 8/8 +0/2+1/1
=2

37 8/18/2020
 Parameters of Unit Cells
 No of Atoms per unit Cell
1. FCC:
No of Atoms at corners:8
No of Atoms at faces: 6
No of Atoms at center: 0
No of Atoms per unit cell
= 8/8 +6/2+0/1
=4

38 8/18/2020
 Parameters of Unit Cells
 No of Atoms per unit Cell
1. HCP:
No of Atoms at corners:12
No of Atoms at faces: 2
No of Atoms at center: 3
No of Atoms per unit cell
= 12/6 +2/2+3/1
=6

39 8/18/2020
Parameters of Unit Cells
 Co-ordination Number :- The number of
nearest equidistant neighboring atoms
surrounding an atom under consideration is
called co-ordination Number (or Ligancy)
BCC:8 FCC: 12 HCP:12

 APF :- The fractional amount of volume

occupied by atoms in unit cell is called atomic
packing factor (APF)
BCC:0.68 FCC: 0.74 HCP:0.74

40 8/18/2020
 8/18/2020
41
Volume density
 VD can be calculated as follows
 VD (ρv) = Wt. of atom in the unit cell
Vol. of unit cell

 VD (ρv) = (Avg. no of atoms in the unit cell * Atomic wt.)

Avogadro's no (N) * Vol. of unit cell

ρv = (Ʃ𝐴)/𝑁𝑉-----------------------(1.16)

Ʃ𝐴 = Sum of atomic weights of atoms in the unit cell

N = Avogadro's no
V = Volume of unit cell

 Eq 1.16 gives the theoretical volume density of the metal

on the assumption that atoms are like hard spheres
Linear Atomic Density
 Linear atomic density is the number of atoms
intersected through the center's by a line of
selected length in the direction of interest
 Value of LAD depends upon the crystal
structure and the direction under
consideration
 1.For FCC
a)(100) :1/a

b)(110) : 1.414 /a

c)(111) : 0.577/√3a

43 8/18/2020
Related terms and their definitions :
System
• Thermodynamically, a system is an isolated body of matter which is under study.
• A substance or a group of substances so isolated from its surroundings that it
is totally unaffected by the surroundings but changes in its overall composition,
temperature, pressure or total volume can be allowed.
• A system may contain solids, liquids, gases or their combination.
• It may have metals ,non-metals separately or in combined form.
Phase
• A phase is a substance or a portion of matter which ishomogenous,
physically distinct and mechanically separable..
• Physically distinct and mechanically separable means that the phase will have a
definite boundary surface.
• Different phases are given different names or symbols like α (alpha),ß (Beta), γ
(Gamma), etc.
Variables :
• A particular phase exists under various conditions of temp., pressure, and
concentration. These parameters are called as variables of the phase system.

Equilibrium:
• A system is at equilibrium if its free energy is at a minimum, given a specified
combination of temperature, pressure and composition.

Component:
• Components are pure metals and/or compounds of which an alloy is composed. For
example, in a copper–zinc brass, the components are Cu and Zn.
• It refers to a independent chemical species. The components of a system may be
elements, ions or compounds.
• A component can exist in many phases.
• Water exists as ice, liquid water, and water vapor.
• Carbon exists as graphite and diamond.
Alloys
• Pure metals because of their poor physical and mechanical properties are seldom
used in engineering applications. Most of useful metallic materials are combinations
of metals which are called alloys.
• An alloy can be defined as a substance possessing metallic properties, having
metallic bond and composed of two or more than two elements out of which atleast
one of them is metal.
• Metal present in larger proportion is called base metal while other metallic or non-
metallic element is known as alloying element.
• Elements may combine in different ways to form alloys.
• These elements of alloys usually show complete solubility in liquid state. However,
on cooling them to solid state, they may form mechanical mixtures or
homogenous phases.
 Solid solutions
• Solid Solution: It is an alloy in which the atoms of solute are distributed in
the solvent and has the same structure as that of the solvent.

Solid is one kind of crystal in which both metals are present.

SS forms readily when the solvent and solute atoms have similar atomic sizes
and electron structure
Eg. Brass is th SS of cu and Zn
Cu and Zn form a substitutional solid solution.

Solid Solution
Solid Solution

Substitutional Solid Solution Interstitial Solid Solution

Ordered

Disordered
 Solid solutions

Disordered Substitutional Solid Solution

Substitutional Solid Solution

Ordered Substitutional Solid Solution

Interstitial Solid Solution

 Types of Solid Solutions
• When a solid solution form, the atoms of alloying element (solute) occupy certain
places in the lattice structure of the base metal (solvent).
• Depending upon the types of places occupied by the solute atoms, solid solutions
formed are of two types
1) Substitutional Solid Solution
• If atoms of alloying element (solute) replace
the atoms of the base metal (solvent) and
occupy their normal lattice sites, the resulting
solid solution is known as Substitutional
solid solution.
• For example, Copper atoms may substitute
Nickel atoms without disturbing their FCC
structure of Nickel.
• Thus they have unlimited solid solubility
whereas in case of Brass, FCC Copper
atoms (base/solvent) are replaced by HCP i.e.
Zinc atoms (alloying element/solute) which
has limited solubility.
 2) Interstitial Solid Solution
• In Interstitial Solid Solution, the alloying element (solute) atoms do not replace the
base metal (solvent) atoms but enter into the empty spaces of the
lattice structure of the solvent atoms.
• As the empty spaces of lattice structure are limited in size, the interstitial solid
solution can only from when the solute atom is small enough to fit into these
spaces.
• The radii of atoms of commercial alloys is in the range of 1.2-1.6A0. It means that
the atoms with atomic radius less than 1A0 are likely to form interstitial solid
solution.
• It may be noted that if the alloying element is a transition element, there are
maximum chances of formation of Interstitial Solid Solution. This is not only
because of their small atomic radii but also due to their unusual electronic
structure.
• Examples of Interstitial Solid Solutions are – C
in Steel causing hardening, N in Steel causing
hardening, H in Steel during welding causing
embrittlement of weld area.
 Types of Substitutional Solid Solutions
• Depending on the order of replacement of base
metal (solvent) atoms by alloying element
(solute) atoms, there are two types of solid
solutions
1.Disordered or Random Substitutional solid
solution
• This is formed when the alloying element
(solute) atoms do not occupy any specific
orderly positions but replace the atoms in lattice
structure of base metal (solvent) atoms at
random then the phase is known as disordered
or random substitutional solid solution. It is
normally observed at high temperatures.
2.Ordered Substitutional solid solution
• This is formed when the alloying element
(solute) atoms occupy specific orderly positions
in the lattice structure of base metal (solvent)
atoms then the phase is known as ordered
substitutional solid solution. It is normally
observed at room temperatures.
 Hume Rothery Rule’s for Solid Solution
• Hume Rothery’s rules govern the formation of substitutional solid solution
and aid in the proper selection of such alloying elements :

1. Crystal Structure Factor

2. Relative Size Factor
3. ChemicalAffinity Factor
4. Relative Valance Factor

1. Crystal Structure Factor of two metals

(elements) should be same.
Metals having same crystal structure will
have greater solubility

Prof. Naman M. Dave

 2. Relative Size Factor
• Atomic diameter shall be fairly similar, since atoms differing directly
greatly in size cannot be accommodated readily in the same structure (as a
substitutional solid solution).
• When the term size factor is employed and extensive solid solubility is
encountered only when the two different atoms differ size by less than
15%,called a favorable size factor.
• If the relative size factor is between 8%-15%, the alloy system usually
shows a minimum and If this factor is greater than 15% substitutional
solid solution formation is very limited.
 3. Chemical affinity Factor
• The greater the chemical affinity of two metals, the more restricted
their solubility is their solid solubility.
• When their chemical affinity of two metals is great, two metals tend
to form an intermediate phase rather than a solid solution.
• Generally, the farther apart the elements are in the periodic table the
greater the chemical affinity.
• If the elements have
similar
electronegativity,
they will make a
solid solution,
• if they have a
different
electronegativity, a
intermetallic
compound Prof. Naman M. Dave
 4. Relative valence Factor
• Consider a two atoms, one with large valance electrons and the other
with small number of valance electron.
• It has been found that high valance can dissolve only a small amount
of a lower valance metal , while the lower valance metal may have
good solubility for higher valance metal.
Concept of solidification of pure metals & alloys

 Solidification occurs by the nucleation and growth of crystals

in the melt.
 The first step- formation of nuclei.
 The nucleus can be regarded as a small cluster of atoms having
the right crystalline arrangement.
 When the melt is cooled below its melting , nuclei begin to
form in many parts of the melt at the same time.
 The rate of nuclei formation depends on the degree of
undercooling or supercooling and also on the presence of
impurities.
 Growth of nuclei occur by diffusion process which is also a
function of temperature and hence the rate of nucleation and
the rate of growth are functions of temperature.
 G
N

N or G

Under cooling
Temperature
Nucleation : homogeneous
 Nucleation: localized formation of a distinct thermodynamics
phase.
 Most nucleation processes are physical, rather than chemical.
 Nucleation normally occurs at nucleation sites on surface
contacting the liquid or vapor. Suspended particles or minute
bubbles also provide nucleation sites. This is called
heterogeneous nucleation.
 Nucleation without preferential nucleation sites is
homogeneous nucleation. Homogeneous nucleation occurs
spontaneously and randomly, but it requires undercooling or
supercooling.
 Homogeneous nucleation occurs with much more difficulty in
the interior of a uniform substance.
 Consider volume of liquid phase under condition such that
formation of solid is thermodynamically possible i.e. ∆fv is
negative
 Now spherical particle of radius r is to form, an interface must
be created between solid and surrounding liquid
 So overall change in free energy required to form spherical
solid is given by
∆f = 4πr2ᵞ + 4/3πr3∆fv
ᵞ = energy required to create one unit area interface
Change in free energy = energy needed to create interface +
energy released by volume of solidifying phase or
= surface energy + volume energy
 First term is always positive and second term is negative for
any phase transformation under consideration
 From above fig. initially for smaller values of r volume energy
is smaller than surface energy and it becomes greater for larger
values of r since it varies as r3
 Particle less than r* will not able to grow (embryos) and
redissolve and particles greater than r* are called as nuclei and
grow
 Heterogeneous Nucleation
 It occurs at surfaces, imperfections and severely deformed regions which
lowers the critical free energy
 In molten metal foreign particles are present as impurities which lowers the
liquid solid interface energy which helps in nucleation
 Basic requirement of heterogeneous nucleation is ability of liquid metal to
wet the foreign particle and also ability of foreign body to be getting wetted by
liquid metal
 After initial nucleation
 More solid may be deposited upon the first nuclei
 More nuclei may form
 A different phase may occur in the melt
 Heterogeneous Nucleation

 If foreign matter (fm) is wetted by both solid and liquid, the force equilibrium
where the three surfaces i.e. foreign matter (fm), solid (s), and liquid (L) meets is

ᵞfm-s = ᵞfm.L - ᵞs.L.cosɵ

 Nuclei will form on foreign matter or impurity present
 From above equation it can be seen that
 fms surface replaces an equivalent amount of fmL surface
 ᵞfms is less than ᵞfmL

 ∆fc (heterogeneous) is less than ∆fc(homogenous)

 No supercooling or undercooling is required for heterogeneous nucleation
 16

Microstructures of (a) Hypoeutectoid

steel (ferrite + pearlite) (b) Eutectoid
steel (c) Hypereutectoid steel (pearlite
with network of cementite)
 24

Microstructures of (a) Hypoeutectic steel

(ledeburite + pearlite +cementite) (b)
Eutectic steel (ledeburite) (c)
Hypereutectic steel (ledeburite + primary
cementite)
 Imperfections in crystals

Crystal are like people. It is the

defects that tend to make them
interesting

Colin Humphreys

67 8/18/2020
 Imperfections in crystals
Perfect crystals do not exist; even the best crystals
have 1ppb defects.
Imperfections or Defect: imperfection or "mistake"
in the regular periodic arrangement of atoms in a
crystal
Defects, even in very small concentrations, can have a
dramatic impact on the properties of a material.
In many situations defects are desirable.

68 8/18/2020
Imperfections in crystals

Lattice Vibrations
Zero Dimension Defects (Point Defect)
 Impurities
 Vacancies
One Dimension Defects (Line Defect)
 Edge Dislocation
 Screw Dislocation
Two Dimension Defects (Surface Defect)
 Grain Boundaries
 Twin Boundaries
 Stacking Faults
 Low Angle Grain Boundaries

69 8/18/2020
 Zero Dimension Defects (Point Defect)

Vacancy Interstitial
Non-ionic
crystals Impurity
Self Interstitial
Point
Defects Substitutional
Ionic Frenkel defect
crystals

Schottky defect

70 8/18/2020
 Zero Dimension Defects (Point Defect)
o Vacancy
A vacancy is referred to an atomic site
from where the atom is missing.
o Impurity
An impurity is referred to an foreign atom
which substitutes or replaces a parent
atom in the crystal (substitutional
impurity) or occupies the void space in the
parent crystal (interstitial impurity).
o Self Interstitial
self-
Self interstitial defect occurs when an interstiti
atom of lattice gets occupied in the own al

void space in the same crystal.

71 8/18/2020
 Zero Dimension Defects (Point Defect)

Interstitial
vacancy
impurity

Substitutional
impurity
72 8/18/2020
 Defects in ionic solids

Frenkel defect

Cation vacancy
+
cation interstitial

Schottky defect

Cation vacancy
+
73 anion vacancy
8/18/2020
How point defects are formed?
 Plastic Deformation

 Vacancy concentration increases with increase in

temperature

74 8/18/2020
 Zero Dimension Defects (Point Defect):
Effect on Properties

1. They increase the hardness and tensile

strength due to distortion of the lattice which
hinders the motion of moving dislocation
responsible for plastic deformation.

Tensile Stress Compressive Stress

Tensile Stress
Field Field
Fields
75 8/18/2020
 Zero Dimension Defects (Point Defect):
Effect on Properties

2. Vacancies increase the kinetic of diffusion and

phase transformation. This is because by
successive jumps of atoms, it is possible for a
vacancy to move in the lattice.

3. They decrease corrosion resistance of crystal

because of increase in potential energy of the
lattice.

4. They increase the electrical resistance because of

distortion in lattice

76 8/18/2020
 One Dimension Defects
(Line Defect) :Dislocations

These defects produce lattice

distortions centered about a line.
Line of atoms missing from regular site
Dislocation is the line between slipped
region and unslipped region

The Main Two Types of Dislocations:

Edge Dislocation

77 Screw Dislocation 8/18/2020

 Edge Dislocation

Dislocations are thought of as extra

lattice planes inserted in the crystal or
missing of plane of atoms

78 8/18/2020
 Edge Dislocation

79 8/18/2020
 Edge Dislocation

Edge Dislocation
80 8/18/2020
 Screw Dislocation

The screw dislocations are formed by shear

stresses which are applied in the regions of
perfect crystal which have been separated by a
cutting plane
It can be imagined as being produced by
cutting the crystal partway through with a knife
and then shearing one part of the crystal w.r.t.
the other parallel to the cut.
These shear stresses create a region of
distorted crystal lattice in the form of a spiral
ramp of distorted atoms.
82 8/18/2020
Mixed Dislocation
 t
b || t

3
84 2 8/18/2020
1
 Edge Screw
Dislocation Dislocation

Dislocation is created Dislocations are formed

1 by shear stresses which
by insertion of extra
are applied in the
half plane in the regions of perfect
lattice crystal which have been
separated by a cutting
plane

85 8/18/2020
 Edge Screw
Dislocation Dislocation

3 Burgers vector is Burgers vector is

perpendicular to parallel to the
the dislocation dislocation

In positive Edge In positive Screw

4 Dislocation Extra Dislocation Left-
half plane above handed spiral ramp
the slip plane

b parallel to t
86 8/18/2020
 Edge Screw
Dislocation Dislocation

In negative Edge In negative Screw

5
Dislocation Extra Dislocation Right-
half plane below handed spiral ramp
the slip plane

b antiparallel to t

The lattice above the

6 Atomic planes
positive dislocation is
surrounding the
in compression and
distorsion undergoes
lattice below is in
shear distortion
tension. Opposite in
negative dislocation
87 8/18/2020
 Edge Screw
Dislocation Dislocation

During plastic During plastic

7
deformation, deformation,
direction of direction of
dislocation line is dislocation line is
parallel to slip perpendicular to slip
direction direction

At elevated
8 At elevated
temperature,
temperature,
dislocation leave slip
dislocation leave slip
plane by the plane by the
processes of cross-
processes of
slip
dislocation climb
88 8/18/2020
Two Dimension Defects
(Surface Defect)

Grain Boundaries

Twin Boundaries

Stacking Faults

89 8/18/2020
 Grain Boundaries
Grain Boundary is a defect which separate grain
of different orientation from each other in
polycrystalline material

Grain
Boundary

Grain 2
Grain 1

90 8/18/2020
 Grain Boundaries

91 8/18/2020
 Twin Boundary

Twin Boundary
Atoms on one side of
the boundary are in
mirror positions with
respect to atoms on
the other side of the
boundary

92 8/18/2020
 Twin Boundary
The volume of material which has an orientation
similar to the mirror image of the matrix
orientation is called a twin.

The mirror is called the twinning plane or

composition plane.

Twins may form during solidification,

deformation or during annealing.

93 8/18/2020
 Stacking Faults

Plane A

Plane B
Plane A
94 8/18/2020
 Stacking Faults

Plane A

Plane B
Plane C
95 8/18/2020
 Stacking Faults

C C
B B
A A
C C
B B
A A
C C
B B
A A
Sequence with
Perfect Sequence
96
Stacking
8/18/2020
Fault
 Stacking Faults

C C
B B
A A
C C
B B
A A
C C
B B
A A
97 Intrinsic Fault Extrinsic
8/18/2020
Fault
 Stacking Faults

C A
B C
A B
C A
B B
A A
C Stacking C
HCP
B fault B
A A

FCC FCC

98 8/18/2020
 Plastic Deformation

99 8/18/2020
 ELASTIC DEFORMATION

Elastic means reversible!

100 8/18/2020
 PLASTIC DEFORMATION (METALS)

linear linear
Plastic means permanent! elastic elastic

101 plastic
8/18/2020
 Single Crystal Slip
Slip in Zinc
single crystal
specimen
after
tensioned
force

Small step of
slip on the
surface
parallel to
102 one another 8/18/2020
103 8/18/2020
 Plastic Deformation by Slip
Plastic deformation by slip occurs by movement or sliding
of one plane of atoms over the other.
Slip occurs when the shear stress resolved on slip plane and
along slip direction exceeds a critical value (CRSS). The
atoms move an integral number of atomic distances along
the slip plane and a setp is produced.

104 8/18/2020
 Slip System

 Slip plane - plane allowing easiest

slippage
Highest planar densities
Wide interplanar spacing

 Slip direction - direction of movement

Highest linear densities

 Slip Systems:
No of Slip Planes x No of Slip Directions

105 8/18/2020
 Slip Systems

Structure Slip plane Slip Slip systems

direction

HCP {0001} <1120> 1X3=3

FCC {111} <110> 4X3=12

BCC {110} <111> 6X2=12

{211} <111> 12X1=12

{321} <111> 24X1=24

106 8/18/2020
 Plastic Deformation by Twinning
 Second important plastic deformation mechanism which
can occur in metals is twinning.
 In this process a part of the atomic lattice is deformed so
that it forms a mirror image of the undeformed lattice
next to it.

107 8/18/2020
 Plastic Deformation by Twinning
 The crystallographic plane of symmetry between the
undeformed and deformed parts of metal lattice is
called the twining plane.

108 8/18/2020
 Plastic Deformation by Twinning
Twining occurs in specific direction and on
certain planes.
Structure Typical Twin plane Twin direction
examples

BCC  - Fe, Ta (112) [111]

FCC Ag, Au, Cu (111) [112]

HCP Zn, Cd, Mg, (10 12 ) [1011]

Ti
109 8/18/2020
 Plastic Deformation by Twinning
Two Types of Twinning:
 Mechanical twins
 Annealing twins

Mechanical twins are produced in BCC or HCP metals

under conditions of rapid rate of loading (shock
loading) and low temperature.

Annealing Twins are observed in FCC metals

110 8/18/2020
 Plastic Deformation by Twinning
 Twining is not a dominant deformation mechanism in
metals which posses many possible slip systems.

 Twining generally occurs when the slip systems are

restricted or when twining stress is lower than the
stress for slip.

111 8/18/2020
 Plastic Deformation by Twinning
 The important role of twining in plastic
deformation comes not from the strain produced
by the twining process but from the fact that
orientation changes resulting from twining may
place new slip systems in a favourable orientation
w.r.t. the stress axis so that additional slip can take
place.

 Thus twiningis important in the overall

deformation of metals with a low number of slip
systems, such as the HCP metals.

112 8/18/2020
 Slip Vs Twinning
Slip Twinning

1 Slip is shear deformation process In twinning, a part of the atomic

that moves atoms on one plane lattice is deformed so that it
(slip plane) relative to their form a mirror image of the
initial positions by many underformed lattice next to it.
interatomic distances in
particular direction (slip
direction)

113 8/18/2020
 Slip Twinning

2
In slip, atoms move a whole In twinning, the atoms move
number of interatomic spacing. fractional amounts depending
on their distance from the
twinning plane.
3
In slip, there is very little change In twinning, there is complete
in lattice orientation. change in orientation of
deformed lattice w.r.t.
undeformed lattice.
4 Stress required to start slip is Stress required to start
lower. twinning is higher.
114 8/18/2020
 Slip Twinning

5 Stress required to propagate slip Stress required to propagate

is higher because of the twinning is lower.
interaction of moving
dislocations with obstacles.

6 Under microscope slip appears Under microscope twinning

as thin lines. appear as broad lines or bands.

7 Slip is a dominant mechanism for Twinning is not dominant

plastic deformation. mechanism for plastic
deformation but indirectly it
assists the slip by creating new
slip systems favorable for plastic
deformation.
115 8/18/2020
 Dislocations & plastic deformation

Experimental measurements showed that at

room temperature the major source for plastic
deformation is the dislocation motion through the
116 8/18/2020
crystal lattice
 Dislocations & plastic deformation

117 8/18/2020
 Dislocations & plastic deformation

118 8/18/2020
 Dislocations & plastic deformation

 Asshown in figure, the dislocation moves across

the slip plane and leaves a step when it comes
out at the surface of the crystal.
 As the dislocations sweep through the crystal,
each one of them causes a displacement of the
top part of the crystal w.r.t. the bottom by a
distance equal to the magnitude of its Burgers
vector.

119 8/18/2020
 Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Dislocation Theory
Obstacle

Dislocation

120 8/18/2020
 Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Dislocation Theory

121 8/18/2020
 Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Dislocation Theory
Frank-Read source - A pinned dislocation that, under an
applied stress, produces additional dislocations. This
source of regeneration of dislocation is call
Frank – Reed source of multiplication of dislocations

122 8/18/2020
 Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Dislocation Theory

Dislocations entangle
with one another

During plastic deformation

Dislocation motion becomes
more difficult.

0.9 mm

Ti alloy after cold working:

123 8/18/2020
 Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Dislocation Theory
 Thus by Frank Reed source of multiplication of
dislocation, dislocation density increase in crystal
during plastic deformation.
 With increased number of dislocations more stress
is required to move them because of interference of
these dislocations to each other i.e. stress has to be
increased continuously to move the continuously
increasing dislocations.

124 8/18/2020
Phase rule
 Phase rule: Gibb’s phase rule describes the thermodynamic state of
a material.
 This famous rule is used to determine the number of phases that
can coexist in equilibrium in a given system.
 It has the general form: F = C – P + 2
 C is the number of components, usually elements or compounds, in
the system.
 F is the number of degrees of freedom, or number of variables, such
as temperature, pressure, or composition that are allowed to change
independently without changing the number of phases in
equilibrium.
 P is the number of phases present
 The constant “2” in the equation implies that both temperature and
pressure are allowed to change.
Gibbs Phase Rule
 Gibbs' phase rule describes the degrees of freedom (F) in a closed
system at equilibrium, in terms of the number of separate phases (P)
and the number of chemical components (C) in the system.

F+P=C+2
 Where “2” represent two external variables, pressure & temperature.

 For metal and alloy we take pressure 1 atm.

 So, F = C –P + 1

 F>0 and P<C+1(degree of freedom can not be zero.)

Cooling curves
 Types of cooling curve
 For pure metal
 For binary solid solution alloys
 For binary eutectic alloy
 For off eutectic binary alloys
Cooling curve for pure metal.
 Liquid metal cools from A -> B

 At B solidification start at c solidification is complete.

 Between B and C the system contain both solid + liquid phase.

 Between C and D solid phase appear

 Now, Degree of freedom

 At AB, F = 1
A
 At BC, F = 0

 At CD, F =1 B C

D
Cooling curve for Binary solid
solution.
 Liquid metal cools from A -> B

 At B solidification start,At c solidification is complete.

 The temperature range between B and C is known as Freezing Zone.

 This freezing zone is due to change in the composition of solid and liquid
phases.

 Between C and D solid phase appear

A
 Degree of freedom

 At AB, F = 2
B
C
 At BC, F = 1

 At CD, F = 2
D
For binary eutectic alloy

 L ----- S1 + S2

 Liquid metal cools from A -> B

 At B solidification start at c solidification is complete.

 Between B and C the system contain both liquid + solid1+solid2 phase.

 Between C and D solid phase appear

 Now, Degree of freedom

 At AB, F = 2

 At BC, F = 0

 At CD, F = 1
Cooling curve for Binary Off
eutectic System:-
 Here line AB is same as in both above cases.
 But in line BC the metal which is excess start crystallize.
 At point C now the two liquid metal solidify so here 3 phases created.
 Line DE is pure solid line.
 Thus, a binary eutectic system solidifies in two different modes as a combination of pure
metal and binary alloy with solid solution formation systems.

 Now, Degree of freedom

A
 At AB, F = 2
B

Temperature
 At BC, F = 1
D
 At CD, F = 0 C

 At DE, F= 1
E
Gibbs Phase Rule

P C F = C-P+1 D.O.F. System

1 2 =2 -1 +1 2 Bivarient

2 2 =2 -1 +1 1 Univarient

3 2 =2 -1 +1 0 Nonvarient
Plotting of Equilibrium diagrams
 Equilibrium diagrams can be plotted by using following
techniques
 Thermal analysis
 Dilatometry
 Optical and electron microscopy
 X-ray and electron diffraction
 Thermodynamics data analysis
 Electrical resistivity
 Magnetic measurement
Note: Most of the times, equilibrium or phase diagram are
plotted by method of thermal analysis using the data obtained
from cooling curve and other methods are generally used to
eliminate the ambiguities exiting in the diagram plotted by the
above method.
Two Metals Completely Soluble in the
Liquid and Solid States (Isomorphous
system)
 Since the two metals are completely soluble in the solid state, the only type
of solid phase formed will be a substitutional solid solution. The two metals
will generally have the same type of crystal structure and differ in atomic
radii by less than 8 percent.

 Construction of Phase Diagram

 The result of running a series of cooling curves for various combinations or

alloys between metals A and B, varying in composition from 100 percent A &
0 percent B to 0 percent A & 100 percent B is shown in the diagram in the
figure given below.
Two Metals Completely Soluble in the
Liquid and Solid States (Isomorphous
system)
Two Metals Completely Soluble in the
Liquid and Solid States (Isomorphous
system)
 The cooling curves for the pure metals A and B show only a horizontal line
because the beginning and end of solidification take place at a constant
temperature.

 However, since intermediate compositions form a solid solution, these

cooling curves shows two breaks or change in slope.

 It is now possible to construct actual phase diagram by plotting

temperature vs. composition. The appropriate points are taken from the
series of cooling curves and plotted on the new diagram as shown by the
diagram at RHS in the above figure.
Two Metals Completely Soluble in the
Liquid and Solid States (Isomorphous
system)
 left axis represents the pure metal A,

 TA is plotted along this line.

Similarly, TB is plotted.

 intermediate compositions are %

of A and B,

 A vertical line representing the alloy

80A-20B is drawn,

 and T1 and T2 from cooling curve

are plotted along this line.

 The same procedure is used for the other compositions.

Two Metals Completely Soluble in the
Liquid and Solid States (Isomorphous
system)
 The phase diagram consists of two points, two lines, and three areas.

 Two points:- TA and TB represent the melting points of the two pure metals.

 Two lines:-The upper line, obtained by connecting the points showing the beginning
of solidification, is called the liquidus; and the lower line, determined by connecting
the points showing the end of solidification, is called the solidus line.

 Three area:-
 The area above the liquidus line is a single-phase region, and any alloy in that region will consist
of a homogeneous liquid solution.

 Similarly, the area below the solidus line is a single-phase region, and any alloy in this region
will consist of a homogeneous solid solution.

 Between the liquidus and solidus lines there exists a two-phase region. Any alloy in this region
will consist of a mixture of a liquid solution and a solid solution.
 Isomorphous Phase Diagram
Complete solubility in liquid as well as solid state.

Phase Diagram for Cu-Ni system

1600

1500
• 2 phases:
L (liquid) L (liquid)
1400  (FCC solid solution)
T(°C) 1300 • 3 phase fields:
L
1200
 L+
1100 (FCC solid Soln) 
1000
0 20 40 60 80 100 wt% Ni

139
Coring
 Variation in composition is observed from point to point
or centre to surface of a grain or dendrite in a solidified
alloy at room temperature. This micro-segregation is
called coring.
Coring
 Coring is not desirable because it
 Increases Brittleness
 Gives non uniform mechanical and physical properties
 Increases susceptibility to corrosion

Due to above drawbacks coring should be avoided by

 Using slow cooling rates during solidification of alloy
 Homogenization heat treatment to the alloy cast
(Heating the material below solidus temperature and
holding at this temp. for long time)
Chemical Composition of Phases
 To determine the actual chemical composition of the phases of an alloy, draw a
horizontal temperature line, called a tie line, to the boundaries of the field as shown in
the figure given below.

 The points of intersection are dropped to the

base line, and the composition is read directly.

 80A-20B at the temperature T. The alloy is in a

two-phase region.

 the phase is a solid solution of α of

composition 90A-10B.

 In the other phase the liquid solution of

composition 74A-26B.
Lever Rule
 The vertical line will divide the horizontal line into two parts. The point where the
vertical line intersects the horizontal line may be considered as the fulcrum of a lever
system. This is known as the Lever Rule.

 In the above figure,

 Liquid (percent) = (mn / mo) x 100
 Solid α (percent) = (no / mo) x 100

 By inserting the numerical values, we get

 Liquid (percent) = (10 / 16) x 100 = 62.5

 Solid α (percent) = (6 / 16) x 100 = 37.5

 right side of the tie line gives α phase.

 left side of the tie line gives liquid phase.

Lever rule
 The Lever Rule is used to calculate the weight % of the phase in any
two-phase region of the Phase diagram (and only the two phase
region!)
 In general:
• Phase percent = opposite arm of lever x 100
 total length of the tie line
 For example,
wo  wl
weight fraction, %Xs  x 100
ws  wl
(of solid phase)
ws  wo
weight fraction, %X l  x 100
ws  wl
(of liquid phase)
 Lever Rule
Calculate the amount of  phase and L phase present in a Cu - 40% Ni alloy at
1250 C
In general:
• Percent  phase = (% Ni in alloy) – (% Ni in L) x 100
% Ni in L - % Ni in 

40  32
weight fraction, %X s  x 100  62 %
45  32
(of solid phase)

weight fraction, % L  38 %
(of liquid phase)
 Eutectic system

Hypoeutectic Eutectic
Hypereutectic
Partial Eutectic System
Partial Eutectic System
Partial Hypoeutectic System