Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 6, No. 2, 2007

Vol. 6, No.
2, 2007 ISSN 1648-3898

Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 6, No. 2, 2007
Editorial Board ISSN 1648–3898
Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas Siauliai University, Lithuania
Deputy Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. Andris Broks University of Latvia, Latvia
Deputy Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. habil. Aarne Tõldsepp Estonian Chemistry Teachers Association, Estonia
Executive Secretary
Dr. Laima Railienė Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”, Lithuania
Editors:
Prof., Dr. Martin Bilek University of Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
Dr. Hana Čtrnáctová Charles University, Czech Republic
Dr. Peter Demkanin Comenius University, Slovakia
Dr. Prof., Dr. Jānis Gedrovics Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management
Academy, Latvia
Dr. Ryszard M. Janiuk Maria Curie Sklodowska University, Poland
Dr. Rita Makarskaitė-Petkevičienė Vilnius Pedagogical University, Lithuania
Prof., Dr. Aadu Ott Göteborg University, Sweden
Dr. Paul Pace Malta University, Malta
Prof., Dr. Valfrids Paškevičs Daugavpils University, Latvia
Dr. Miia Rannikmäe Tartu University, Estonia
Dr. Alona Rauckienė Klaipėda University, Lithuania
Dr. Kurt Riquarts Kiel University, Germany
Prof., Dr. Heimo Saarikko Helsinki University, Finland
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin University of Oregon, USA
Prof., Dr. Valery P. Solomin Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia, Russia
Prof., Dr. Borislav V. Toshev Sofia University, Bulgaria
Dr. Georgios Tsaparlis University of Ioannina, Greece
A scientific journal JBSE issued by the SMC Scientia Educologica, Lithuania, emphasizes theoretical,
experimental and methodical studies in the field of science education. JBSE is an international academic
journal. In order to maintain the high standards appropriate to such a journal, all contributions received
are submitted for anonymous review by two experts, additionally to review by the Editor. The decision
of the Editor on the acceptance of articles is final and no correspondence can be entered into on
reasons for rejection of a submitted contribution.
Published since 2002

The journal is published three times per year in March, August and October.
Address:
Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”
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http://www.webspawner.com/users/19671970/
ISSN 1648–3898 © Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“,

Lithuania; The associated member of Lithuanian
Scientific Society and ICASE
The articles appearing in this journal are indexed/abstracted in British Education Index, Copernicus Index
and EBSCO: Academic Search Premier
2
ISSN 1648–3898 CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Editorial
INTEREST IN SCIENCE AS THE KEY TO SUCCESSFUL SCIENCE STUDIES

OR – AWAKEN THE INTEREST, DEVELOP AND STRENGTHEN IT!
Janis Gedrovics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Articles
THE EFFECTS OF TUTORIAL AND EDUTAINMENT SOFTWARE PROGRAMS

ON STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENTS, MISCONCEPTIONS AND ATTITUDES
TOWARDS BIOLOGY ON THE CELL DIVISION ISSUE
Selami Yeşilyurt, Yılmaz Kara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
THE EFFECTS OF CONCEPT MAPPING INSTRUCTION ON OVERCOMING

9TH GRADE STUDENTS’ MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS
Sacit Köse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
CONTEXT RICH PROBLEMS AS AN EDUCATIONAL TOOL

IN PHYSICS TEACHING – A CASE STUDY
Gunnar Jonsson, Peter Gustafsson, Margareta Enghag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES

IN NATURAL SCIENCE EDUCATION:
SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS AND PROSPECTS IN BALTIC COUNTRIES
Vincentas Lamanauskas, Rytis Vilkonis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
INQUIRY LEVELS AND SKILLS IN ZAMBIAN HIGH SCHOOL CHEMISTRY SYLLABUS,

TEXTBOOKS AND PRACTICAL EXAMINATIONS
Frackson Mumba, Vivien Mweene Chabalengula, William Hunter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Information
INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
FOURTH SCANDINAVIAN SYMPOSIUM ON RESEARCH IN SCIENCE EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . 59
ICT IN SCIENCE EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION IN THE 21 ST CENTURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3
ISSN 1648–3898
INTEREST IN SCIENCE AS THE KEY TO SUCCESSFUL SCIENCE STUDIES

OR - AWAKEN THE INTEREST, DEVELOP AND STRENGTHEN IT!
Dear Readers and Writers!
When, ten years ago, together with colleagues from Linköping University we, as part of the Visby
project in Sweden, analysed the reasons behind students’ motivation to become science teachers, we
took it as almost a surprise that for 75% of those students the reason was that they had always been
interested in science. The second most popular answer was - I like working with people/ children. Certainly,
evaluating those answers from a time distance, it seems – there was nothing to be so surprised about.
Interest is and always has been a driving force for human mind and activities. And, from our personal
experience, we know how difficult it is to do a boring job. Though, for adults, their sense of duty also
plays a certain role.
But let us bear in mind also how often pupils and adults say – this or that is interesting but is not
for me. It seems that today this sentence very often refers to science sphere – there are so many pupils
finding this field of great interest but never considering it as their future career. Certainly, not everyone
should become a scientist or an engineer, however, a scientifically well-grounded approach to problems,
including those of social character, is a quality one can acquire through understanding of the scientific
regularities.
This summer several significant scientific events took place in Europe, such as: the 6th IOSTE
Symposium for Central and Eastern Europe (Šiauliai, Lithuania), ESERA (European Science Education
Research Association) conference in Malmö (Sweden) and others. Pupils’ interest in science, promoting
and developing it, even not being the guideline of science didactics right now, is and will always be one
of the basic issues for scientists and researchers to focus on. This same issue was discussed also at the
above mentioned conferences. The latest research of the ROSE project shows that those pupils who take
interest in science themselves and believe that it should be studied by everyone very well understand
how school science can form their future careers. They also more often see their future connected with
environment protection, which is evidently due to them having more successfully acquired science at
school and having better understood the modern environmental problems.
However, raising interest in science is not an easy task in the globalized world of today. There are
many things around us so much easier to acquire than good knowledge and solid skills in science subjects!
And sometimes we: science teachers and university professors, take an approach that is too academic
as, during our school years, profound academic knowledge or even science for science seemed the very
peak of the teaching/learning process. And we found that interesting – it was our future!
This is why today, when the latest issue of Journal of Baltic Science Education is published, this event,
in our region, coinciding symbolically with the beginning of a new academic year in universities and
schools of all levels, I would like to wish every science teacher and natural science researcher – do not
lose the enthusiasm about science you possessed as pupils, develop it, and, creatively changed, pass it
on to your students and pupils!
Science for science, but, first of all – science for human!
Prof.dr. Janis Gedrovics,

Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia;
Member of Editorial Board of JBSE
4
THE EFFECTS OF TUTORIAL
AND EDUTAINMENT
SOFTWARE PROGRAMS
ON STUDENTS’
ACHIEVEMENTS,
MISCONCEPTIONS AND
ATTITUDES TOWARDS
BIOLOGY ON THE CELL
DIVISION ISSUE
Abstract. The purpose of this study was

Selami Yeşilyurt, Yılmaz Kara
to investigate the effects of tutorial and
© Selami Yeşilyurt
© Yılmaz Kara edutainment design of instructional soft-
ware programs related to the ‘‘cell division’’
topic on student achievements, miscon-
ceptions and attitudes. An experimental
research design including the cell division
Introduction achievement test (CAT), the cell division
concept test (CCT) and biology attitude
For certain topics, particularly those concerned with more scale (BAS) was applied at the beginning
complex areas, such as cell division, photosynthesis, cell respira- and at the end of the research. After the
tion, food chain-webs and evolution, in biology teaching can be treatment, general achievement in CAT
difficult (Bahar, Johnstone, & Hansell, 1999; Lawson & Thompson, increased in favor of experimental groups.
1988; Yip, 1998). In the last decade, there have been a number of Instructional software programs also had
studies focusing on student misconceptions about cell division at the positive effect to the awareness of
middle and secondary schools (Kindfield, 1994; Yip, 1998). Pupils students’ understandings to the general
and teachers consistently place cell division near the top of these functions of mitosis and meiosis. However,
“ladders” of difficulty. It has been reported that cell division proc- the current study revealed that there were
esses are poorly understood at all ages and levels of students still some misconceptions in the experi-
(Smith, 1991; Lewis and Wood-Robinson, 2000). This topic is taught mental groups even after the treatment. It
by starting with primary school levels. It is also perceived by most was also noticed that using instructional
teachers to be one of the most problematic concepts in the biol- software programs significantly changed
ogy (Öztaş et al, 2004). students’ attitudes towards biology.
One of the common teaching methods that biology teachers
prefer today is the lecture method. In this the teacher transmits Keywords: computer assisted instruction,
knowledge to the students who sit passively in the classroom instructional software, evaluation of edu-
and listen. Another common method is the question-and-answer cational technology, secondary education.
approach, which was developed in order to avoid the boredom
caused by lectures and to provide a more efficient learning envi-
ronment. On the other hand, case studies allow the students to
face the problems that occur in real life. They help to fill the gap Selami Yeşilyurt,
between theory and practice through putting the previously learnt Yılmaz Kara
concepts and principles into use. The best part of this method is University of Atatürk, Turkey
that it enables the students to apply what they have learnt to what
they are living through (Sönmez, 1986).
5
THE EFFECTS OF TUTORIAL AND EDUTAINMENT SOFTWARE PROGRAMS ON ISSN 1648–3898
STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENTS, MISCONCEPTIONS AND ATTITUDES TOWARDS
BIOLOGY ON THE CELL DIVISION ISSUE
A useful part of instruction in biology is the performing of experiments. This can be done by dem-
onstrations when the teacher actively carries out the experiments in front of the class or demonstrates
some materials (Bayramlı, 2000) or by the students who learn about a subject by carrying out experi-
ments in the laboratory or classroom, in which case the role of the teacher is to guide and help them
where necessary.
In contrast to the previously described methods, in Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI), the teacher
can use computers at different times and places according to the characteristics of the subject matter,
the students, and the available software and hardware. With CAI, there is a form of one-to-one instruc-
tion (or two students together at each computer), plus the opportunity for the students to proceed at
their own pace, repeating parts of the exercise as they wish. None of these features are easily available
in a didactic classroom situation in which the teachers deliver informational programs with little or no
interaction. In addition, there is added variety and, perhaps, novelty in CAI, along with the potential to
use vivid and animated graphics, enabling three dimensional aspects, and other features to be viewed
more realistically. Of course, not all computer programs have these features, but the potential is certainly
there (Morgil et al., 2005).
The major classifications of CAI lessons include tutorials, drill and practice, simulations, and in-
structional games (Alessi & Trolip, 1985). A number of other classifications, such as problem-solving and
inquiry lesson designs have been discussed, but the overwhelming majority of CAI lessons fall within
the previous four classifications. Each basic design provides a unique method for using the computer
to teach, reinforce, practice, or apply information. In many cases, various design combinations, called
hybrid designs, are developed to utilize the advantages and, in some cases, to minimize the disadvan-
tages, of each design option.
In tutorials, information is taught, verified, and reinforced through interaction with the computer. In
this regard, tutorials may be seen as replacing the bulk of the teaching function of textbooks, filmstrips,
lectures, or other systems in which new information is presented. Tutorials, in effect, model the best
techniques available for tutoring students (Bramble & Mason, 1985). In CAI, tutorials are generally used
to present new information to learners, particular skills, information, or concepts. In many cases, the
instruction is designed to be self-contained, that is, the teaching and learning of all relevant informa-
tion are accomplished within the lesson. Students are typically questioned during the tutorial to verify
comprehension. Lesson information may be further reinforced using computer-based or traditional
teaching systems, but tutorials should teach well-defined objectives thoroughly enough to eliminate
the need for repetition through another teaching system (Hannafin & Peck, 1988).
“Edutainment”, is a hybrid genre that relies heavily on visual material, on narrative or game-like
formats, and on more informal, less didactic styles of address (Buckingham & Scanlon, 2000). The purpose
of edutainment is to attract and hold the attention of the learners by engaging their emotions through
a computer monitor full of vividly colored animations. It involves an interactive pedagogy and, totally
depends on an obsessive insistence that learning is inevitably “fun”. McKenzie (2000) states another
term “technotainment” which he defines as technology heavily laced with entertainment but essen-
tially lacking in rigor or value. Technotainment often stresses technology for technology’s sake without
enhancing student reading, writing and reasoning skills. Similarly, “edutainment” suggests overtly en-
tertaining learning materials, which contain messages addressed to both parents and children. Through
explicit educational claims, edutainment software encourages the parents to believe that this software
is beneficial in developing children’s skills in a variety of subjects. They also raise learners’ expectations
that learning can be enjoyable and fun.
CAI is defined as any program that augments, teaches, or simulates the learning environment used
in the traditional classroom (Quyang, 1993), including Web-based instruction, self-running simulations,
drill-and-practice programs, and multimedia classrooms (Murphy et al., 2002). Tutorial and edutainment
software programs are forms of CAI that have the following additional attributes: motivation, reward
(feedback), interactivity, score, and challenge. Support also exists for these specific types of CAI and
its effectiveness in the classroom (Vogel et al., 2006). However, it remains unclear as to whether or not
learning through tutorial and edutainment instructional software programs will improve upon traditional
teaching results. The aim of this study is to identify any possible difference in students’ achievement,
6
ISSN 1648–3898 THE EFFECTS OF TUTORIAL AND EDUTAINMENT SOFTWARE PROGRAMS ON
misconceptions, and attitudes towards biology when the subject of cell division is taught by tutorial or
edutainment instructional software programs in biology education.
Methodology of Research
Instructional Software Programs
The method of selecting the software to be evaluated was determined by the following character-
istics. It had to be among the published instructional software programs for computer assisted biology
education in secondary schools in Turkey, developed at 9th grade level, and was produced in 1998 or later.
Among the pieces of instructional software programs fit the above criteria Vitamin (SEBIT Education and
Information Technologies Inc.) was selected as tutorial software program and Bioscopia (Ruske & Puhret-
maier Edutainment) was selected as edutainment software program. Both of the instructional software
programs covered several different subject areas, but the only portion of the software evaluated for this
study was the cell division. A brief description of the two programs is given below.
Vitamin is an instructional software program series for school biology. This program consists of a
range of information and screen displays that illustrate and allow investigation of biological processes.
Program begins with a menu area where the student chose the topic. At the start, the students have
to enter their name and select one of the two options, test or tutor mode. Within the test mode option
multiple choice style questions are available. These questions which allow the students to assess their
comprehension of each tutor section completed and provide additional information through feedback.
The tutor mode is an interactive course that covers biology from 9th grade up through the first year of
college.
Bioscopia is a role-playing science adventure game. The student’s mission is to rescue a young
scientist. To complete the mission and escape from Bioscopia, students have to learn about biology and
apply that knowledge to solve Bioscopia’s clever puzzles. Students must search the disabled, abandoned
laboratories, solve biology puzzles and eventually create the antibiotic that will ultimately save the biolo-
gist. Student will need knowledge of Human and Cell Biology, Genetics (including cell division), Botany
and Zoology to solve the puzzles and unlock doors that will lead the student to be a young scientist. It’s
not that the puzzles themselves are that hard to solve; there is help available in the science tutor (“Big
Brain”) that features all the answers to the questions and is a presentation of hundreds of fascinating
facts and concepts of the biology.
Sample of Research
The sample of this study consisted of 72, 9th grade level, students (aged 14 to 15 years) from one
high school. The sample was randomly assigned into three groups, two experimental groups and one
control group. There were 24 students in each group. The control group continued their instructions
with the regular teaching method, while the experimental groups were taught with computer assisted
materials.
Research Instruments
The cell division achievement test, the cell division concept test and the biology attitude scale
were used in the study.
Cell division achievement test
To measure students’ cell division achievement, a cell division achievement test (CAT) was developed
by the authors of this study and its content validity and reliability were checked by applying guidelines
described previously (Black, 1986; Davis, 1988; Haladyna, 1994). The test content and objectives were
determined according to the Ministry of National Education’s high school curriculum. The CAT items
7
were selected from the textbooks and preparation books written for the University Entrance. There
were 24 multiple choices type items in the test. The items were based on the following categories: the
purposes of mitosis, mitosis and the cell cycle, the stages of mitosis, the results of mitosis, the purposes
of meiosis, meiosis and the sexual reproduction, the stages of meiosis, the results of meiosis, the divi-
sion of the cytoplasm, prokaryotic cell division mechanism, the comparison of mitosis and meiosis. The
reliability of the test (r = 0.81) was determined by using the Cronbach’s alpha.
Cell division concept test
A written test was designed to ascertain students’ misconceptions about cell division. The cell
division concept test (CCT) was modified on the basis of review of related literature (Lewis et al, 2000;
Lewis & Robinson, 2000). The set of questions was designed to probe the student’s understanding of the
processes, purposes, and products of cell division. The set of the questions was divided into two parts.
Part 1 was focused on mitotic cell division through a consideration of the production of skin cells. Part 2
was focused on meiosis through a consideration of the production of an egg cell. In each part, students
were asked to compare the chromosome number and genetic information in the original and the new
cell, identify where in the body this type of cell division takes place and say whether or not such cell
division also occurs in the plants. The reliability coefficient of this CCT computed by Cronbach’s alpha
estimates of internal consistency was found to be 0.76.
The frequency of responses to each question were noted, together with the types of reasoning
used to justify each option, and the frequency with which each type was used. Furthermore, in order to
make a more detailed comparison into the students’ understanding of cell division, their misconceptions
were identified by their reasoning’s to the questions.
Biology attitude scale
Canpolat’s (2002) attitudes scale was adapted as biology attitude scale (BAS) in this study to assess
the sample’s (participants’) attitudes towards science lessons. 15 sentences occurring in a Likert-type
scale and with five alternatives were given students to determine their ideas about the biology lesson.
In these sentences there were positive and negative statements. In the scale, positive statements were
scored as 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 according to its grade. Negative statements were scored as 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 ac-
cording to its grade. BAS was given at the beginning and end of the implementation to the four groups.
The internal consistency reliability of the scale was found to be 0.84.
Procedure
This study was conducted for four-weeks during the fall semester of 2005–2006 academic year at
a high school located in Bayburt. An experimental research design including CAT, CCT and BAS were
applied at the beginning and at the end of the research as pre-test and post-test measures. Written ques-
tions were designed to be answered within one lesson (approximately 1 hour). The “Vitamin” software
program was used in the first experimental group (EG1), while the “Bioscopia” software was used in the
second experimental group (EG2).
Experimental groups had their instruction in the computer laboratory. All the students were compu-
ter literate, since they took computer courses as part of the school’s regular curriculum. Since instructional
software programs were new for the students, before the treatment students in the experimental groups
were trained about the usage of instructional software programs. Students in experimental groups
worked individually in a computer lab without any guidance or help from the instructor who was also
the researcher. Students in EG1 and EG2 followed the instructional program as projected to a screen from
the teacher’s personal computer as well as their own computers. The teacher made a brief introduction
about the subject that going to be learned and simply presented the contents of the lecture. Then, the
students were left to work alone, with minimal interference from the teacher who was present only to
respond to questions raised by individual students.
8
The control group (CG) was given a traditionally designed instruction, which is a dominant ap-
proach in contemporary Turkish Educational System. In the CG, the teacher-directed strategy was used
as traditional instruction. The teacher used lecture and discussion methods to teach cell division. The
students were required to read the related topic of the lesson from the textbook before lecture. The
teacher described and defined the issues and afterward, students were engaged to discussion through
teacher-directed questions. The major part of instruction time (70–80%) was devoted to instruction and
engaging in discussions stemming from the teacher’s explanation and questions.
Data Analysis
In order to compare the differences between control group and experimental groups for the CAT,
CCT and BAS, the ANOVA test was applied.
Results of Research
Students’ Achievement
One-way ANOVA was used to compare the CAT mean scores for the responses. As seen in Table
1, at the beginning the pre-test means of EG1, EG2, and CG were 8.33, 7.83 and 7.083, respectively (see
Table 1). These results showed that the sample’s pre-treatment knowledge levels were very close to each
other and there was not a statistical difference between the groups (F (2, 69) = 0.448, p> 0.05). But, at the
end of the treatment, the post-test scores of EG1, EG2, and CG were 15.58, 13.33 and 10.04, respectively.
A statistical significant difference was found between the groups (F (2, 69) =15.025, p<0.05). Post-hoc
analyses, using L.S.D., show that the EG1 differed significantly from EG2 and CG. Furthermore, EG2 had
significantly the second higher mean scores. The mean scores from the experimental groups were all
significantly higher than the mean score for CG. This means that all instructional software programs had
significantly higher effect than CG.
Table 1. One-way ANOVAs with post hoc comparisons for the four groups’ CAT scores.
N M S.D. df Mean Square F Sig. Post hoc
Pre-test
EG1 24 8.333 4.940
EG2 24 7.833 3.985 2 9.500
CG 24 7.083 4.835 69 21.225
Total 72 7.750 4.571 71 0.448 0.641
Post-test
EG1 24 15.583 2.394
EG2 24 13.333 3.252 2 186.431
CG 24 10.041 4.572 69 12.408
Total 72 12.986 4.160 71 15.025 0.000* EG1>EG2>CG
* p< 0.05
Students’ Attitudes
Table 2 presents the results of a one-way ANOVA analysis for the BAS. The means related to biol-
ogy attitude of the EG1, EG2, and CG before the treatment were 53.41, 52.54, and 52.77, respectively
and there was not a statistical significant difference from one another (F (2, 69)=0.113, p>0.05). After
the treatment, post-test scores of the EG1, EG2, and CG were 63.87, 66.87, and 58.62, respectively. There
9
were significant differences in mean scores for biology attitudes, as measured on the BAS, for students
from the three groups (F (2, 69) =6,852, p<0.05). The Post-hoc L.S.D. revealed that the students from the
EG1 and EG2 reported higher mean score for BAS differing significantly than CG. These results illustrate
that the instructional software programs influences students’ attitudes towards biology lessons in a
positive way.
Table 2. One-way ANOVAs with post hoc comparisons for the four groups’ BAS scores.
Pre-test
EG1 24 53.416 9.287
EG2 24 52.541 7.661 2 7.514
CG 24 52.777 7.347 69 66.310
Total 72 52.541 8.040 71 0.113 0.893
Post-test
EG1 24 63.875 6.848
EG2 24 66.875 6.758 2 418.500
CG 24 58.625 6.920 69 46.824
Total 72 63.125 7.569 71 8.938 ,000* EG1, EG2>CG
* p< 0.05
Misconceptions
Before the implementation, we looked at percentages for each question in the pre-test. There was
not much difference between the groups in terms of their prior knowledge and misconceptions. For
example, the first question, “How many chromosomes would be found in the egg cell?”, as percent in
EG1, EG2, and CG was 54.2%, 58.3%, and 58.3, respectively. After the implementation, some of the related
concepts are examined in detail.
Misconceptions about chromosome number
Students were asked to give their responses to the question “How many chromosomes would be
found in the new skin cells?”. The students’ responses indicated that they held misconceptions about
chromosome number (Table 3): 54.2% in the EG1, and EG2, 58.3% in CG. After the treatment, the students’
responses indicated that their misconception dismissed in EG1, decreased to 4.2% in EG2, and 12.5%
in the CG.
Misconceptions concerning genetic information after cell division
The results in Table 3 showed that students had a misconception that ‘‘after mitosis new cells contain
different genetic information’’. The rate of misconceptions is in EG1, EG2, and CG was 33.3%, 25%, and
25%, respectively. After the treatment, the rate of misconception decreased to 4.2% in the EG1, 8.3% in
the EG2, and 12.5% in the CG.
Misconceptions related to the location of cell division
Students were asked to give their responses to the question “Which of the following parts of the
body would divide by mitosis or meiosis?”. The misconceptions were grouped into two categories as
“mitosis occurs in gonads” and “meiosis occurs in somatic tissues” in Table 3. The pre-test results showed
10
that students had misconception at the rate of 20.8% and 20.8% in the EG1, 29.2% and 33.3% in the EG2,
20.8% and 29.2% in the CG. After treatment, the rate of misconceptions decreased to 0% and 4.2% in
the EG1; 4.2% and 8.3% in the EG2, 16.7% and 16.7% in the CG control group, mitosis occurs in gonads
and meiosis occurs in somatic tissues respectively.
Misconceptions about cell division in plants
Students’ awareness that the mitosis or meiosis also takes place in plants was probed using the
question “Does the same type of cell division, for the same purpose, occur in plants?”. The misconceptions
were grouped into two categories as “mitosis does not occur in plants” and “meiosis does not occur in
plants”. The pre-test results showed that students had misconception at the rate of 41.7% and 58.3% in
the EG1, 45.8% and 25% in the EG2, 50% and 37.5% in the CG. After treatment, the rate of misconceptions
decreased to 25% and 20.8% in the EG1 and in the EG2, 37.5% and 50% in the CG (Table 3).
Table 3. Results of pre and post-test concerning misconceptions.

Pre-test % Post-test %
Categories and misconceptions
EG1 EG2 CG EG1 EG2 CG
Chromosome number
after mitosis the chromosome number would double 25 29.2 33.3 0 0 4.2
after mitosis the chromosome number would halve 29.2 25 25 0 4.2 8.3
after meiosis the chromosome number would remain the same 29.2 37.5 25 12.5 16.7 33.3
after meiosis the chromosome number would double 25 20.8 33.3 4.2 0 16.7
Genetic information after cell division
after mitosis new cells contain different genetic information 33.3 25 25 4.2 8.3 12.5
after meiosis sex cells contain same genetic information 50 33.3 33.3 12.5 25 20.8
Location of cell division
mitosis occurs in gonads 20.8 29.2 20.8 0 4.2 16.7
meiosis occurs in somatic tissues 20.8 33.3 29.2 4.2 8.3 16.7
all cell division occurs in somatic tissues 20.8 20.8 20.8 4.2 8.3 16.7
all cell division occurs in gonads 20.8 20.8 12.5 0 0 4.2
Cell division in plants
mitosis does not occur in plants 41.7 45.8 50 25 25 37.5

meiosis does not occur in plants 58.3 50 62.5 20.8 20.8 50
Analyses of misconceptions
In table 4, analyses of students mean scores for the responses on the CCT are given. At the begin-
ning the pre-test means of EG1, EG2, and CG was 4.58, 4.12, and 4.31, respectively (see Table 1). Before
the treatment, results indicated that misconceptions on cell division did not differ significantly across
the groups (F (2, 69) =0.288, p>0.05). After the treatment, post-test scores of the EG1, EG2, and CG were
8.50, 7.54, and 5.87, respectively. There were significant differences in mean scores, as measured on
the CCT, for students from the four groups (F (2, 69) =13.368, p<0.05). Post-hoc analyses, using L.S.D.,
show that although EG1 and EG2 did not differ significantly from one another, the mean scores of these
two groups were all significantly higher than the mean score for CCT in CG. These results illustrate
that, the instructional software programs provided significant contribution for students to eliminate
misconceptions.
11
Table 4. One-way ANOVAs with post hoc comparisons for the four groups’ CCT scores.
Pre-test
EG1 24 4.583 2.518
EG2 24 4.125 2.006 2 1.347 0.288 0.751
CG 24 4.250 1.916 69 4.681
Total 72 4.319 2.141 71
Post-test
EG1 24 8.500 1.532
EG2 24 7.541 1.999 2 42.347 13.368
CG 24 5.875 1.776 69 3.168
Total 72 7.305 2.066 71 0.000* EG1, EG2 >CG
* p<0.05
Conclusions and Discussions
Computer-assisted instruction is a widely studied and supported method of teaching. Numerous

meta-analyses and review articles have been published showing positive effect sizes supporting CAI
over the other teaching methods on student’s academic achievement (Bayraktar, 2001; Chambers, 2002;
Christmann & Badgett, 2003; Cohen & Dacanay, 1992; Fletcher-Flinn & Gravatt, 1995; Kulik, 1994; Lowe,
2001; Powell et al., 2003; Soe, Koki, & Chang, 2000; Tsai & Chou, 2002; Tuysuz et al., 2005). The findings of
this study concerning the effects on students’ achievement are consistent with the ideas of the previous
reports. It was revealed in the study that the both of the experimental groups at cell division achieve-
ment were more successful than the CG after the treatment.
The significant academic achievement of the students in the experimental groups could be ex-
plained by the fact that the instructional software programs created a learning environment in which
students can learn at their own pace. Interactive teaching makes students more aware of their own
knowledge. Software programs appeared to made students more active, compared with being passive
recipients of knowledge as in CG.
In addition, in regard to students’ academic achievement there were some differences between
the experimental groups. The data obtained from CAT illustrated that tutorial software was more ef-
fective than edutainment software on students’ learning’s. In edutainment software, the game format
was more on the foreground than tutor format. Students spent most of their time exploring strange
locales, searching for clues and collecting needed items rather than benefiting from the science tutor.
The game format offers possibilities that students often find appealing, but it must be emphasized that
their purpose is first and foremost to develop, reinforce, and refine some aspect of learning. Unlike a
simple noninstructional computer game, instructional games must retain instructional value as their
primary goal. Whereas, several skills are typically used to play an instructional game, the focal point of
the game should be on the application of well-defined learning skills.
Many studies have been implemented about the influences of computer based instructions on
students attitudes do not agree whether it makes positive changes in attitudes towards science and
science lessons (Mitra, 1998). For example, Selwyn (1999) reported that computer assisted material
develops a positive attitude towards science education. In contrast to this, Shaw and Marlow (1999)
suggested that computer assisted material do not show a positive effect on students’ attitudes. Besides,
students’ attitudes towards science are quite negative if traditional teaching methods are used in science
classes (Colletta & Chiappetta, 1989). In this study, instructional software programs were more effective
than CG on student’s attitudes.
Instructional software programs provided “more student-centered learning”, teaching students
12
how to learn by themselves. Implementations provided by software programs require students to work
at their own pace through a structured set of learning experiences. Software programs were able to
present text and graphic materials to students in a coordinated manner, and questioning techniques
means that the learners were active during the learning process.
Misconceptions are very important during the learning processes of individuals. It is well known
that it is not easy to eliminate the misconceptions by just employing traditional instructional methods.
One of the alternative ways of overcoming this problem may be using computer assistant materials in
science classrooms (Çepni et al, 2006). In the present study, instructional software programs provided
better learning environments for students to understand cell division with respect to CG. Both of the
experimental groups at building cell division concepts were more helpful than the CG after the treat-
ment. However, this study revealed that there were still some misconceptions in the experimental groups
even after the treatments. These misconceptions were generally related to the abstract concepts as
general functions of mitosis (growth and repair) and meiosis (preparation for reproduction) and thus
to visualize and conceptualize them is difficult for students. This shows that misconceptions may be
reduced and/or dismissed if teaching–learning activities are given at comprehension and application
levels (Karamustafaoğlu et al., 2003).
It is critical that lessons are planned in such a way so as to concentrate using the computer assisted
materials on the topics in a lesson that will help to computer-based learning. Having an entire teaching
module on a CD-ROM with multimedia assets are more effective to improve student’s academic learning.
Keeping the balance between the educational content and computer entertainment is critical to realize
desired educational goals. Otherwise, changing students’ attitudes towards science lessons without
improving academic achievement will be distant from the purposes of CAI.
Although many educators devote tremendous efforts with great expectation that computer assisted
material will dramatically increase students’ achievement, the results of this study provide to classroom
teachers a research-based evidence for positive outcomes by using different computer assisted materials
in instruction. The present study also revealed the effects of some software’s learning benefits from CAI
experiences for students. It can be concluded that computer assisted materials could improve student
achievement, change misconceptions and improve students’ attitudes toward biology lessons
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Received 30 January 2007; accepted 22 May 2007.
Selami Yeşilyurt
Kazim Karabekir Education Faculty, Department of
Secondary Science and Mathematics Education,
Ataturk University.
P.O. Box 25740
Erzurum, Turkey
E-mail: selamiy@atauni.edu.tr
Yılmaz Kara
Bayburt Education Faculty, Department of Science
Education, Ataturk University.
P.O. Box 69000
Bayburt, Turkey
E-mail: yilmazkankara@yahoo.com
15
THE EFFECTS OF CONCEPT
MAPPING INSTRUCTION
ON OVERCOMING 9TH
GRADE STUDENTS’
MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT
DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS
Abstract. The purpose of the present Sacit Köse

study was to determine 9th grade students’ © Sacit Köse
misconceptions on the concepts of diffu-
sion and osmosis and to investigate the
effect of making use of concept mapping
instruction on overcoming the misconcep-
tions. The experimental study was con- Introduction
ducted in two different classes of a high
school context with a total of 50 9th grade The students who have different mental structures may
students in Denizli, Turkey. The concepts of develop unscientific–factual concepts while they are forming
the diffusion and osmosis were taught the knowledge in their mind. If student’s conception differs from a
students in the experimental group with scientific one, it is named ‘misconception’. The previous research-
the instruction designed by making use of ers show that students’ misconceptions are barrier for their fur-
concept mapping method whereas these ther learing and may still exist even after instruction. (Hewson &
topics were taught to the control group Hewson, 1984; Treagust, 1988; Ayas et al., 2002; Çalık & Ayas, 2005;
with traditional instruction. The Diffusion Çepni et al., 2006).
and Osmosis Diagnostic Test developed Science educations studies have showed that student have
by Odom and Barrow (1995) was given many misconceptions of biology subjects such as ecology, pho-
to both groups as pre-test and post-test. tosynthesis, respiration, energy, heredity, digestive system and so
The results indicated that after treatment, forth (Adeniyi, 1985; Aydın, 1999; Teixeira, 2000; Köse & Uşak, 2006,
the average percentage of students in the Köse et al., 2007). Since diffusion and osmosis are pre-requisite for
experimental group holding a scientifically vital processes, turgor pressure in plants, water balance in plants
correct view increased 42%, whereas this and animals, transport and excretory systems, these concepts
increased only 15% in the control group. have a cornerstone in enhancing students’ advanced learning for
biology. Furthermore, solutions, solute, solvent, semi-permeable,
molecular movement, net movement, and direction of movement
Key words: biology education, concept have interrelationship with the concepts as well as the particulate
mapping, diffusion, osmosis, misconcep- with the basic concepts as the same as the particulate and random
tion. nature of matter in physics and chemistry. Previous studies in
different grades emphasized that students held misconceptions
of osmosis and diffusion which are resistant to change through
tradional instrucion. (Murray, 1983; Simpson & Marek, 1988; West-
Sacit Köse
brook & Marek, 1991; Zukerman, 1994; Odom & Barrow, 1995;
Pamukkale University,
Odom, 1995; Tarakçı et al., 1999; Wood-Robinson, 2001; Yıldırım
Turkey
et al., 2004).
It is obvious that there is limited number of research stud-
ies in order to overcome misconceptions about these subjects
16
ISSN 1648–3898 THE EFFECTS OF CONCEPT MAPPING INSTRUCTION ON OVERCOMING 9TH
GRADE STUDENTS’ MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS
(Friedler et al., 1987; Marek et al., 1994; Christianson & Fisher, 1999; Odom & Kelly, 2001; Tekkaya, 2003).
In order to obtain meaningful and permanent learning, it is necessary to make students understand
their misconceptions. It is emphasised that many instructional methods are not sufficient to remove
misconceptions from students’ mind and they lead students to memorize definitions, explanations
and guessing. One of the strategies used for identifying and removing misconceptions is the “concept
mapping instruction”. In this method, while the students are forming concept map, they reorganize a
hierarchical net between new-learned concepts and previous knowledges. So, they can easily find a rela-
tion between concepts. In this way, it is determined concretely that students not only have knowledge
about prior concepts, but also they have knowlege about how they change or not change the previous
concepts after knowledge transformation (Novak & Gowin, 1984; Okebukola, 1990; Briscoe & LaMaster,
1991; Horton et al., 1993; Kinchin, 2000).
Odom and Kelley (2001) investigated the effects of concept mapping instruction and learning
cycle on students’ better understanding regarding the diffusion and osmosis in biology lessons among
high school students. The results of the research study pointed out that the success of learning concept
mapping is more efficient when both strategies are important and used together. By designing tradi-
tional learning environments in two universities and a structural learning environment in one university,
Christianson and Fisher (1999) compared the effects of these environments on students’ learning diffu-
sion and osmosis. According to pre-test and post-test results it is determined in constructivist classroom
that students realize the concepts of diffusion and osmosis better. Tekkaya (2003) searched the effect
of combining conceptual change text and concept mapping strategy while 9th grade students were
understanding diffusion and osmosis. At the end of the research, it was determined that while the av-
erage percentage of students in the experimental group holding a scientifically correct view had risen
from 22.5% to 54.1%, a gain of 31.6%, the percentage of correct responses of the students in the control
group had increased from 19.1% to 38.7%, a gain of 19.6% after treatment. According to the students’
results, conceptual change text and concept mapping strategy was an efficient method to remove
misconceptions about diffusion and osmosis, which is given combining conceptual change text and
concept mapping strategy, causes a long term conceptual change in 9th grade.
The aim of this study was to identify 9th grade students’ misconceptions concerning diffusion
and osmosis and to investigate the effect of concept mapping instruction on overcoming students’
misconceptions.
Data Collection Instrument
Students’ conceptual understanding of diffusion and osmosis was measured using the “Diffusion
and Osmosis Diagnostic Test” (DODT) developed by Odom and Barrow (1995). Also, several studies (Odom
& Barrow 1995; Christianson & Fisher 1999; Odom & Kelly 2001; Tekkaya, 2003) ensured that this test is
an efficient instrument in assessing students’ understanding. The test including 12 items with two-tier,
multiple-choice design was developed by taking into account the students’ misconceptions stated by
previous researchers. This test covered the following conceptual areas: the process of diffusion, the
process of osmosis, membranes, concentration and tonicity, kinetic energy of matter, the influence of
biological forces on diffusion and osmosis and the particulate and random nature of matter. First-tier
of the test measures students’ subject-knowledge, second-tier measures whether this knowledge is
understood by the students (Treagust, 1988; Çalık et al., 2006). Whereas the first-tier of each item consists
of multiple-choice alternatives (from 2 to 4), the second tier incorporates in 4 alternative reasons of the
first-tier. The reliability of the test is calculated as 0.74 using the Spearman-Brown formula. While the
difficulty indices (values or degrees) ranged from 0.23 to 0.95, the discrimination ones did from 0.21 to
0.65. This diagnosis test was administered to both groups as pre-test and post-test, in order to deter-
mine the students’ prior knowledge students’ misconceptions before and after instruction and to seek
whether or not their conceptual understandings evolve. Since students marked the distractor choices, it
was accepted that students possessed the misconception that the distractor choice reflected (Treagust,
17
THE EFFECTS OF CONCEPT MAPPING INSTRUCTION ON OVERCOMING 9TH ISSN 1648–3898
1988; Karataş et al., 2003). The maximum score that the students will get from the test is 60 scores when
the students give all questions correct answers (Correct-alternative, Correct-reason).
Treatment
This study comprising of three phases was carried out in the spring semester of 2005–2006 academic
year. The first was the preparation phase where experimental group was informed about concept map
and concept mapping, sample activities. Also, during another lesson, students with their small groups
were asked to develop a concept map related to organic molecules from general to specific using the
written concepts. Afterwards, based on the students’ suggestions, they were asked to draw a concept
map with assistance of the researcher. After completing group concept map, by taking into account
the studens’ suggestions the concept map was drawn to blackboard. Adding (new) concepts from list
not only encouraged students to focus on concept map but also enabled them to see (image/visual-
ize) better conceptual relationships. The first phase lasted about three weeks and was conducted with
spending extra-time rather than biology lesson. In the second phase, DODT was administered to both
groups as a pre-test in order to draw out 9th grade students’ conceptions of ‘diffusion and osmosis’. The
last was the treatment phase. In the control group the teacher-centred lesson was taught where the
instruction was carried out in connection with a standard lecture-textbook and lecture method; i.e. class
lectures/discussions were followed by textbook readings. At the beginning of the lesson, the subject was
presented and some important parts of the subject were underlined from the course book. Either the
researcher or a student drew the diagram and graphics of the related concepts on the blackboard and
students were asked to put down them to their exercise book. Generally, students keep their silence and
listen to their teacher, they rarely ask questions. At the end of the lesson classic questions are asked in
connection with the text. The misconceptions of students about the matter are not paid attention for.
In the experimental group concept-mapping instruction was implemented where students were
initially divided into groups (2 students for each group) and they prepared their concept map with
assistance of the researcher throughout discussion and question-answer methods. Thereby, such a
treatment helped students to integrate the new concepts with their earlier structured ones, to organize
their intellectual thought, to compare their newly structured knowledge with the previous ones and to
actively participate in their own learning process. Later, students were asked to exchange their group
concept maps with each other so that each group examined/criticized the other concept maps as to
whether or not there was any fault/mistake.
After the treatment was completed, the same diagnosis test was readministered to both groups
as a post-test in order to investigate their conceptual change.
Participants
The sample consisted of a total 50 9th grade students attending two intact classes of a high school
in Denizli, in Turkey. One of the classes (n=26) was randomly assigned as an experimental group, which
was exposed to concept mapping instruction. The other class was devoted as a control group (n=24),
which was exposed to traditional instruction. While the researcher joined the experimental group him-
self, another researcher, who has similar features with the researcher, joined the control group. By using
another researcher who has similar features with the researcher in this study, it was aimed to minimize
the mistakes that stem from instruction in the experimental and control groups.
Data Analysis
The data collected in this study were analyzed by using SPSS version 11.0. Taking the advantage of
students’ pre-test scores, the experimental and control group students’ prior knowledge about the sub-
ject at the beginning of the instruction process was compared with independent sample t-test. In order
to determine whether there was a significant difference (with regard to the experimental and control
groups’ pre- and post test results), one-way ANOVA was performed. In order to examine the pair-wise
18
differences among the level, Post Hoc test with the methods of Tukey HSD was used. Significance level
(alpha) was considered and used 0.05.
Results of Research
In this part, the findings of the test gathered from both groups (experimental and control groups),
were given. Table 1 summarizes the answers of the students to the instrument administered to both
groups as a pre- and post-test.
Table 1. Percentages and frequencies of students’ answers to the two-tier instrument (DODT)
administered to both groups as pre-and post-test.
Pre- test Post- test

Item number
Experimental Group Control Group Experimental Group Control Group
C % IC % C % IC % C % IC % C % IC %
1 7 27 19 73 6 25 18 75 25 96 1 4 15 62 9 38
2 15 58 11 42 9 38 15 62 13 50 13 50 5 21 19 79
3 6 23 20 77 8 33 16 67 14 54 12 46 7 29 17 71
4 10 38 16 62 12 50 12 50 11 42 15 58 13 54 11 46
5 7 27 19 73 1 4 23 96 19 73 7 27 1 4 23 96
6 6 23 20 77 6 25 18 75 23 88 3 12 12 50 12 50
7 9 35 17 65 8 33 16 67 25 96 1 4 5 21 19 79
8 2 8 24 92 7 29 17 71 22 85 4 15 4 17 20 83
9 6 23 20 77 2 8 22 92 11 42 15 58 1 4 23 96
10 9 35 17 65 10 42 14 58 23 88 3 12 19 79 5 21
11 4 15 22 85 4 17 20 83 26 100 0 0 21 88 3 12
12 18 69 8 31 14 58 10 42 26 100 0 0 21 88 3 12
C: Correct answer; IC: Incorrect answer
As it is seen in Table 1, the percentages of students in experimental group who provided the correct
answers to the instrument in pre-test ranged from 8% to 69%. Apart from correct answers, the percent
of distractors ranged from 31% to 92%. Furthermore, it is seen that the success rate of the students in
experimental group was fewer than 50% apart from 2 and 12 questions. From another perspective, the
rate of answering the questions in pre-test ranged from 4% to 58% among the control group students,
their success was under 50% apart from 4 and 12 questions. The distractors selected in the ranging
percentage of 42% to 96%. As it is stated before, it was assumed that the students who chose distrac-
tors, held misconceptions about that contradictions.
It can be referred from the table 1 that the students in both groups had misconceptions regarding
as diffusion and osmosis. Some of the misconceptions of students in pre-test and post-test administra-
tion were determined in both groups. The variation in percentage of these determined misconceptions
are given in Table 2.
19
Table 2. The ranging percentages of the students’ misconceptions in experimental and control
groups.
Conceptual Area Pre-test (%) Post-test (%)

Misconceptions
Assessed
EG CG EG CG
The process responsible for a drop of blue dye becoming evenly
distributed throughout a container of clear water is:
- diffusion because the dye separates into small particles and
50 50 4 25
mixes with water.
- osmosis because there is movement of particles between regions
23 25 0 13
Process of of different concentrations.
diffusion When sugar is added to water, after a very long period of time the
sugar will be more concentrated on the bottom of the container
because:
- there will be more time for settling. 19 29 8 21
- the sugar is heavier than water and will sink. 38 54 19 63
- sugar dissolves poorly or not at all in water. 15 13 0 13
Two columns of water are separated by a membrane through which
only water can pass. Side 1 contains dye and water; side 2 contains
pure water. After 2 hours, the water level in side 1
- will be higher because water will move from the hypertonic to the
hypotonic solution. 23 17 4 8
- will be higher because water moves from low to high concentra-

tions. 27 21 12 42
Process of
osmosis - will be lower because water will move from the hypertonic to the
hypotonic solution. 35 25 0 33
- will be the same because water will become isotonic. 8 8 0 0

If a fresh water plant cell were placed in a beaker of 25% saltwater
solution, the central vacuole would:
- decrease in size because salt absorbs the water from the central
vacuole. 65 58 12 21
Particulates move from high to low concentration because:

- they tend to move until the two areas are isotonic and then the 15 25 15 17
particles stop moving.
- there are too many particles crowded into one area, therefore 27 38 38 63
they move to an area with more room.
As the difference in concentration between two areas increases, the
rate of diffusion:
The particulate and - increases because the molecules want to spread out. 54 54 27 71
random nature of
matter - decreases because if the concentration is high enough, the 23 13 12 0
particles will spread less and the rate will be slowed.
When a drop of dye is placed in a container of clear water the:

- dye molecules continue to move around because if dye mol- 46 42 4 25
ecules stopped, they would settle to the bottom of the container.
- dye molecules continue to move around because this is a liquid; 31 33 8 25
if it were solid the molecules would stop moving.
If a plant cell is killed and placed in a salt solution :
Influence of biologi- - diffusion and osmosis will occur because the cell will stop 46 33 0 0
cal forces on diffu- functioning.
sion and osmosis
- only diffusion will continue because osmosis is not random, 38 50 0 13
whereas diffusion is a random process.
20
A glucose solution can be made more concentrated by:

- adding more glucose because the more water there is, the more 50 50 31 29
glucose it will take to saturate the solution.
- adding more water because for a solution to be more concen- 12 0 12 17

Concentration and trated one must add more liquid.
tonicity Side 1 is 10% salt solution and side 2 is 15% salt solution:
- Side 1 is hypotonic to side 2 because water moves from high to 62 79 38 63
low concentration.
- Side 1 is hypertonic to side 2 because water moves from high to 15 13 19 33
low concentration.
All cell membranes are:
- semipermeable because they allow some substance to enter, but 31 42 0 13
Membranes
they prevent any substance from leaving.
Suppose there are two large beakers with equal amounts of clear
water at two different temperatures (Beaker 1: 25°C, Beaker 2: 35°C).
Next, a drop of green dye is added to each beaker of water. Eventually
Kinetic energy of the water turns light green. Which beaker became light green first?
matter
- Beaker 1 because the lower temperature breaks down the dye. 27 29 0 29
- Beaker 2 because it helps the molecules to expand. 38 38 4 50
EG: Experimental group; CG: Control group
When the Table 2 is examined generally, it is seen that some misconceptions decrease and some
of them disappear in both experimental and control group students, and it is seen that some of them
remain the same or increase. But the decreases in the percentage of misconceptions in the experimental
group are higher than in the control group. It is thought that it derives from the treatment method. For
example, “As the difference in concenration increases between two areas, the rate of diffusion increases
because the molecules want to spread out.”, this misconception is seen in pre-test in both groups as
54%, in post-test while misconceptions in experimental group are totally removed, in control group
it increases to 71%. On the contrary, “As the difference in concenration increases between two areas,
the rate of diffusion decreases because if the concentration is high enough, the particles will spread
less and the rate will be slowed.”, while this misconception is totally removed in control group, in the
experimental group it decreases from 23% to 12%. In addition to this, “Particles move from high to
low concentration, because they tend to move until the two areas are isotonic and then the particles
stop moving.”, this misconception the rate remain the same in experimental group (15%). It shows that
misconceptions are too tough to alteration.
It is determined according to constructed calculations that experimental group students’ mean
score from DODT’s pre-test application is 19.4\60, the control group students’ mean score is 18.7\60.
Taking the advantage of students’ pre-test scores, the control and experimental group students’ prior
knowledge about the subject at the beginning of the instruction process is compared with independent
sample t-test. The results of t-test are given in Table 3.
Table 3. Pre-test scores results of t test of students in experimental and control groups.
Group N Mean SD t p
Experimental group 26 19.42 7.78 0.594 0.55
Control group 24 18.12 7.63
Significant at p> 0.05
As it is seen in Table 3, there is no statistically significant difference between the mean scores of
21
the experimental and the control groups with respect to their understanding diffusion and osmosis
concepts (t = 0.594, df=48, p > 0.05) before the treatment. The DODT is re-applied to post-test to both
group students after the treatment. The answers and the rates in both stages which are applied to post-
test to both group students are seen in Table 1.
After the post-test application, the answers of both groups are compared. The ratio of correct an-
swers of the experimental group students at the post-test is between 42 and 100%, in the control group
it changes between 4 and 88%. The student rate of distractors in the experimental group is between
0 and 15%, in the control group it is between 12 and 96%. As it is seen, while the rate of giving correct
answers in the experimental group has increased, the rate of giving incorrect answers has decreased.
Although the rate of giving correct answers in the control group have increased, it is not sufficient.
According to data obtained from DODT’s post-test application, each student’s score is calculated.
The mean score in the experimental group students get from the post-test of DODT application is
44.6\60. The mean score in the control group is calculated as 27.3\60. The result indicated that while the
average percentage of students in experimental group holding scientifically correct view had increased
from 32.3% to 74.3% (gain of 42%), the percentage of correct responses of students in the control group
had rised from 30.3% to 45.5% (gain of 15.2%) after treatment. In order to determine whether there is a
significant difference, one-way ANOVA is applied. The results of one-way ANOVA are given in Table 4.
Table 4. Summary of ANOVA comparing the mean pre- and post-test scores of students in the
experimental and the control groups.
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 11422.667 3 3807.556 57.544 0.000

Within Groups 6352.083 96 66.168
Total 17774.750 99
As it is seen in Table 4, there is statistically significant difference between students of the control
and experimental groups in pre- and post-test scores: F (3, 96) = 57.544, p<0.05). Post Hoc Test-Tukey
HSD, in order to determine from which groups’ different results have occurred, is used. According to The
Post Hoc test-Tukey HSD results, pre- and post-test scores of both groups’ students’, there is a significant
difference in favor to experimental group. In other words, while there is a meaningful difference between
pre- and post-test scores, in which concept mapping instruction is used, there is no meaningful differ-
ence between pre- and post-test scores, in which traditional instruction is used.
Discussion and Implication
This study investigated the effectiveness of concept mapping instruction on overcoming students’
misconceptions of diffusion and osmosis. Initially, students’ prior knowledge of the target concept
was measured by using DODT developed by Odom and Barrow (1995). It was found that there was no
statistically siginificant difference between two groups regarding their understanding of the concepts
before the treatment (t = 0.594, df=48, p > 0.05) and that they had similar misconceptions (Table 2).
The success of students’ pre-test in both groups is under 50% apart from two questions. It shows that
students do not have enough information about diffusion and osmosis and they have come to high
school with incorrect ideas. After the treatment, while there is 42% of rise in arithmetic mean score in
the experimental group, there is 15.2% rise in the control group. The statistical results, as it is seen in
Table 4, indicated that there is a significant difference between the control and experimental groups
in pre and post-tests scores F (3, 96) =57.544, p<0.05). According to results of Post Hoc Test-Tukey HSD
analysis, in order to determine from which groups’ different results have occurred, it is seen because of
the difference between pre- and post-test scores in the experimental groups. After this treatment, it is
revealed that instruction given by concept maps is more efficient than the traditional instruction.
22
It is stated during the treatment, that the experimental group takes the instruction with concept
map, and there is an attention towards misconceptions of diffusion and osmosis. The students have
been encouraged to join lessons actively and make discussions about the concepts. In the control group,
when traditional instruction is used, the subject was presented depending upon the course book and
some important concepts were explained. The most important difference between the two strategies
is when it is aimed to come up with misconception of students in concept mapping; there is no aim in
using traditional instruction.
When the data are investigated in post-test application, the misconceptions of experimental group
students’ are seen after instruction that removed their misconception in 80% of the process of diffusion,
84% of the process of osmosis, 37% of particulate and random nature of matter, 13% of concentration
and tonicity, 100% of the influence of forces on diffusion and osmosis, 100% of membranes and 95% of
kinetic energy of matter (Table 2). Although students in the control group have removed misconceptions
on 22% in the process of diffusion, on 17% in the process of osmosis, on 17% in particulate and random
nature of matter, on 87% in the influence of forces on diffusion and osmosis, on 69% in membranes,
concentration and tonicity, - there is a rise in misconception in kinetic energy of matter. These findings
point out that concept mapping instruction is much more efficient than removal of misconceptions with
traditional instruction. In researches made both in native country and out of the country (Heinze-Fry &
Novak, 1990; Hazel & Prosser, 1994; Lavoie, 1997; Geban et al., 1998; Odom, & Kelly, 2001; Karamustafaoğlu
et al., 2002; Christianson & Fisher, 1999), similar results were found: concept mapping instruction is a
successfull method in removing misconception from students.
Ongoing discussion at the treatment while concept map were being drawn by students is effective
on overcoming of misconceptions partly or completely from experimental group. In the control group
students are not affected something else apart from traditional instruction, and if the researcher does
not make a plan according to students’ prior knowledges and misconceptions, it may make this group
less successfull than the experimental group.
Results of this research supported the idea that misconceptions can not be removed by traditional
instruction easily (Hewson & Hewson, 1983). One of the possible reasons is that subjects are between
the interdisciplinary natures of the topic. A lot of concepts about diffusion and osmosis are closely
related to concepts in chemistry and physics, such as permeability, solutions, concentration, and par-
ticulate nature of matter (Friedler et al. 1987; Odom & Barrow, 1995). Because of this, understanding of
these concepts requires the understanding and application of knowledge in physics and chemistry as
well as biology. Another reason is the relations of the subjects. For example, learning osmosis is based
upon understanding transport in living organisms, water balance in land and aquatic creatures, water
intake by plants and turgor pressure in plants as well. Specially, diffüsion is the primary method of short
distance transport in a cell and cellular systems. In addition to this, teachers and course-book writers
who used traditional instruction do not pay attention to students’ misconceptions and they do not
stress on this subject efficiently. Since they focus much more upon the subject, they give little support
to students in the conceptual construction. Whereas, instructors who teaches using conception map
technique have great effect on students reorganizing a hierarchical relation between newly learned
and present knowledges and revealing the relations between the concepts. In this way, they not only
determine prior concepts about the subjects, but also determine the first concepts whether it changes
or not after getting information.
It attracts attention that in post-test some student misconceptions in the experimental group
continue, and some of the misconceptions have risen. It is thought that this situation stems from the
misinterpretation of new knowledge about diffusion and osmosis due to the insufficient prior knowl-
edges and from the fact that the discussions in this part are insufficient. It is pointed in a search which
is made by Guzzetti (2000) that students who do not have enough prior knowledge can not change
the misconcepts inidiviually. In addition, Tyson et al. (1997) points that conceptual change does not
always mean that the students’ misconceptions have been removed, but sometimes students may hold
misconceptions about the new concepts. One of the reasons of the continuity of misconceptions of
some of the experimental group students’, even after the treatment may be their prejudice and negative
attitudes towards biology course. This situation causes students’ distraction from connecting related
23
concepts with links in concept mappings, and that’s why this causes them not to join the discussions
in the classroom.
Although students of the experimental group are still carrying their misconceptions because of
the reasons, which are pointed above, rate of these students is rather low, when it is compared with
students of the control group. When the results of DODT are evaluated, the instruction done by concept
mapping instruction is much more successfull than the instructions given by traditional instruction. This
result reveal one more time in order to remove misconceptions by traditional instruction is not sufficient
and it is necessary to use alternative methods apart from this method.
Acknowledgement. I would like to thank Dr. Muammer Çalık and Dr. Mehmet Erdoğan who kindly
improved English of the paper.
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Received 13 February 2007; accepted 12 June 2007.
Sacit Köse
Dr., Assistant Professor at Department of Science
Education, Faculty of Education,
Pamukkale University.
Incilipinar Campus, 20020 Denizli, Turkey.
Phone: + 90 (0258) 212-5555
E-mail: sacitkose@gmail.com
25
CONTEXT RICH PROBLEMS
AS AN EDUCATIONAL TOOL
IN PHYSICS TEACHING –
A CASE STUDY
Abstract. We present a case study, in Gunnar Jonsson, Peter Gustafsson,

which we used context rich problems as
Margareta Enghag
an educational tool in a university level © Gunnar Jonsson
physics course. The students worked in © Peter Gustafsson
© Margareta Enghag
groups of three to four when solving these
problems, which provided them with an
opportunity to discuss physics together at
their own level. Video recordings of groups
working with the problems allowed us to Introduction
study how different groups functioned and
also to look for what is known as explora- In Sweden, as in many countries in the Western world, there
tory talks. This form of communication is diminishing interest in studying science and engineering.
Among these subjects we have physics. Still, there is continues
was interpreted as situational interest on
need of people educated in physics to participate in the solution
the part of the students. A questionnaire
of problems in our modern society, e.g. connected to energy
at the end of the course, and interviews supply on a global level and environmental issues.
with a few of the students after the course, In order to attract students to physics at university level,
revealed that the students considered that complementary instructional settings in physics education are
context rich problems facilitated under- needed in addition to the established ones. New methods also
enlarge the educational toolbox for professors, thus benefiting
standing of physical concepts and made
all students of physics. We therefore present a case study on the
physics more interesting.
use of context rich problems (CRP) (Heller & Hollabaugh, 1992)
as a complementary educational tool in physics teaching. We
have used CRP based on the hypothesis that it promotes peer
Key words: context rich problems, univer- communication, thereby encouraging all students to take an
sity physics, cooperative groups, teaching active part in problem solving. One base for this educational
tool is the cooperative group as a structural approach to cre-
methods, science education.
ate or organizing a social interaction in the classroom (Kagan
1989/1990). This is to be seen as an alternative to a competitive
individual work. In the cooperative group a collaborative behav-
Gunnar Jonsson, Peter Gustafsson,
iour develops when all members of the group work together
Margareta Enghag
on each step in the problem-solving process. All students in
Mälardalen University, Sweden
the group, independently of skills, are reported to benefit from
this instructional approach (Heller, Keith, & Anderson, 1992). We
26
ISSN 1648–3898 CONTEXT RICH PROBLEMS AS AN EDUCATIONAL TOOL IN PHYSICS
TEACHING – A CASE STUDY
also believe that it promotes the use of physical concepts in dialogue and creates situational interest
(Pintrich & Schunk, 1996).
CRPs are physics problems presented as stories, which take place in an everyday context and with
the student as a leading character1. The importance of an everyday context has been emphasised in
research (Park, 2004; Whitelegg & Parry, 1999). The problem should be complicated enough to make
it impossible for one person to solve single-handedly (at least in the case of less skilled students) but
possible for a group of three to four students to solve together. Such problems encourage students to
use an organised and logical problem solving strategy as opposed to a mere formula driven random
search (Heller & Hollabaugh, 1992; Heller, Keith, & Anderson, 1992).
When the students are engaged in problem solving during group discussions, they use language
in a more exploratory fashion with a wider range, such as questioning, challenging and encouraging
(Barnes, 1973; Barnes & Todd, 1995). They often use half sentences and complete other persons’ sen-
tences. When this happens, the students have taken control of the learning activity, and one student
draws another into the discussion. This is defined as exploratory talks and we interpret it as indicating
situational interest on the part of the students.
In this paper we report on how CRPs provide an opportunity for students to discuss physics in
small groups. We have also studied interactions among different student groups and attempted to
characterise various types of group behaviour. The students’ own views of CRP were investigated by
a questionnaire at the end of the course.
In an introductory physics course of 7.5 ECTS (European Credit Transfer System) points for aero-
nautical engineering students, 40 percentage of the teaching time was used for traditional lectures
and 20 percentages for laboratory experiments. Furthermore, three 135-minute lectures were used
for solving CRPs and equally for exercises (problem solving of end-of-chapter text book problems,
both by the teacher and individually). This means that approximately 20 percentage of the total time
in the classroom was used for CRPs. For the CRP sessions the students were divided into groups of
three or four. The groups were formed on the basis of the students’ previous performance in the en-
gineering programme in accordance with suggestions made by Heller and Hollabaugh (1992), who
recommend that a group should consist of one overachieving, one average and one underachieving
student. Groups with female students should include at least two.
Problem solving strategy
At the start of the sessions with CRP, a problem solving strategy based on that described in ‘The
ideal problem solver’ (Bransford, 1993) was introduced and distributed to the students. This strategy
was to be used when solving the problems and consists of five steps:
1) Identify the problem and opportunities [to do something creative]

2) Define goals
3) Explore possible strategies.
4) Anticipate outcomes and act!
5) Look back and learn
Each group was asked to write down and hand in one copy of the solution to the problem based
on this strategy.
Methods of data collection
The data collection took three different forms, namely video recordings, a questionnaire and
interviews. All video recordings are from the same course. Three groups were video recorded during
1
http://groups.physics.umn.edu/physed/Research/CRP/crintro.html
27
CONTEXT RICH PROBLEMS AS AN EDUCATIONAL TOOL IN PHYSICS ISSN 1648–3898
the problem solving process, from which we selected one problem for study. The three groups studied
solved the same problem.
During the final lesson of the course, all students were asked to fill in a questionnaire regarding
their experience of CRPs. The questions focused on their views on whether CRP made physics more
interesting and whether conceptual understanding became easier. A seven-point Likert-scale was used.
The questionnaire was employed on a total of 55 students. Finally, four students were interviewed in
order to deepen our understanding of the students’ experience. An interview-guide was constructed
based on the responses found in the questionnaire. All the interviews were transcribed.
The problem and questions used in the video analysis
The studied CRP: The Drink
You are with a friend at the “Gondolen” restaurant in Stockholm and have just ordered a drink before dinner.
While you are having the drink and looking at the “Stockholms ström” river, your friend is philosophising:
- Are you as a physicist able to tell me how many ice-cubes are needed to cool this drink to an appropriate
temperature?
In the video analysis we focused on some specific issues:

1) How does the group function? Is there a peer communication? Do all students take active
part in the solution? Is one group member in charge and leading the process? Are they try-
ing to reach consensus? How do they cooperate?
2) How is the problem solving process made visible? Is the problem-solving path a definite
and expert-like one or more in the nature of a random walk towards the solution?
3) In their discussion, how do the students introduce and handle different physical concepts
necessary for the solution?
4) Do the students appear to be interested in the task? Do they devote time to activities other
than the problem? Do they express a concrete interest in the task?
Results of Research
The video analysis
From the video recordings of the three different groups solving the same CRP, a complete tran-
scription of the dialogue of one of the groups was made. In the case of the other two groups, résumés
of the conversation were written as a support for the analysis. As indicator of peer communication,
student activity and interest in the task, we looked for exploratory talks (Barnes, 1973) in the transcript
and résumés. We also hold that exploratory talks in the discussions mean that the group is taking steps
towards understanding physics (Enghag, Gustafsson, & Jonsson, 2006).
Common features for all groups
All groups consisted of male students and managed to solve the CRPs. They were clearly focused on
the task. No time was used for discussion of issues irrelevant to the physics problems. Thus we interpret
that all the studied groups were highly motivated.
In all groups the solution process took around 40 minutes. While the problem-solving path differed
between groups, they all had a more or less clear strategy. Jumps between necessary “expert” steps in
the solution occurred, but not always in a logical sequence.
28
Peer communication and Group characteristics
The Solitaire group
One group, called the Solitaire group, consisted of three students who worked rather individually.
From the video recording it is clear that one of the three is the skilled one and practically solved the
problem single-handedly. One of the others assumed a social role and initiated discussion, for example
by asking questions. Discussions were primarily between the skilled student and the social student. The
third student showed less initiative and apparently had difficulty understanding the task. He suggested
that “writing down what happens” could solve the problem. That an actual calculation can be done and
a numerical answer found was not clear to him initially, although he showed interest in the task and
worked at his own level.
In this group, where the solution was reached mainly due to the work of one student, the proposed
solution strategy was followed in a rather straightforward manner. Initially, there was a short discussion
about what part of physics the problem is related to, after which it was concluded that the mass of the
ice is the goal of the calculation. There is no evident problem in the solution process. It is interesting to
note that concepts that relate easily to everyday life were evaluated in that context. For temperatures
that had to be estimated, this group as well as the other two referred to “room temperature”, “refrigera-
tor cold” and so on. This is in contrast to more abstract concepts such as specific heat or latent heat,
which, as far as the students were concerned, were merely values in a table. In this group, we did not
find many exploratory talks in the discussions.
The Discussion groups
In the other two groups, which we called Discussion groups A and B, an active discussion took
place between all students. Group A, from which the transcription was made, comprised four students
and group B three students. In these groups, all members contributed to the discussions and treated
each other as peers. They all contributed to the solution by providing input and taking an interest in
different aspects and questions. Compared to the Solitaire group the path towards the solution was
not as straightforward, although a logical structure was nevertheless visible. All necessary parts of the
solution can be clearly recognised in the discussion: the identification of the calorimetric sub-processes
and the equilibrium statement, the estimates of essential parameters, the search for necessary data and
finally a validation of the result. Understanding of the problem and its physics, the modelling as well as
discussions of assumptions that must be made are interlaced and took place during the first 20 minutes.
Then there was a rather clear phase of finishing the model, followed by a short search for necessary data
before making the calculation. The final 10 minutes were devoted to a discussion of how many pieces
of ice the calculated mass corresponded to.
When a concept or parameter entered into the discussion they talked it through. Examples were
found in these groups where physics models were not only described as formulas but also expressed
verbally. At one point, one of the discussion groups formulated Q=mc∆T and recognised that it meant:
“the lowering of the temperature of the water [drink] gives the energy needed to be removed from it”. Such
examples indicate an understanding of the physical interpretation of formulas, and these examples
where not found in the Solitaire group.
The discussion in this group was more open compared to the Solitaire group and included many
examples of exploratory talks, indicating situational interest. It is easy to find examples of how they
explored the physics related to the problem:
29
Example 1: Discussion group A. After approximately 5 minutes:
Student A1: Doesn’t it matter how many sides there are (on the piece of ice)? Do you understand what
I mean? If the ice is in contact with the liquid? If you have only one piece or many? It will
be quicker with many pieces, but it is only the speed.
Student A2: It must have something to do with the speed, the volume is the same.
Here they had a discussion of the process speed and what influences it. They returned to this ice
discussion ten minutes later with the realisation that it is not the time that matters but the amount of
ice needed to reach the equilibrium state:
Example 2: Discussion group A.
Student A2: We will find the smallest amount of ice needed to reach this temperature and it will have
melted completely and become water.
Student A1: It feels …wrong.
Student A3 What?
Student A1: After the melting procedure is finished…yes
Student A2: But that is probably what they want to know.
Student A3: Otherwise it is the time that matters.
Student A2: But you always have more ice than necessary… otherwise you have to stick the ice to
something and you cannot measure it…and look how much is melting.
Student A1: It is true…what you say is true!
Student A4: …but it is simply ice that is melting that…
Student A1: It is exactly that amount of ice that is found at equilibrium…
In this passage we find an exploratory talk characterised by repetition of words and phrases used
by others, invitations to discussions, evaluation of other students’ statements and use of fragmented
sentences. Such examples also exist in the other discussion group (Group B), thus demonstrating situ-
ational interest in the group.
In the case of the discussion groups, we also noted that the initial discussions concerned the less
complicated questions such as an appropriate temperature and volumes, which made it easy for every-
one to form an opinion and present arguments. This facilitated continuation of the discussion in more
complex areas such as energy equilibrium and phase transition.
The questionnaire
The questionnaire contributed further information and data and the results clearly show that con-
text rich problems were much appreciated. Since we wanted to investigate how well CRP function as a
educational tool from a student perspective, we were interested in the student position, for or against,
if CRP facilitate understanding of physical concepts and makes physics more interesting and also how
much of CRP should be used in the learning process.
The questions, which were answered on a seven-point Likert-scale, were:
• “I prefer the following combination of problem types”.
• “CRP facilitates understanding of physical concepts compared to text book problems, TBP”.
• “CRP makes physics more interesting”.
The first question was asked from that we had equal parts in time devoted for the two types of
problem solving exercises; CRP and TBP. Do the students prefer any of the two kinds of exercises?
The third question was formulated with physics as a general subject in mind, but from the interviews
it is obvious that students relate “interesting” compared to TBP. See further the student comment under
“The interviews”. Figures 1-3 show statistics from the questionnaire.
30
Figure 1. The answers to the statement “I prefer (on a seven-range Likert scale), the following mix
of problem types (1 = Only CRPs, 7 = Only TBPs).”
Figure 2. The answers to the statement “CRPs facilitate understanding of physical concepts com-
pared to TBPs (1 = absolutely not, 7 = absolutely).”
Figure 3. The answers to the statement “CRPs make physics more interesting (1 = absolutely not, 7
= absolutely).”
We performed a statistical significance test on the data sets presented in figures 1 - 3 in order to
31
determine whether the students’ responses to the questions diverged from the null-hypothesis that
the responses are normally distributed, with a mean value m = 4. To test this we used a t-test with n-1
degrees of freedom (in our case n = 55). The significance test on the data set corresponding to figure 1
shows that the data are not significant on the 1 % level. In this case we accepted the null-hypothesis,
which means that the students prefer a mixture of CRPs and TBPs. The data presented in figures 2 and
3 are found to be statistically significant on the 1 % level; therefore we rejected the null-hypothesis in
these cases, indicating that students believe that CRPs facilitate the understanding of physics concepts
and make the study of physics more interesting.
Another question in the questionnaire was “What is good and bad about CRPs?”. Alternative answers
to the question were pre-constructed by the authors, but there was also a possibility for the students
to give their own suggestions. What the students found positive (see table I) was that CRPs gave them
an opportunity to discuss physics, to solve problems together and that the questions were open in
character. They were also of the opinion that CRPs are realistic.
Table 1. The answer to the question “What is good and bad about CRP?”.
Good Bad
50 To be able to discuss physics together 3
51 Solve problems together 1
46 Open ended problems 1
26 Answers to exercises are not included 19
The interviews
The interviews with the students strengthen the conclusion from figure 3 that CRPs make physics
more interesting. The interview focused on questions such as:
In CRPs open-ended questions are often used. The students appreciate this. What, in your opinion,
is the reason?
A student answer from the interviews: ‘It is much more interesting to do calculations with ques-
tions like these. Having to sit down with a textbook, with the same questions all the time is no fun. It is
much more interesting to meet this type of everyday problem. If you realise, oh it [such problems] can be
solved like this and so on, not like problems in the book, which are more mathematical. If you have some
numbers, you just put them into some formula [for the textbook problems]’.
The interviews also provided more information on what a difficult problem means to the stu-
dents. Problems are difficult if:
• they must be solved in several steps
• you lack competence in the area
• too much information is provided (you must select and know what is relevant)
• too little information is given (you must understand that certain information is missing
and know where to find it).
Question: What is the most common reason why a problem is considered difficult?
A student answer from the interviews: ‘Because it feels difficult. One has too much information for
example. One thing solves another thing and then it is put together to give a new answer, and then it should
also be applied to a third thing, after which unknowns are to be put into the fourth and so on. Things like
that are, at least in my opinion, difficult. If you have too much information at the start, so to speak.’
32
We also gained information about what the students mean by realistic problems. For them real-
istic problems are problems from everyday life and of relevance to them, for example in the context
of aviation.
Conclusions and Implications
We found that, despite the characteristics of the various groups, they all had an active commu-
nication, completely related to the physics context and physics concepts. They all managed to solve
the physics problems and we found that the use of CRPs was generally appreciated, the main reason
being the opportunity to work in groups and discuss physics with peers. From the questionnaire and
the interviews it is clear that CRPs make physics more interesting and facilitate understanding of
physics concepts. The students’ view on what constitutes a complicated problem confirms the find-
ings of Reif (1995) that the two main obstacles for students are lack of information and eliminating
unknowns through solving sub problems (solution with several steps).
By means of the video recordings we observed how different groups employ different strategies
to solve the problems, from a group where one skilled person leads the group through the solution
(Solitaire group), to a situation where all group members discuss as equal peers and seek the solution
together (Discussion group). In the Discussion groups we found many examples of exploratory talks,
which we interpreted as situational interest when solving the CRPs. In these groups we also found
examples of verbalisation of physical formulas, indicating an understanding of physics. In the Solitaire
group on the other hand, we did not observe many exploratory talks.
As being a case study, further investigation should include more groups to look for other possible
group characteristics. Also an opportunity should be introduced to the groups to choose from several
different CRPs at each problem-solving occasion. Thereby the individual ownership of learning for
the students would increase and better learning and motivation would be at hand (Enghag & Nied-
derer, 2007). It would also be interesting to apply CRPs to other science subjects, such as chemistry
and biology.
Acknowledgment
The Swedish Research Council has supported this work, which is greatly acknowledged.
References
Barnes, D. (1973). Language in the classroom. Leeds, UK: Open University Press.
Barnes, D., & Todd, F. (1995). Communication and Learning Revisited: Making Meaning Through Talk. Portsmouth,
NH: Boynton/Cook Publishing.
Bransford, J. D., Stein, S. S. (1993). The Ideal Problem Solver. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.
Enghag, M., Gustafsson, P., & Jonsson, G. (2006). From everyday life experiences to physics understanding
occurring in small group work with context rich problems during introductory physics work at university Accepted
for publication in Research in Science Education. Published on line http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11165-006-9035-4
Enghag, M., & Niedderer, H. (2007). Two Dimensions of Student Ownership of Learning
During Small-Group Work in Physics. Accepted for publication in International Journal of Science and Math-
ematics Education. Published on line http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10763-007-9075-x
Kagan, S. (1989/1990). The Structural Approach to Cooperative Learning. Educational Leadership, 47(4), p.
12.
Heller, P., & Hollabaugh, M. (1992). Teaching problem solving through cooperative grouping. Part II. Design-
ing problems and structuring groups. American Journal of Physics, 60 (7), p. 637-644.
Heller, P., Keith, R., & Anderson, S. (1992). Teaching problem solving through cooperative grouping. Part 1:
Group versus individual problem solving. American Journal of Physics, 60(7), p. 627-636.
Park, J. (2004). Analysing cognitive or non-cognitive factors involved in the process of physics problem-
solving in an everyday context. International Journal of Science Education 26(13), p. 1577-1595.
Pintrich, P. R., & Schunk., D. H. (1996). Motivation in Education Theory, Research and Applications, : Prentice
Hall.
33
Reif, F. (1995). Millikan Lecture 1994: Understanding and Teaching Important Scientific Thought Processes.
American Journal of Physics, 63, p. 17-32.
Whitelegg, E., & Parry, M. (1999). Real-life contexts for learning physics: meanings, issues and practice. Phys-
ics Education, 34(2), p. 68-72.
Received 06 April 2006; accepted 29 June 2007.
Gunnar Jonsson
Department of Mathematics and Physics,
Mälardalen University.
Box 883
S-721 23 Västerås, Sweden
E-mail: ima@mdh.se
Peter Gustafsson
Box 883
Phone: +46 21 101539
E-mail: peter.gustafsson@mdh.se
Margareta Enghag
Box 883
Phone: +46 21 101508
E-mail: margareta.enghag@mdh.se
34
INFORMATION
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGIES IN
NATURAL SCIENCE
EDUCATION: SITUATIONAL
ANALYSIS AND PROSPECTS
IN BALTIC COUNTRIES1
Abstract. Information technologies play a

Vincentas Lamanauskas, Rytis Vilkonis
crucial role in building a knowledge-based
© Vincentas Lamanauskas
© Rytis Vilkonis society. However, even the most advanced
technologies will not produce a required
effect if their use (application) in the
educational system is not adequate to the
current development of technologies and
increased educational needs. The initial
information literacy abilities are formed in
Introduction comprehensive school as presently, these
educational establishments have the pos-
Recently, more and more studies concentrate on the analy- sibility of employing different information
sis of ICT problems. Both, general (Jonassen, 1996; Crook, 1996; technologies. It is probably often related
Markauskaitė, 2000; Zylbergold, 2003; Ross, 2004; Woessmann, to appropriate computer technologies and
2005), and specific didactic issues are being analysed, e.g. how to the Internet.
use ICT for teaching single subjects (Slabin, 2002; Augustonytė, During the last five years, a number
2005; Pečiuliauskienė, Rimeika, 2005; Praulite, Trokša, Gedrovics, of investigations into the field of natural
2005). The advent of this educational technology, and its more science education have been carried out.
widespread access in schools, potentially has an important part On the other hand, to more accurately
to play in re-shaping the curriculum and pedagogy of science identify the situation in different regions
(Osborne, Hennessy, 2003). U.Slabin’s studies (2002) shows that, of Europe, lack of in-depth expert research
creating websites for natural sciences profile university students, can be noticed. Therefore, the latter survey
are of interest. The author maintains that our epoch is marked with (expert inquiry) is aimed at examining the
a global environmental crisis and the advent of information age. situation on using ICT in natural science
Extensive implementation of a range of information technologies education in Baltic countries. A precondi-
into the high and higher school curricula and the emphasis on tion that the obtained findings will be
the environmental issues in education are two leading trends in useful for improving the process of natural
contemporary education. science education in terms of ICT applica-
The implementation of new technologies in the educational bility and efficient use can be made.
process raises new possibilities for both teacher and learner, en-
hances education quality and makes the educational process more Key words: natural science education,
versatile. However, education quality still remains insufficient as the modern ICT, expert inquiry.
content of education and studies is poorly oriented towards devel-
oping new abilities and competencies necessary for people living in
an open public society and market conditions. The economy based
on information becomes a priority in European countries. It should Vincentas Lamanauskas, Rytis Vilkonis
be noticed that the reality of the open public society and market Šiauliai University, Lithuania
conditions is not and cannot be ideal and that qualitative education
1 This research is carried out within the frames of international FP6 scientific
project “ARiSE”, http://www.arise-project.org
35
INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES IN NATURAL SCIENCE ISSN 1648–3898
EDUCATION: SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS AND PROSPECTS IN BALTIC COUNTRIES
must help people not only to accept this reality but also to critically evaluate and advance it. In this case,
the most important point is that human must preserve his/her identity, self-sufficiency and to strive for
a purport of life. Any actions such as improvements in the education system or implementation of new
technologies must be carefully studied and firmly fixed. All possible outcomes, results and impact on
further as well as on individual development of a young personality must be evaluated.
We can find plenty of information about school computerization, the areas of using ICT, access to
the Internet, teacher competence in ICT, information literacy, teacher training in the field of applying
ICT and financing. However, in order to evaluate the usefulness of applied ICT for teaching/learning pur-
poses in terms of the customers using education facilities, the mentioned data is not sufficient (Sjøberg,
2004; Lamanauskas, Vilkonis, 2005; Gedrovics, Lamanauskas, 2006). The recent research has revealed
that the majority of the children - comprehensive school students aged from 11 to 18 - have the pos-
sibility of using computer and the Internet for learning purposes. The larger part of the learners have a
computer and access to the Internet at home. A computer is frequently used for learning purposes – a
greater number of the respondents use it for learning purposes at home every day (27.5%) or two-three
days a week (29%). The Internet for learning purposes is used less frequently and it seems to be logical
as at the same time, the Internet users apply a computer. However, some of those use a computer but
reject the Internet facilities. More often a computer and the Internet are not used for learning purposes.
Depending on the use of computers for learning purposes at school, the majority of the respondents
fall into two categories: more than one third of the students agree they use a computer for learning
purposes at school once a week while another third (28.8%) state they never do that (Lamanauskas,
Vilkonis, Klangauskas, 2007). Research has also disclosed certain differences between the countries the
respondents of which participated in the survey.
Broadly speaking, creating the education system that reflects and contributes to the development
of our changing world is an important point. In this context, we need to ask how we might change as-
sessment practices to achieve this and what role technologies might play. What is education for? What
attributes do we value and need in our young people as workers, as learners? Where does learning hap-
pen? What role should the young people play in order to shape their education? How to increase a real
interest of the young generation in scientific research? These are the crucial issues to be fully answered.
It seems likely that the latter research will at least partly answer the above framed questions.
It is supposed that despite ICT development, certain differences in terms of using ICT in the teach-
ing/learning process in separate regions in Europe exist. A reasoned interest in the introduced situa-
tion can be observed in the so called post-soviet area including Baltic countries. Therefore, the chosen
object of research is using ICT in the process of natural science education in comprehensive school in
Baltic countries (Lithuania, Latvia & Estonia). The goal of research is a greater awareness of the present
situation and prospects linked to the use of ICT for the purposes of natural science education in com-
prehensive schools in Baltic countries.
The following questions were discussed:
• What is the level of using ICT for the purposes of natural science education in comprehensive
schools in Baltic countries?
• Do the teachers use ICT in work practice?
• What are the most popular ICT tools (the Internet, the Intranet, educational software etc.)
frequently applied in natural science education?
• How do the experts evaluate the present situation on using ICT in comprehensive school in
their own countries?
• What ICT tools are applied in different comprehensive schools in Baltic countries?
• What ICT tools should be created in the future?
• What are the experts’ predictions about applying ICT in this field for the next 5 years?
• What are the main factors preventing from/encouraging the use of ICT in natural science
education?
• What are suggestions and recommendations put forward by the experts in the field?
36
ISSN 1648–3898 INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES IN NATURAL SCIENCE
General Research Characteristics
To undertake research, the method of expert inquiry was applied. To form expert groups, the recom-
mendations on research methodology of social sciences were followed (Tidikis, 2003). The recommen-
dations offer that similar research should be conducted by 5 - 7 people working in a group of experts.
The survey was carried out using ‘on-line’ research i.e. all experts communicated by e-mail. 24 experts
participated in qualitative research: 8 experts represented Lithuania, 6 – Latvia and 10 – Estonia.
The reliability of the evaluation method used by the experts depends on the selected experts who
must be competitive, have relevant experience and know the field of the researched object. Therefore,
the experts were carefully selected considering their competency rates such as official position, scientific
degree, experience of scientific and practical work in the field of natural science education and ICT. The
strategy of snowball sampling was used to make the representation of experts. Depending on profes-
sional status, all surveyed participants are related to the researched object.
Research was completely anonymous and created possibilities of expressing opinions more openly
and objectively whereas feedback received in a written form (making comments) allowed avoiding
the impact of other experts. The data of qualitative research was processed using content analysis. On
the basis of the accepted methods of content analysis, the obtained verbal data array was examined
passing four stages:
• multiplex reading of received answers;
• search for semantically close answers and ‘key’ words;
• establishing categories and highlighting the main statements;
• interpreting the highlighted categories.
The interpretation performed on the basis of the highlighted categories was accomplished at two
levels – manifest and hermeneutic. The manifest level of interpretations means that created categories
were based on the ‘key’ words and directly explained. Meanwhile, the hermeneutic level reflects a latent,
hidden meaning of the answers.
The interpretation of the answers at hermeneutic level considers that the experts’ opinions, includ-
ing the most competent ones, cannot be the standard of absolute scientific laws on the researched
reality. Thus, their positions should not be treated as automatically revealing scientific truth. The experts
are only extremely important and influential persons of the society. It is supposed that their opinions,
approaches and provisions partly reflect their standard behaviour. Therefore, the experts’ opinions are
interesting and really wordy. However, it should be perceived that the experts’ positions should not be
over estimated as they can be subjective and in some cases might be limited and controversial.
Research was conducted in March – May 2007.
Research Instrument
In order to define the situation on using ICT in comprehensive schools in Baltic countries teaching
natural sciences, a nine question inquiry including 2 close and 7 open-type questions was prepared. To
more exhaustively disclose the discussed topic, the questionnaire pointed up the parameters and indica-
tors of research. The research parameters directly showed research questions whereas the indicators –
features used for assessing and evaluating the situation in comprehensive schools in Baltic countries.
Results of Research
General Situational Evaluation
To find out an existing level of using ICT for the purposes of natural science education, the experts
were asked to evaluate the level of ICT use as well as the present situation on applying the Internet,
the Intranet, educational software and other ICT tools for the purposes of natural science education in
37
comprehensive schools of every surveyed country.

The surveyed experts’ opinions on using the Internet in the process of natural science education
point to the conclusion (Table 1) that similar positions on the level of using this net are prevailing. Almost
a half of the experts (45%) emphasized that the majority of the teachers did not mention the facilities
provided by the Internet. It’s worth emphasizing that none of the experts referred to the teachers who
did not use the Internet which proves that the Internet is one of the most popular and widely used
training aids among the teachers.
The evaluation of the level of using the Intranet at school for the purposes of natural science edu-
cation reveals that the larger part of the experts (75%) think that only a minor part of their colleagues
use the Intranet. A more detailed assessment of the latter parameter according to the surveyed country
indicates that the Intranet is more frequently applied in Estonian comprehensive schools. Three experts
from Estonia agree that the Intranet is used by all teachers. The last named opinion can be treated as an
ambiguous one; however, on the other hand, the Estonians widely apply the system of e-daybook which
places the teachers under obligation of daily use of the Intranet. Nevertheless, it should be too fearless
to accept this position as absolute truth. Some of the experts admit that the Intranet is not popular in a
number of schools and is most frequently applied for administrative rather than for teaching/learning
purposes. Broader and more careful assessment is provided below.
The evaluation of the level of using educational software discloses that a greater number of the
experts emphasized that the minority of the teachers used them. Only a single expert was far more
optimistic and acknowledged that these aids were applied by the majority of the teachers.
In terms of other ICT tools, similar situation can be seen. When evaluating these technologies, a
half (50%) of the surveyed experts admit that only a minor part of the teachers apply them in working
practice.
In conclusion, the opinion of all surveyed experts about the level of using ICT for the purposes of
natural science education in comprehensive school show that the Internet is the most frequently ap-
plied training aid. The Intranet is the least common ICT tool as the use and practical weight are poorly
disclosed. The experts state that the use of other ICT tools in the process of natural science education
is rather complicated and they are applied by the minority of their colleagues. The further and more
thorough assessment of the latter indicator points to different reasons:
Table 1. The level of using ICT (N/%).
Used by Used by the major- Used by less than Used by the mi-
ICT Not used
everyone ity of teachers a half of teachers nority of teachers
The Internet 3/12 11/46 5/21 5/21
The Intranet 3/12 18/75 3/12
Educational software 1/4 10/42 12/50 1/4
Other forms of ICT 2/8 10/42 12/50
Situational Evaluation According to the Surveyed Country
Research was also aimed at clarifying the situation on how the experts evaluated ICT application
for the purposes of natural science education in comprehensive schools in their countries. In order to
receive more precise answers, the addressed question included 4 structural parts i.e. the experts had
to present arguments as well as to make comments and their evaluations of using the Internet, the
Intranet, educational software and other ICT tools in their own country.
The table below shows basic comments on the categories acoording to the researched coun-
tries.
38
Table 2. Situational Evaluation According to the Surveyed Country.

LITHUANIA
Categories Content of the category
Using the Internet offers the teacher endless possibilities of preparing for work in the
Usefulness classroom, for example easily helps with finding latest information. It is a most popular and
frequently applied tool to improve natural science education. In general, the possibilities
of the Internet are perfectly turned to account in different types of schools.
The Internet
Problems of teachers’ The teachers are passive users of the Internet. They often tend to see only traditional
motivation training aids – course books.
Along the increase of school computerization, the Internet becomes more and more
popular in teaching/learning process. Presently, the great majority of national educational
Changes
establishments own pretty good Internet links. It is supposed that the recent situation
will improve.
The latter tool is hardly ever applied in practice. It is acclaimed that this system isn’t
particularly relevant and its usefulness doesn’t cover the efforts made for implementing
The Intranet
Insufficient application the Intranet. Although in most of the cases the educational establishments are provided
with the Intranet, however, it’s not applied in educational practice in reality. On the other
hand, the purpose of application is not clear enough, and therefore the teachers are not
sure about the use of this ICT tool.
Not all educational software can be accepted for the purposes of natural science education
that highly needs qualitative mother tongue software as the available forms are rarely
Educational
software
Quality and teacher used by the teachers. Moreover, the larger part of educational software is commercial and
training rather expensive, and therefore schools fail to obtain them. There is lack of experience
and certain types of methodology necessary for applying specific software. Shortage of
teacher interest in applying the available software in their work practice can be noticed.
Other ICT tools are rarely used. A greater number of schools have poor material facilities
Other ICT tools
which influence a limited supply. Furthermore, the prices are too high to apply other ICT
tools. Besides, the teachers are improperly informed about the possibilities of applying
Complicated application
ICT in their work places. Sometimes, the teachers use their own developed programs but
no single data base for all teachers nationwide exists. To make various presentations, the
teachers most frequently use the PowerPoint programs.
LATVIA
Lack of computer equipment in schools and limited access to the Internet. Such situation
limits the use of the Internet for teaching/learning purposes. The situation in the rural area
Limited supply remains complicated. Another difficulty is shortage of computers in the rooms of natural
sciences. Due to small number of computers and limited access to the Internet in the
educational establishments, the teachers often use the Internet at home.
The Internet
Using resources provided by the Internet only in the process of natural science education
is not enough. The immediate use of the Internet in the classroom doesn’t fulfil teacher’s
Doubtful efficiency expectations and pursued aims. The Internet is most frequently used as information
source rather than training aids/resources for learning and the main reason for that is
insufficient safety.
The teachers extremely rarely use the Internet for work purposes. One of the reasons is
Teachers’ motivation that the majority of the teachers are of older age and that their computer literacy skills
are insufficient to effectively use the Internet.
The system is not fully integrated in schools and needs to be developed. Not applied in
Insufficient application
practice, as the teachers are not properly prepared to use e-training aids/resources for
The Intranet
learning in their work practices.
Lack of certain methodological guidelines prevents from applying the Intranet for teach-
Lack of information ing purposes. Special training and practical help for teachers (in terms of methodology
in particular) are required.
39
The severe shortage of the programs of a similar format. The available programs are
rarely used. Only a few schools in the country have the educational software databases
Shortage of a similar format. The problems mainly occur in the fields in localization, storage and
Educational
classification.
software
The teachers are not engaged to apply programs in work practice. Furthermore, the older
teachers are not properly trained. Poor teachers’ experience in applying these programs.
Teacher training
It should be emphasized that applying ICT in the process of natural science education
mainly depends on personal teacher’s enthusiasm and motivation.
The amount of ICT to be used in the process of natural science education is very small
Other ICT tools
as local authorities do not help with proper financing in order schools should be equipped
Poor basis with the highly required tools. Digital cameras, scanners and similar technology are rarely
applied. Privileged schools have multimedia systems and interactive boards. In exceptional
cases the schools own created laboratories equipped with the required ICT tools.
ESTONIA
99 % of schools have the access to the Internet where the vast majority of the teachers
are provided possibilities of finding a huge amount of useful information on education
Usefulness, on mother tongue. The experts agree that 60% of schools have e-facilities and use the
possibilities Internet to exchange useful information among the members of school community, school
office and parents. The possibilities offered by the Internet are used by the students as
well as by the teachers. The Internet is most frequently applied as a means of searching
for information and planning students’ projects and presentations.
The Internet
About 50 % of the teachers nationwide use the websites of education at work. A greater
Teachers’ activity
part of the teachers use the Internet almost every day as they must put records in e-
daybooks and thus use data bases.
Is not applied as wide as it should be due to special teacher training. A part of the teachers
Teacher training
aren’t used to using the Internet.
The Internet in the national education system is mainly used for 3 primary purposes: a)
Application administrative; b) exchanging information; c) teaching. 20-25% of the teachers use the
Internet for immediate teaching of natural sciences.
A significant part of national secondary schools have their own Internet websites and the
Intranet. Work of a number of laboratories is based on the Intranet. In most of the cases,
Employment the use of the Intranet in comprehensive schools depends on the policy and available
The Intranet
possibilities information system applied in the educational establishment itself. It can be maintained
that about 40% of national comprehensive schools use the information system created
by eKool that is devoted to teachers, students and their parents.
The Intranet is frequently introduced in bigger schools. In this case, the small ones are
Insufficient approach still encountering problems.
2 types of educational software are most frequently used in the process of natural
science education in comprehensive schools (appropriate programs on CD and those
freely acceptable on the Internet). About 20% of national schools employ the packages of
Application
educational software devoted to learning organic chemistry and other natural sciences.
A major part of software is products created in Great Britain. The teachers of natural
sciences are acclaimed to be he most active users of these programs.
Educational
software
There is a wide spectrum of problems directly related to the use of educational software.
First, lack of this production, second – teachers’ passiveness and unwillingness to ap-
ply this software in practice. It should be noticed that the teachers quite often apply this
Restrictions on software spontaneously and with no forward planned purpose. Moreover, educational
application software of a similar format often doesn’t meet the requirements of teaching curricula.
On the other hand, only a small part of this software is acceptable on mother tongue.
The Ministry of Education doesn’t pay enough attention to the problem of translations
into the national language.
40
The Multimedia projector, digital cameras/camcorders and interactive boards are most
Other ICT tools

frequently used ICT tools. Some of the students succeed in creating and applying certain
Unlimited employment educational software. Participation in the international projects is very popular. This is the
place where informative websites for the purposes of learning natural sciences are created.
The most favourite projects are ‘Tere, kevad (Hello Spring), GLOBE, Baltic Week etc.
On the basis of this assessment we can maintain that the most favourable situation on using ICT in
the field of natural science education is in Estonia and the most difficult – in Latvia. Lithuania appears
somewhere in the middle. According to the individual parameters, the situation may vary in every
country. The experts’ evaluations reveal that teachers’ motivation for using ICT is higher in Estonia rather
than in Latvia and Lithuania. The use of the Internet in all countries is limited due to poor skills at foreign
languages. In this case, the situation is much better in Estonia rather than, for example in Latvia.
The range of specific ICT tools applied in the teaching/learning process was under discussion. The
experts were asked to name the main and the most popular ICT tools regularly used in the process of
natural science education in the national system of general education.
Table 3 indicates the distribution of the multimedia tools prevailing in comprehensive schools
according to the country. Certainly, the presented findings demonstrate only tendencies; however, it
doesn’t mean that a school can use only the tools included in the list. The tables show the descriptions
of the tools most frequently mentioned by the experts in their comments.
Table 3. ICT tools most frequently applied in the process of natural science education.
Country ICT TOOLS
• Lap tops
• Projectors
Lithuania • PowerPoint program
• Equipment for recording data on physiology, electrochemistry and physics supplied with sensors
• ‘Clever’ boards
• Microsoft Office system.

• Licensed educational software.
Latvia • Training/learning material on the Internet, for example www.liis.lv
• Educational software on CD’s (Coach Junior + CoachLab+ sensors, Elektrix, CD Multimedia
Motion LV, Game ,,Latvia’’, Sensing Science, Laboratory software
• Interactive websites on the Internet

Estonia • Educational games
• Microsoft Office system. (PowerPoint program is widely applied)
• The majority of educational software
• Widely applied information material and educational (pedagogical) software
• Scanners
• The Internet pages (a huge amount of information about vertebrates, plants, ecology) various
simulation programs available studying different Ecology topics
• Digital cameras and camcorders
• GPS and other tools of mobile technologies
The assessment of the received answers discussing ICT application in today’s educational practice
discloses that the spectrum of the used tools of information expression (multimedia) is rather broad.
Nevertheless, traditional tools, for example Power Point, Word programs, DVD players, TV etc. are pre-
vailing. No significant deviations between the surveyed countries were noticed.
Considering teaching/learning needs for educational practice, thorough evaluations of required
ICT forms were carried out. Table 4 presents the concluded experts’ evaluations and suggestions high-
lighting crucial proposals for the analyzed question.
41
Table 4. Suggestions/recommendations about the need of using ICT in the process of natural sci-
ence education.
Countries Suggestions and recommendations
• First of all, all rooms must be equipped with computes and projectors. At least three computer
rooms must be arranged at school so that every learner should be provided the possibility of
working at computer and projector.
Different techniques of teaching can be used in the classroom:
1. Performing creative tasks.
2. Collecting and processing additional information.
3. Work in groups. Sharing the obtained information.
4. Interdisciplinary integration.
5. Efficient time management.
6. Fast knowledge examination.
• Tests and the procedure of examination should be arranged using computers and appropriate
control programs.
• Conditions for establishing collaboration between students and teachers outside the school
should be created (for example, e-conferences).
• The students should be introduced training material in an appropriate way. Modern ICT should
help with encouraging the learners to be actively engaged in natural sciences.
Lithuania
• Creative tasks i.e. designing simple programs etc. could help the students with proving their
competence in computer literacy.
• Natural science portal devoted to the teachers is created (methodological material; educa-
tional software etc.);
• Obtained licences for designing educational software;
• The developed products (educational software) must be available for all teachers of natural
sciences, rooms must be equipped with computers and projectors and dissemination pro-
vided through the portal;
• Not expensive equipment for recording data on physiology, electrochemistry and physics in
real time are created;
• To operate this equipment, not expensive sensors are created and standard methodologies
of laboratory experiments on work with this equipment and sensors are performed and
described.
• The cordless Internet.
• Lack of educational software and databases where all educational material should be col-
lected and easily acceptable for the teacher.
• The Multimedia tools should be created on the basis of the strict parameters corresponding to
the followed curricula.
• More attention needs to be devoted to the tools used for teaching chemistry, for assessment
of complex reactions in particular.
• Tools concentrating on practical work.
Latvia
• The immobile computers and projectors in the rooms of sciences.
• To design programs allowing the teachers to easily create visual material similar to that
produced by the already available PowerPoint program.
• More attention needs to be turned to creating remote learning environments.
• Educational software should be created and accumulated using mother tongue.

• Twofold ICT material should be used in the educational process. Type 1 of the material should
serve the teachers the computer literacy skills of which are only of average level. Type 2
should be more complex and include software permitting a teacher him/herself to design the
wanted lesson scenario or program. The latter version should be for those having better than
basic computer literacy skills.
Estonia • At the initial stage, appropriate work places for students should be created (adequate supply
i.e. computer etc.).
• More simulation programs focusing on teaching chemistry and physics
• ICT should meet the requirements to the teaching curricula.
• More interactive pages on the Internet and accumulation of suitable (ICT) databases.
42
The prospects of changes in the field of applying ICT for the next 5 years were revealed. The ex-
perts were asked to evaluate the prospects relating to the use of ICT for the purposes of natural science
education.
The conclusion of the positions of the surveyed countries demonstrates that the predictions about
the use of the Internet for the purposes of natural science education in comprehensive school are very
optimistic (Table 5). The great majority of the experts (54%) agreed that the situation would substantially
improve in the future. Quite a few respondents (42%) thought the situation would be slightly better.
Only a single expert supposed that the situation on the use of the Internet would remain stable and no
changes in the field would take place in the nearest five years.
Table 5. Changes in ICT for the next 5 years (N/%).

Situation will Situation will
Situation will be Situation will
ICT substantially No changes considerably
slightly better slightly worsen
improve worsen
The Internet 13/54 10/42 1/4
The Intranet 2/8 11/46 10/42 1/4
Educational software 5/21 16/67 2/8 1/4
Other ICT tools 10/42 13/54 1/4
In conclusion, the surveyed experts’ opinions on the prospects of changes in the Intranet show that
positions on the use of this ICT tool widely vary. A part of the respondents maintain that the situation
will be slightly better (46%), the others agree that the situation will remain the same with no changes
(42%). However, on the basis of the received findings, the great majority of the experts accept that
changes in applying the Intranet in education practice will not be rapid.
The comparison of the latter indicator according the surveyed country in terms of the Intranet dis-
closes that the prospects sharply vary. Some positions of the experts from Estonia are more optimistic if
compared with those of the respondents from Lithuania and Latvia. Quite a few representatives of this
country supported the idea of rapid changes when applying the Intranet at school in the future.
Educational software and other ICT tools were also positively evaluated. Almost every surveyed
participant expressed a good opinion of the situational changes in the next 5 years.
The conclusion of the experts’ prospects of applying ICT indicates the rapid development of the
Internet. The application of educational software and other ICT tools got similar evaluation. In terms
of using the Intranet at school for teaching/learning purposes, the prospects are the most pessimistic
and the least clear.
The experts also made comments and put forward arguments about the prospects of changes
in the field of ICT. The addressed open type question asked to offer arguments and explain possible
changes in the next 5 years.
The experts’ predictions about the situation of using the Internet for teaching/learning purposes
in comprehensive school prove that in the next 5 years:
• the pace of developing ICT in the education system will increase and similar level of using
technologies will be achieved in all European countries;
• changes will be under the influence of the younger experts in the field working at school
and a better understanding of possibilities provided by the Internet;
• teachers’ competence in the field of using ICT for teaching purposes and didactics of teach-
ing natural sciences using ICT will develop;
• the Internet will offer more specific and required teaching/learning material that will be more
attractive – interactive. The Internet websites focusing on teaching natural sciences will be
more useful as the students will be offered better opportunities to use different programs
for data collecting and processing;
43
• remote teaching/learning will be further developed; it is likely that the nets linking e-learning
environments at national level will be created;
• collaboration between schools and establishments of higher education will become more
active;
• communication between teacher, student and his/her parents will be more straightfor-
ward;
• schools will be provided the possibility of using the cordless Internet.
In comparison with the Internet, the experts’ prospects of using the Intranet in schools are less
optimistic. Only the minority of the respondents see the progress in this field, for example ‘a large
number of schools will implement virtual learning environments. A greater part of the teachers will be
actively involved ’.
The experts from other countries are more reserved, for example ‘Practically will not be used and
implemented in the teaching process /Latvia/’, ‘No valid point and need to use’ /Poland/, ‘No fundamental
changes in this field are predicted’ /Lithuania/.
The majority of the respondents think that the Intranet will be used for management – administra-
tive rather than for teaching/learning purposes. Despite certain pessimism, the experts see a positive
impact of the Intranet and point to the development of remote learning (the pace of development may
differ in single countries). The experts from Latvia and Estonia agree that one of the problems is lack of
teachers’ competence.
The experts’ predictions about using educational software for the purposes of natural science
education in comprehensive school for the next 5 years prove the following major characteristics of
the research indicator.
• When predicting the prospects about using educational software for teaching/learning
purposes, the issues of teacher training were exhaustively discussed, for example ‘Further
teacher training in using educational software is necessary’ /Latvia/. It is supposed that to solve
the problems dealing with the increase of teachers’ competence more literature should be
available in the future.
• A number of experts fully agree that more educational software will be created in the fu-
ture. Some of the respondents indicated the future schools should be equipped with the
educational software presently created and tested in universities. It is likely that the young
teachers will apply the programs they got used to at university. Certainly, at later stage, new
software will be employed.
• When predicting the future of educational software, full attention was devoted to the quality
of software considering different aspects, for example ‘from a didactic point of view, educa-
tional software will be more advanced and encouraging’. Some of the experts underline that
the present educational software focus on individual learning. In the future, the surveyed
participants would like to see educational software concentrating on the subject, curricula
and standards. Apart from quality, the question of mother tongue is mentioned i.e. in the
future, to help the students, more attention will be paid to the educational software supplied
with instructions in mother tongue.
• Financing issues are not prevailing, however, funding for creating and obtaining new edu-
cational software will have impact, ‘everything will depend on a class of a school, technical
supply and the number of computers’ /Latvia/.
• A part of predictions are pessimistic, for example ‘The development and use of educational
software is a slow process; if there is no sufficient government financing and attention paid to
this area, it’s hard to predict how long and how fast the development and implementation of
educational software will take place as considering pedagogical theories no effective strategy
for implementing educational software into educational process exist’ /Estonia/.
The evaluation and predictions of other ICT tools are rather controversial. Quite a few experts believe
that the use of other ICT tools in comprehensive school in the nearest future will remain complicated
due to insufficient financing, for example ‘In recent years, schools have obtained only a few video tapes’,
‘though other tools are urgently required, they are still too expensive for schools’ /Estonia/.
44
It is believed that despite the existing problems, different educational software will be wider
applied. The development of communication possibilities is emphasized and the relevance of similar
tools is indicated.
Research has also disclosed negative and positive factors in applying ICT for the purposes of natural
science education. The assessment of the latter research indicator shows that the experts put forward a
number of arguments in their comments. The experts’ opinions on these issues highlighting the main
proposals are presented below.
Table 6. Factors preventing from/encouraging ICT application in the process of natural science
education.
Countries Preventing factors Encouraging factors
• ICT offer possibilities of presenting training material more

attractively;
• insufficient teachers’ computer literacy, lack of
• Modern ICT helps with achieving better results;
competencies in the field of applying ICT;
• ICT encourages applying modern teaching/learning methods
• a conservative teachers’ position on applying
in education practice;
modern ICT in practice;
• possibility of communication and sharing
• stereotyped rather than modern teaching/learn-
personal ideas;
ing methods are used;
Lithuania
• ICT tools allow making the teaching/.learning

• lack of financing;
process more flexible;
• insufficient knowledge of the English lan-
• ICT provides possibilities of applying innovations in natural
guage;
science education, helps with preparing for lessons; the
• inadequate infrastructure of a number of
Internet is full of relevant training material including pictures,
schools and improper financing ;
films, schemes etc. The material is picturesque, understand-
• the teachers feel lack of valuable information
able, memorable and informative. Information in the course
(older teachers in particular) on how to use
books is often not up-to-date one, so the Internet is the
ICT.
place to check it (some precaution should be useful).
• Possibility of using global resources of information applying

them in educational practice;
• Insufficient teachers’ computer literacy;
• The increasing number of schools able to use the resources
• Lack of methodology of how to apply ICT in
provided by the Internet;
practice;
• Constantly increasing amount of information on mother
• Economic problems (improper financing,
Latvia
tongue;
inadequate infrastructure of schools);
• Gradually increasing infrastructure (computers in every
• Shortage of the experts in the field able to adapt
classroom, appropriate software, projectors etc.);
appropriate programs for the national system of
• Sharper focus on solving the problems of teachers’ com-
education.
puter literacy;
• Progress in the field of designing software.
• Possibility of communication and establishing international

• The teachers feel lack of special training; contacts encourages to wider use the facilities provided by
• Economic problems limit the implementation of the Internet;
technologies; • Constantly increasing students’ computer literacy and inter-
Estonia
• Shortage of educational software and other est in the latest technologies are the factors determining the
tools; use of ICT in comprehensive school;
• Lack of time; • Constant increase in the number of ICT experts and support
• Lack of educational mother tongue software. provided by the Ministry of Education are the main factors
encouraging effective implementation of these tools.
The summary of different opinions and comments passed by the experts from Baltic countries
shows that appropriate conclusions can be reached. With no respect to varieties observed in the national
education systems, similar problems in the field of applying ICT can be noticed. No significant deviations
45
between the countries were noted. The experts admit that all comprehensive schools encounter the
same problems and difficulties at all stages of education.
The respondents think that these recommendations are the most important for the future. Table
7 shows the generalized experts’ suggestions on effective ICT application.
Table 7. The most important recommendations.
Countries Recommendations
• To encourage teachers to be interested in modern ICT and in the possibilities of its implementation;
• To put emphasis on creating methodology of ICT application in education;
• To create and develop methodology of applying the Internet and the Intranet in education;
• To put a sharper focus on the publication of methodical material and conducting seminars and conferences;
Lithuania
• More attention to school financing;

• To create an optimal methodology of distribution and financing;
• To create testing programs in Lithuanian;
• To create a unique database at national level.
• Larger investment and development of infrastructure in comprehensive schools should

improve the situation;
Latvia
• To reduce software prices;

• To concentrate on research that either justify or deny the effectiveness of these technologies;
• To publish appropriate material in order to help the teachers with a greater awareness of using ICT in
their work practice.
• A larger amount of computer equipment in schools;

• A greater number of the experts in the field in comprehensive schools;
• The further development and use of the Intranet between school staff and parents;
• To offer an ICT expert a work place to look after the Intranet system and provide information (flash lights) for
the teachers about modern technologies and possibilities of applying them;
Estonia
• A strategy and logical plan for successful integration of educational software into the process of natural sci-
ence education are necessary;
• To prepare and implement the projects that help with bringing new things into education
practice;
• To create an ICT model that corresponds with the teaching curricula.
Conclusions and Discussions
The situation on applying ICT in the education systems in Baltic countries is similar. It is deter-
mined by the rapid development of ICT, the general peculiarities of Europe as a region, political-
economical factors etc. In spite of the common features, certain differences exist. These can possibly
be conditioned by varying country’s economical situation that directly influences the possibilities of
comprehensive schools to use the latest ICT.
The experts agree that the Internet is the most frequently used ICT tool. The Intranet is the least
popular in the teaching/learning process and is often used for administrative purposes. Moreover,
the teachers find difficult to explain the mission of the Intranet in the educational process as from a
didactical point of view it remains unclear. The comparative assessment of the surveyed Baltic countries
reveals the tendency that this system is commonly applied and practically used in Estonia.
The assessment of the experts’ opinions on the use of the Internet shows it being frequently
applied. Nevertheless, two basic problems can be faced - how to ensure more didactically purpose-
ful use of the Internet in the training/educational process and how to guarantee sufficient teachers’
ability and adequate motivation for using it. Another burning issue common for every country is that
the older teachers do not accept innovations, and therefore technical abilities to use the Internet do
not mean it will be effectively and purposefully used in the educational process. However, a general
tendency is clear – the use of the Internet rapidly increases and qualitatively grows. It is likely that
this tendency will become stronger in the future.
46
The experts think that due to the use of educational software a number of problems appear
almost in every country. It is determined by a position of a school rather than by the general national
policy on education. The production of these tools can hardly be centralized as every country has its
own national education standards. On the other hand, every teacher on his/.her own is not able to
create educational software, and thus only individual initiatives can be observed. It is expected that
the question of developing high quality products will remain opened in the future.
The spectrum of used multimedia tools is rather broad, however mainly traditional tools such
as Power Point, Word programs, video players, TV etc. are prevailing. The small countries face an ex-
tremely pressing problem which is no tool is supplied with mother tongue.
The main factors preventing from the use of ICT for the purposes of natural science education
are similar in the majority of countries. They include teacher training (competencies), economical,
management, political etc. problems. In the future, every period will face specific interferences in ICT
development. The experts suggest that a closer collaboration between comprehensive and higher
schools is necessary. Such situation is crucially important for higher schools that train the teachers
of natural sciences for comprehensive schools. International collaboration, the increase in teachers’
qualification, improved training of science teachers, growing financing and requirements for education
quality (including general education) etc. will remain the major factors encouraging the use of ICT.
Prognostically, the experts’ opinions are much the same – for the next 5 years, the Internet will
rapidly develop whereas no changes in using the Intranet are predicted. The experts maintain that
educational software will significantly growth. It is likely that first all, the changes will be determined by
varied teachers’ qualifications in the field rather than by technical possibilities. In the future, changes
in school environment will be more rapid as young experts in the field having a more positive attitude
towards ICT will come to schools. Then, the factor of competitiveness will become more decisive in
both sectors – comprehensive and higher school. The experts suppose that the issues of financing
will not prevail in the future. Nevertheless, more relevant tasks will be coordination of standards,
teaching content and other training aids/resources for learning with appropriate level of ICT. The
respondents emphasized that the development of communication possibilities would be extremely
important in the future. International collaboration will be more active. Obviously, appropriate ICT
tools will need to be created.
Despite positive and objective actual evidences in the context of ICT included in the reports
of the majority of contract research, a number of questions still remain unsolved. These issues are
relevant not only to the education system in Lithuania but also to other Baltic countries. It is proved
by the findings received from the content analysis of experts’ qualitative survey. Data interpretation
revealed a number of problems encountered not only by the social persons of our education system
but also by the institutions of other Baltic countries applying new technologies.
When predicting further actions, the experts as the main actors of this research the opinion
context of which was one of the most important factors disclosed a rather detailed evaluation of
the present situation. On the basis of the positions taken the situation looks more complex. First, the
discussed questions are highly relevant: Is the progress of ICT application in comprehensive schools
directly related to financing? Will financing and supply with ICT improve if teachers and other em-
ployees of the education system avoid and sceptically evaluate these tools? Certainly, infrastructure
and material support for schools are very important but specific experience suggests it is not enough
to ensure efficient application of these tools. With reference to research carried out by M.Vilkonienė
in 2006, where the data was collected using long-term educational (during external audit of schools)
experience not structured instrument (the author states that this tool ‘does not reflect the real situation
of using ICT’), the obtained results showed that the abundance of computer equipment in schools
did not encourage using these tools and did not solve the problems of teacher qualification.
The second question discusses the ways of changing the present situation on insufficient teach-
ers’ competence in using ICT? Every member of a modern society must acquire at least minimum of
skills at using a computer and be able to employ the tools of information technologies in personal
and public activity. When dealing with this task, education, comprehensive school and teacher in
particular play an important role. However, the teachers still feel lack of experience and knowledge
47
of how to effectively apply ICT in the educational process and how to receive qualified and regular
methodological support?
The third question focuses on cohesive and purposeful integration of these tools into educational
practice. How to ensure effective and meaningful application of these tools? Unhappily, no balance
between the use of computers, projectors, educational software, course books and teaching curricula
exist. This issue should be debated at all levels of the education system. In-depth educational research
also plays a crucial role as it helps with informing the politicians on education and other social bodies
about the real ICT situation.
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank for all experts who took part in this research: Danguolė Baranauskiene
(Lithuania), dr. Bronislovas Burgis (Lithuania), dr. Aušra Kynienė (Lithuania), Vilma Martinkėnienė
(Lithuania), dr. Palmira Pečiuliauskienė (Lithuania), dr. Laima Railienė (Lithuania), dr. Violeta Šlekienė
(Lithuania), prof. dr. Andris Broks (Latvia), prof. dr. Janis Gedrovics (Latvia), Inga Medveids (Latvia),
Aija Pleesuma (Latvia), prof. dr. Gunita Praulite (Latvia), Arnis Voitkans (Latvia), Karin Hellat (Estonia),
Aimur Liiva (Estonia), dr. Piret Luik (Estonia), prof. dr. Peeter Normak (Estonia), Margus Pedaste (Es-
tonia), Mari Plakk (Estonia), Vilja Toots (Estonia), Anti Teepere (Estonia), Anne Villems (Estonia), Irina
Zhikina (Estonia).
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Vincentas Lamanauskas
Professor of Education at the University of
Šiauliai, a doctor of social sciences (education),
the chairman of a public scientific methodic
centre ”Scientia Educologica”
P. Vishinskio Str. 25, LT-76351 Siauliai, Lithuania.
Phone: +370 687 95668
E-mail: vincentas@osf.su.lt;
vincentaslamanauskas@yahoo.com
Rytis Vilkonis
Senior Researcher at the University of Siauliai,
Faculty of Education, a doctor of social sciences
(education).
P. Vishinskio Str. 25, LT-76351 Siauliai, Lithuania.
Phone: +370 650 14299
E-mail: vilkonis@yahoo.com
49
INQUIRY LEVELS AND
SKILLS IN ZAMBIAN HIGH
SCHOOL CHEMISTRY
SYLLABUS, TEXTBOOKS
AND PRACTICAL
EXAMINATIONS
Abstract. This study analyzed the Frackson Mumba, Vivien Mweene Chabalengula,
Zambian high school chemistry syllabus, William Hunter
textbooks, and practical examinations © Frackson Mumba
© Vivien Mweene Chabalengula
for inquiry levels and skills. The chemistry
© William Hunter
syllabus was explicit on inquiry skills and
levels. Experiments in the chemistry text-
books and practical examinations were
Introduction
mostly at confirmation and structured
inquiry levels respectively. Very few experi- Inquiry-based science teaching promotes inquiry and
ments were at guided inquiry level and problem-solving skills among students (Germann, Haskins & Auls,
none at open inquiry level in the textbooks 1996) and reflects science as it is practiced by scientists (National
and practical examinations. However, the Research Council [NRC], 1996). As such, inquiry-based science
course materials emphasized the same
teaching has been accentuated in science education reforms and
standards (American Association for the Advancement of Science
inquiry skills. There were no guidelines on
[AAAS], 1993; NRC, 1996). Beyond the reforms and standards, sci-
inquiry-based teaching in the course ma- ence curriculum materials are expected to meet the challenges of
terials. As such, this is a potential obstacle improving scientific inquiry skills among students by providing
to the implementation of inquiry science balanced and fairly equal proportions of the following inquiry
teaching. Implications for science teach- levels: Confirmation, Structured, Guided and Open-ended (Tafoya,
ing, learning, and curriculum design have
Sunal & Knecht, 1980) and inquiry skills for Planning and conduct-
ing experiments, Analyzing and interpreting data, and Applying
been discussed.
techniques to new situations (Tamir & Luneta, 1981). As a result,
science educators have analyzed science textbooks and laboratory
Key words: inquiry, chemistry, syllabus, manuals to establish the representation of inquiry levels and skills
textbooks, examinations. (Eltinge & Roberts, 1993; Germann, Haskins & Auls, 1996; Lunetta,
& Tamir, 1980; Pizzini, Shepardson & Abell, 1991; Okebukola, 1988;
Tafoya, Sunal & Knecht, 1980; Tamir & Luneta, 1981). In general,
Frackson Mumba, these studies found that most activities in science textbooks and
Vivien Mweene Chabalengula laboratory manuals were at confirmation and structured inquiry
Southern Illinois University, USA
William Hunter
levels. Very few activities were at guided inquiry level and even
Illinois State University, USA fewer at open inquiry level. In addition, science textbooks and
laboratory manuals emphasized lower inquiry skills such as fol-
50
ISSN 1648–3898 INQUIRY LEVELS AND SKILLS IN ZAMBIAN HIGH SCHOOL CHEMISTRY
SYLLABUS, TEXTBOOKS AND PRACTICAL EXAMINATIONS
lowing step-by-step procedure, observing and recording data. Consequently, students were not given
opportunities to formulate a hypothesis, to design or to conduct their own experiments.
It is evident in the literature that science educators have mainly examined science textbooks
and laboratory manuals for inquiry levels and skills. To date, no study has examined and reported the
representation of inquiry levels and skills in science syllabi and public practical examinations. Yet, in
many countries like Zambia with a centralized education system, national science syllabi are the main
guides for science instruction and preparing public examinations. Therefore, this study goes beyond
the previous studies by including the chemistry syllabus and public chemistry practical examinations
in the analysis for inquiry levels and skills. The analysis of the Zambian high school chemistry course
materials for inquiry levels and skills is desirable, not only to Zambian science educators but also to sci-
ence educators elsewhere, who have implemented, or plan to implement a similar chemistry course at
the high school level. It was also assumed that the findings would provide some implications for science
teaching, learning and curriculum design. This study was guided by two questions: What inquiry levels
and skills are emphasized in the Zambian high school chemistry course? To what extent are inquiry
levels and skills emphasized differently in the course materials?
Zambian high school chemistry education
High school education starts in grade ten and ends in grade twelve. Chemistry is a compulsory
subject and all students take it for three years in high school. The chemistry textbooks and syllabus are
the main resources for chemistry teaching and learning in high schools. Each chemistry teacher is given
three chemistry textbooks (Chemistry 10, 11, and 12) and one copy of the national chemistry syllabus as
a guide for scope and depth of the content to be taught. Each student is given a copy of the chemistry
textbook and returns it after each grade. There are five periods of chemistry instruction in a week per
class and each period is forty-five minutes long. There are three school terms per year: January to April,
May to August, and September to December, and each term is thirteen weeks long. By the end of their
grade twelve, students will have taken more than 142 hours of chemistry instruction. At the end of their
grade twelve, students sit for national examinations, equivalent to the Ordinary-Level standard in the
British system for certification, admission to post-secondary school education, training, and employment.
In the chemistry course, there are three examination papers- Paper 1 with forty multiple choice ques-
tions, paper 2 with eight structured and theory questions and paper 3 with two laboratory experiments.
Examinations are prepared by experienced high school chemistry teachers and chemistry lecturers from
a local national university in conjunction with the Examination Council of Zambia. Examiners use the
national chemistry textbooks and syllabus as guides for preparing examinations.
Data sources
Data sources were one high school chemistry syllabus, three chemistry textbooks (Chemistry 10,
11 and 12) and six chemistry practical examination papers that were administered to high school stu-
dents between 2001 and 2006. The chemistry syllabus and textbooks were written by Zambian chem-
istry educators in conjunction with Curriculum Development Center (CDC), and were implemented in
schools in January 2000. The chemistry syllabus has five main sections: introduction, general aims, topics,
content, and assessment objectives. There are twelve main topics namely: particulate nature of matter,
experimental techniques, language of chemistry, periodic table, acids, bases and salts, mole concept,
chemical reactions and energy changes, metals, electrochemistry, organic chemistry, non-metals and
chemistry, society and the environment. Under each topic, there are content statements and notes to
teachers. The topics in the textbooks are the same as those in the syllabus. Each textbook is used in one
grade. Chemistry examination paper 3 is a one and half hours laboratory-based examination in which
students are asked to perform two experiments and write a report on each. Therefore, a total of twelve
experiments in the practical examinations papers were examined for inquiry levels and skills.
51
INQUIRY LEVELS AND SKILLS IN ZAMBIAN HIGH SCHOOL CHEMISTRY ISSN 1648–3898
Analysis frameworks and procedures
Inquiry levels in the chemistry course materials were determined by using the framework and
procedure developed by Tafoya, Sunal and Knecht (1980). The framework has four inquiry levels: Con-
firmation, Structured, Guided, and Open. Confirmation inquiry level activities require students to verify
concepts through a known answer and given procedure that the students follow. Structured inquiry
level activities present students with a problem in which they do not know the results, but they are
given a procedure to follow in order to complete the activity. Guided inquiry level activities provide the
student only with a problem to investigate. Students are given a chance to determine the procedure
to use and the data to collect. Open inquiry level activities allow students to formulate hypotheses or
problems and the procedure for collecting data for interpretation and drawing conclusions. The units
of analysis in the chemistry textbooks were the experiments. In the syllabus, the units of analysis were
introduction, general aims, notes to teachers, and content and assessment objectives. In the practical
examinations all the experiments, questions and background information were analyzed. These units
were read and matched with the characteristics of inquiry levels outlined in the framework. For the
textbooks and practical examinations, a total score was obtained for each inquiry level and expressed
as a percentage.
The high school chemistry course materials were further analyzed for inquiry skills using a modified
Inquiry Task Inventory (Tamir & Luneta, 1981). The framework has inquiry skills in four sections: Planning
and design; performance, analysis and interpretations and application. The units of analysis in the course
materials included, experiments, instructions, aims, questions, procedures, diagrams, figures, tables and
content statements, and assessment objectives. These units of analysis were read and a check was placed
in the appropriate inquiry skill in the framework. If a statement in the analyzable unit called for more
than one inquiry skill, more than one check was made. For each inquiry skill the checks were tallied and
expressed as a percentage in each course material. Two chemistry educators independently analyzed
the chemistry course materials for inquiry levels and skills using the procedures described above. An
intercoder agreement coefficient was calculated using Cohen’s Kappa (Cohen, 1960). This coefficient
factors in chance agreement and represents a measure of reliability.
Results of Research
Intercoder agreement
The percentage agreement between the two raters for the high school chemistry course materials
analyses ranged from 85% to 93% with a corresponding range of kappa values from 0.82 to 0.92. These
statistics suggest a high degree of agreement between the two raters in categorizing inquiry levels and
skills in the chemistry course materials. Values above 75% indicate excellent percentage agreement while
kappa values below 0.4 indicate a poor interrater coefficient (Chiappetta, Sethna & Fillman, 1991).
Inquiry levels and skills in the chemistry syllabus
As shown in the excerpts below the high school chemistry syllabus emphasized both inquiry skills
and levels:
This syllabus aims at stimulating pupils’ curiosity and sense of enquiry… During the course students
should know how to: follow instructions [Structured & confirmation Inquiry levels] ; use techniques,
apparatus and materials; observe, measure and record [Inquiry task section 2- Performance]; plan
investigations [Inquiry task section 1- Planning and Design; Open Inquiry]; interpret and evaluate
observations and results [Inquiry task section 3- Analysis and Interpretation]; evaluate methods
and suggest possible improvements [Inquiry task section 4- Application; Guided inquiry] (High
school chemistry syllabus, p. vii-viii).
52
Similarly, the assessment section states that the chemistry practical examinations will focus on
assessing students’ knowledge, understanding and application of:
…scientific apparatus and instruments and their safe operation [Inquiry task section 2- Perform-
ance]; translating information from one form to another manipulate numerical data, plotting results
graphically, identify patterns and draw inferences from information’ give reasonable explanations
for patterns and relationships, [Inquiry task section 3- Analysis & Interpretation], make predictions
and hypotheses, and experimental methods evaluation and possible improvements [Inquiry task
sections 1 & 4, Guided inquiry] (High school chemistry syllabus, p.x-xi).
However, the chemistry syllabus had no suggested inquiry activities or guidelines on how to imple-
ment inquiry-based science teaching.
Inquiry levels in chemistry textbooks
As shown in Table 1 below most experiments in the chemistry textbooks were at confirmation
inquiry level followed by structured inquiry level and less at guided inquiry level and nothing at open
inquiry level. Most experiments had more than one inquiry level. The number of experiments decreased
from the Chemistry 10 to 12 textbook.
Table 1. Percentage of inquiry levels in chemistry textbooks.

Inquiry levels
Textbook
Confirmation Structured Guided Open
Chem10 (N=58) 86 8 6 0
Chem11 (N=30) 71 15 4 0
Chem12 (N=29) 76 19 5 0
N= Number of experiments in each textbook
Inquiry levels in chemistry practical examinations
Table 2 shows that most experiments in the practical examinations were at structured level followed
by confirmation level, less at guided level and nothing at open inquiry level. However, there were no
experiments at guided inquiry level in 2002 and 2003.
Table 2. Percentage of inquiry levels in chemistry practical examinations.
Inquiry levels
Exam Year
Confirmation Structured Guided Open
2001(N=2) 20 77 3 0
2002(N=2) 5 93 2 0
2003(N=2) 3 97 0 0
2004(N=2) 50 50 0 0
2005(N=2) 27 69 4 0
2006 (N=2) 49 50 1 0
N= Number of experiments in each examination paper. Note: Most experiments had more than one inquiry level
Inquiry skills in chemistry textbooks
As shown in Table 3 below, the chemistry textbooks emphasized lower level inquiry skills with those
53
in performance section receiving the most emphasis followed by those in analysis and interpretation
section. Very few inquiry skills in the planning and design and application sections were emphasized
in the practical examinations. The number of experiments decreased from grade 10 to 12, hence the
number of inquiry skills decreased.
Table 3. Percentage distribution of inquiry skills in chemistry textbooks.
Inquiry task and skill Textbooks
Chem. 10 Chem. 11 Chem. 12

(N=226) (N=189) (N=126)
1.0 PLANNING & DESIGN
1.1 Formulates a question, defines a problem 0.0 0.0 0.0
1.2 Predicts experimental results 0.0 0.0 0.0
1.3 Formulates hypothesis to be tested 0.0 0.0 0.0
1.4 Designs observations/measurements 2.0 1.2 0.9
1.5 Designs experiment 0.0 0.0 0.0
Subtotal 2.0 1.2 0.9
2.0 PERFORMANCE
2.1 Manipulates apparatus 23.9 20.3 24.1
2.2 Measures/observes 26.0 30.1 32.2
2.3 Draws/labels diagrams 0.2 0.5 0.0
2.4 Records results 15.1 10.6 12.0
Subtotal 65.2 61.5 68.3
3.0 ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION

3.1(a) Transform results into standard form 2.3 3.8 2.8
3.1(b) Graphs data 3.5 2.7 2.2
3.2(a) Determines qualitative relationship 4.3 5.2 3.6
3.2(b) Determines quantitative relationship 11.0 9.9 8.1
3.3 Determines accuracy of experimental data 0.1 0.0 0.0
3.4 States limitations/assumptions/precautions 0.2 0.5 0.0
3.5 States conclusion/proposes a generalization 2.4 5.0 3.0
3.6 Explains relationships 7.2 10.1 9.7
Subtotal 31.1 37.2 29.6
4.0 APPLICATION
4.1 Predicts on basis of obtained results 1.7 0.0 0.0
4.2 Predicts beyond the data/uses given data 0.0 0.1 1.2
4.3 Applies technique to new problem 0.0 0.0 0.0
Subtotal 1.7 0.1 1.2
N= Number of codes identified in each chemistry textbook.
Inquiry skills in chemistry practical examinations
Table 4 shows that the practical examinations mostly emphasized inquiry skills for performing
experiments, analyzing and interpreting data. In the performance section, the inquiry skills emphasized
were manipulating apparatus, observing, and recording results. In the analysis and Interpretation sec-
tion students were mainly asked to determine quantitative relationships and state conclusions while
54
in the planning and design section students were only asked to design tables for data. However, there
was some consistency in the coverage of inquiry skills in the practical examinations across the period
considered for this study.
Table 5. Percentage distribution of inquiry skills in practical exam papers.

Inquiry task & skills Year
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

(N=190) (N=188) (N=186) (N=190) (N=189) (N=194)
1.0 PLANNING & DESIGN
1.1 Formulates a question, defines a problem 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1.2 Predicts experimental results 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1.3 Formulates hypothesis to be tested 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1.4 Designs observations/measurements 0.7 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.2
1.5 Designs experiment 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Subtotal 0.7 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.2
2.0 PERFORMANCE
2.1 Manipulates apparatus 32.0 29.0 25.2 24.3 31.1 23.5
2.2 Measures/observes 33.2 35.6 35.0 37.1 33.2 41.3
2.3 Draws/labels diagrams 0.1 0.8 3.3 4.5 0.9 2.2
2.4 Records results 11.1 13.8 21.1 12.4 16.1 10.9
Subtotal 76.4 79.2 80.1 78.3 81.3 77.9
3.0 ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION
3.1(a) Transform results into standard form 0.2 0.4 0.7 1.0 0.6 1.1
3.1(b) Graphs data 1.8 0.9 1.8 0.5 1.0 0.0
3.2(a) Determines qualitative relationship 0.3 0.1 0.4 0.2 1.3 0.5
3.2(b) Determines quantitative relationship 9.4 11.1 9.0 10.0 8.6 9.3
3.3 Determines accuracy of experimental data 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.0 0.0
3.4 States limitations/assumptions/precautions 0.2 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.4 0.0
3.5 States conclusion/proposes a generalization 8.3 5.2 3.8 4.5 2.2 0.3
3.6 Explains relationships 4.1 2.6 3.1 4.7 4.0 0.1
Subtotal 22.8 20.3 19.2 21.3 18.1 11.3
4.0 APPLICATION
4.1 Predicts on basis of obtained results 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.3
4.2 Predicts beyond the data/uses given data 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
4.3 Applies technique to new problem 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Subtotal 0.1 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.3
N= Number of codes identified in each examination paper for each year.
Discussion
The unbalanced representation of inquiry levels and skills in Zambian high school chemistry text-
books and practical examinations is similar to those reported in previous studies (Germann, Haskins
& Auls, 1996; Tamir & Luneta, 1981; Lunetta, & Tamir, 1980; Pizzini, Shepardson & Abell, 1991; Eltinge &
Roberts, 1993; Okebukola, 1988; Tafoya, Sunal & Knecht, 1980). However, there was consistency in the
coverage of inquiry level and skills in each Zambian high school chemistry course material. In addi-
tion, most experiments in the practical examinations were one inquiry level higher than those in the
textbooks.
55
The emphasis on lower inquiry levels and skills in the chemistry course materials implies that
during chemistry lessons and practical examinations students commonly work as technicians
following explicit instructions provided. As such, they are not given opportunities to identify or
formulate problems or hypothesize and test them based upon their understanding of the concepts
involved. Science instruction organized exclusively around confirmation and structured levels of
inquiry and lower inquiry skills emphasizes a teaching approach that portrays scientific knowledge
as fact, which can only be found if one scientific method is followed (Eltinge & Roberts, 1993). The
lack of guidelines or detailed information on inquiry-based teaching in the syllabus and textbooks
poses a substantial challenge to teachers who have not received training on inquiry teaching. This is
another potential obstacle to the adoption or implementation of inquiry-based science teaching.
The uniformity in inquiry skills representation in the textbooks and syllabus is a desirable
feature and allows teachers to easily predict the type of experiments that will be in the practical
examinations and the skills required to pass the examinations. Unfortunately, some teachers will
only teach certain inquiry skills and ignore others. In order to develop higher-order inquiry skills
among students, the chemistry textbooks should have activities at open inquiry levels. In future
research, teacher-made chemistry tests and laboratory activities should be examined for inquiry
levels and skills. Chemistry classroom instruction observations should also be undertaken to find
out the extent to which inquiry levels and skills are addressed during the lessons.
Conclusions
It can be concluded that the chemistry syllabus was explicit on inquiry skills and levels. Ex-
periments in chemistry textbooks were mostly at confirmation inquiry level. On the other hand,
experiments in the practical examinations were mostly at structured inquiry levels. There were no
experiments at open inquiry level in the course materials analyzed. However, the course materials
emphasized the same inquiry skills. There were no guidelines for inquiry-based teaching in the
course materials.
References
American Association for the Advancement of Science [AAAS]. (1989). Science for all Americans. Project
2061. New York: Oxford University Press.
Chiappetta, E. L., Sethna, G. H. & Fillman, D. A. (1991). A quantitative analysis of high school chemistry
textbooks for scientific literacy themes and expository learning aids. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,
28 (10), 939-951.
Chirwa, C., Kasengele, M., Silumesii, L., Swazi, H., Mukuma, J. & Wamundila, E. (1996). Chemistry 10. Lusaka:
Macmillan Publisher (Zambia) Ltd.
Cohen, J. (1960). A coefficient of nominal scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20 (1), 37-46.
Curriculum Development Center [CDC]. (2000). High school Chemistry Syllabus: Lusaka, Zambia.
Eltinge, E. M. & Roberts, C. W. (1993). Linguistic content analysis: A method to measure science as inquiry
in textbooks. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 30(1), 65-83.
Germann, P. J., Haskins, S., & Auls, S. (1996). Analysis of nine high school biology laboratory manuals:
Promoting scientific inquiry. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 33(5), 475-499.
Lunetta, V. N., & Tamir, P. (1980). An analysis of laboratory activities: Project chemistry and PSS, School
Science and Mathematics, 80, 635-642.
Mukuma, J., Swazi, H. & Chirwa, C. (1996). Chemistry 11. Lusaka: Macmillan Publisher (Zambia) Ltd.
Mukuma, J., Swazi, H. & Chirwa, C. S. (1996). Chemistry 12. Lusaka: Macmillan Publisher (Zambia) Ltd.
National Research Council [NRC]. (1996). National science education standards. Washington, DC: National
Academic Press.
Okebukola, P. A. (1988). An assessment of the structure and skill level of the tasks in the Nigerian integrated
science project. Journal of Research in Curriculum, 6, 1-6.
Pizzini, E. L., Shepardson, D. P. & Abell, S. K. (1991). The inquiry level of junior high activities: Implications
to science teaching. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 28(2), 111-121.
Soyibo, K. (1998). An Assessment of Caribbean integrated science textbooks’ practical tasks. Research in
Science and Technology Education, 16(1), 31-41.
Tafoya, E., Sunal, D. W., & Knecht, P. (1980). Assessing inquiry potential: A tool for curriculum decision
56
makers. School Science & Mathematics, 80, 43-48.

Tamir, P. & Luneta, V.N. (1981). Inquiry-related tasks in high school science laboratory handbooks. Science
Education, 65, 477-484.
Received 31 July 2007; accepted 29 August 2007.
Frackson Mumba
Doctor of Education (Science Education),
Assistant Professor of Science Education,
former Chemistry & Physics teacher in Zambia.
Southern Illinois University Carbondale,
Department of Curriculum and Instruction,
621 Wham Drive, Carbondale, IL 62901, USA.
Phone: 618 453 6162; Fax: 618 453 4244.
E-mail: frackson@siu.edu
Vivien Mweene Chabalengula

Doctor of Education (Science Education),
Lecturer in Science Education, former Biology &
Chemistry teacher in Zambia.
Southern Illinois University Carbondale,
Department of Curriculum and Instruction,
621 Wham Drive, Carbondale, IL 62901, USA.
Phone: 618 453 6162 ; Fax: 618 453 4244.
E-mail: mweenechabalengula@excite.com
William Hunter
Associate Professor of Chemistry,
Illinois State University, Chemistry Department,
Normal, IL, USA 61791.
Phone: 309 438 7905; Fax: 309 438 4252.
E-mail: wjhunte@ilstu.edu
57
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ISSN 1648–3898
JBSE
FOURTH SCANDINAVIAN SYMPOSIUM
ON RESEARCH IN SCIENCE EDUCATION
University of Southern Denmark, Odense, 14-15 February 2008
“Teaching and learning science in new contexts”
Invitation and first circular
This symposium is a follow-up of the successful symposia, organized by Hans-Jürgen Schmidt

(Karlstad), and Veijo Meisalo (Helsinki) and Onno de Jong (Karlstad). As earlier, the aim is to
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Conference dates: 14–15 February 2008.
Location: University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark, see http://www.sdu.dk/?sc_lang=en.

Odense is the third largest town of Denmark and the birthplace of the world famous fairytale writer
Hans Christian Andersen, see http://www.visitodense.com/. Odense is easy to reach by plane (via
Copenhagen or Billund), by train (from Copenhagen, Århus and Frederikshavn), or by car.
Conference fees: No fees. Participants shall cover their own expenses for travel and stay.
Conference Chair: Dr Claus Michelsen, Center for Science and Mathematics Education, University
of Southern Denmark.
Deadline for proposals (paper, poster): 1 December 2007.
Further information: cmich@imada.sdu.dk A second circular with details about the program,
possible accommodation, and so on, is sent out in the beginning of January 2008.
59
ISSN 1648–3898
JBSE
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ISSN 1648–3898
JBSE
Problems of Education in the 21st Century, ISSN 1822-7864
A new non-periodical collection of scientific articles on education
Publisher
Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“ /Lithuania/, the associated member of Lithuanian
Scientific Society and ICASE
Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic
of Lithuania
Editorial Board
Dr., Prof. Janis Gedrovics, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia
Dr., Prof. Martin Bilek, Hradec Kralove University, Czechia
Dr., Prof. Borislav V. Toshev, Sofia University, Bulgaria
Dr. Todar T. Lakhvich, Belarusian State M.Tank Pedagogical University, Republic of Belarus
Dr. Eleonora Melnik, Karelian State Pedagogical University, Republic of Karelia, Russia
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin, University of Oregon, USA
Dr. Rytis Vilkonis, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic of Lithuania
For contacts: gu@projektas.lt
Home page: http://www.gu.projektas.lt/rinkinys_en.htm
61
Compiled by: Vincentas Lamanauskas

Linguistic Editors: Gintaras Vaidogas,
Gražina Lamanauskienė
Cover design by: Jurgina Jankauskienė
Layout design by : Linas Janonis
Contact person: Rytis Vilkonis
30-08-2007. Publishing in Quires 8. Edition 300
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Vol. 6, No.

2, 2007 ISSN 1648-3898

Published since 2002

ISSN 1648–3898 © Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“,

INTEREST IN SCIENCE AS THE KEY TO SUCCESSFUL SCIENCE STUDIES

THE EFFECTS OF TUTORIAL AND EDUTAINMENT SOFTWARE PROGRAMS

THE EFFECTS OF CONCEPT MAPPING INSTRUCTION ON OVERCOMING

CONTEXT RICH PROBLEMS AS AN EDUCATIONAL TOOL

INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES

INQUIRY LEVELS AND SKILLS IN ZAMBIAN HIGH SCHOOL CHEMISTRY SYLLABUS,

INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

FOURTH SCANDINAVIAN SYMPOSIUM ON RESEARCH IN SCIENCE EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . 59

ICT IN SCIENCE EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION IN THE 21 ST CENTURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

INTEREST IN SCIENCE AS THE KEY TO SUCCESSFUL SCIENCE STUDIES

Dear Readers and Writers!

Prof.dr. Janis Gedrovics,

Abstract. The purpose of this study was

Instructional Software Programs

Cell division achievement test

Cell division concept test

Biology attitude scale

N M S.D. df Mean Square F Sig. Post hoc

N M S.D. df Mean Square F Sig. Post hoc

Misconceptions about chromosome number

Misconceptions concerning genetic information after cell division

Misconceptions related to the location of cell division

Misconceptions about cell division in plants

Table 3. Results of pre and post-test concerning misconceptions.

Genetic information after cell division

Cell division in plants

mitosis does not occur in plants 41.7 45.8 50 25 25 37.5

N M S.D. df Mean Square F Sig. Post hoc

Conclusions and Discussions

Computer-assisted instruction is a widely studied and supported method of teaching. Numerous

assisted learning, 18, 157–165.

Received 30 January 2007; accepted 22 May 2007.

Abstract. The purpose of the present Sacit Köse

Data Collection Instrument

Pre- test Post- test

Experimental Group Control Group Experimental Group Control Group

C: Correct answer; IC: Incorrect answer

Conceptual Area Pre-test (%) Post-test (%)

- will be higher because water moves from low to high concentra-

- will be the same because water will become isotonic. 8 8 0 0

Particulates move from high to low concentration because:

When a drop of dye is placed in a container of clear water the:

A glucose solution can be made more concentrated by:

- adding more water because for a solution to be more concen- 12 0 12 17

EG: Experimental group; CG: Control group

Experimental group 26 19.42 7.78 0.594 0.55

Control group 24 18.12 7.63

Significant at p> 0.05

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 11422.667 3 3807.556 57.544 0.000

Discussion and Implication

Received 13 February 2007; accepted 12 June 2007.

Abstract. We present a case study, in Gunnar Jonsson, Peter Gustafsson,

Problem solving strategy

1) Identify the problem and opportunities [to do something creative]

Methods of data collection

The problem and questions used in the video analysis

The studied CRP: The Drink