Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 6, No. 1, 2007

Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 6, No.
1, 2007
ISSN 1648–3898
V ol. 6, No. 1, 2007 ISSN 1648-3898
1
Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 6, No. 1, 2007
ISSN 1648–3898
Editorial Board
Editor–in–Chief
Prof., Dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas - Siauliai University /Lithuania/
Deputy Editor–in–Chief
Prof., Dr. Andris Broks - University of Latvia /Latvia/
Deputy Editor–in–Chief
Prof., Dr. habil. Aarne Tõldsepp - Estonian Chemistry Teachers Association /Estonia/
Executive Secretary
Dr. Laima Railienë - Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica”
/Lithuania/
Editors:
Dr. Hana Ètrnáctová - Charles University /Czechia/
Dr. Peter Demkanin - Comenius University /Slovakia/
Prof., Dr. Jânis Gedrovics - Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management
Academy /Latvia/
Dr. Ryszard M. Janiuk - Maria Curie Sklodowska University /Poland/
Dr. Rita Makarskaitë-Petkevièienë - Vilnius Pedagogical University /Lithuania/
Prof., Dr. Aadu Ott - Göteborg University /Sweden/
Dr. Paul Pace - Malta University /Malta/
Prof., Dr. Valfrids Paðkeviès - Daugavpils University /Latvia/
Dr. Miia Rannikmäe - Tartu University /Estonia/
Dr. Alona Rauckienë - Klaipëda University /Lithuania/
Dr. Kurt Riquarts - Kiel University /Germany/
Prof., Dr. Heimo Saarikko - Helsinki University /Finland/
Prof., Dr. habil. Juozas Saplinskas - Vilnius University /Lithuania/
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin - University of Oregon /USA/
Prof., Dr. Valery P. Solomin - Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia /Russia/
Prof., Dr. Borislav V. Toshev - Sofia University /Bulgaria/
Dr. Georgios Tsaparlis - University of Ioannina /Greece/
A scientific journal JBSE issued by the SMC Scientia Educologica, Lithuania, emphasizes theoretical,
experimental and methodical studies in the field of science education. JBSE is an international academic
journal. In order to maintain the high standards appropriate to such a journal, all contributions received
are submitted for anonymous review by two experts, additionally to review by the Editor. The decision of
the Editor on the acceptance of articles is final and no correspondence can be entered into on reasons
for rejection of a submitted contribution.
Published since 2002

The journal is published three times per year in March, August and October.
Address: Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”

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http://www.webspawner.com/users/19671970/
ISSN 1648–3898 © Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“

/Lithuania/, The associated member of Lithuanian
Scientific Society and ICASE
The articles appearing in this journal are indexed/abstracted in British Education Index,
Copernicus Index and EBSCO: Academic Search Premier
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ISSN 1648–3898 CONTENTS
CONTENTS
DEAR READERS AND WRITERS!

MODERN SCIENCE EDUCATION AS INVESTMENT TO THE FUTURE .............................................. 4
Articles
PUPILS’ MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT MAMMALS

Milan Kubiatko, Pavol Prokop .......................................................................................................... 5
TRENDS IN WESTERN SCIENCE CURRICULA AND

SCIENCE EDUCATION RESEARCH: A BIRD’S EYE VIEW
Onno De Jong .................................................................................................................................. 15
TURKISH UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS’

MISCONCEPTIONS ON ACIDS AND BASES
Tacettin Pinarbasi ........................................................................................................................... 23
A HANDS-ON ACTIVITY TO PROMOTE CONCEPTUAL

CHANGE ABOUT MIXTURES AND CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS
Bayram Costu, Suat Ünal, Alipasa Ayas ......................................................................................... 35
DEVELOPING PROSPECTIVE PHYSICS TEACHERS’ SKILLS

OF INDEPENDENT EXPERIMENTAL WORK USING OUTDOORS APPROACH
Oleg Popov, Irina Tevel .................................................................................................................... 47
EARLY SCIENCE TEACHING IN THE NEW PRIMARY SCHOOL IN SLOVENIA

Vlasta Hus, Boris Aberðek .............................................................................................................. 58
THE INFLUENCES OF ELEMENTARY SCIENCE TEACHING METHOD COURSES

ON A TURKISH TEACHERS COLLEGE ELEMENTARY EDUCATION MAJOR STUDENTS’
ATTITUDES TOWARDS SCIENCE AND SCIENCE TEACHING
Lutfullah Turkmen .......................................................................................................................... 66
EXPLANATIONS FOR PHYSICS PHENOMENA GIVEN BY

PRIMARY SCHOOL WOULD-BE TEACHERS
Tuula Keinonen ............................................................................................................................... 78
Information
INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS .............................................................................................. 92
INTERNATIONAL PROJECT “IQST”: HOW TO IMPROVE SCIENCE TEACHERS` TRAINING? .......... 93
INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH PROJECT “ARiSE” ............................................................................ 94
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ISSN 1648–3898
Dear Readers and Writers!
Modern science education as investment to the future
Recent international and regional scientific research carried out at different level point to
mean learners’ involvement into natural sciences. Such tendency is strongly marked in the
developed countries. A number of negative tendencies have been disclosed by international ROSE
research /http://www.ils.uio.no/english/rose/ the results of which are carefully analyzed in the
majority of countries worldwide. Natural science education is playing a crucial role in both developed
and developing countries. Quality-based natural science education is necessary for every human
living in a modern world. As it was mentioned above, different investigations show that natural
sciences have lost their previous attractiveness in the developed countries. On the contrary, the
young generation of the developing countries most frequently has a positive interest in natural
sciences. Professor A.Broks affirms that presently, the majority of people have failed to take a
clear position on the events taking place in our lives, and therefore education is often accepted
through chaos as well as through dangerous and old-fashioned ideas promoted by the West. On
the other hand, in most of the cases, natural science education in school is not popular, inexactly
correspond to the curricula and have no relevance to the learners’ needs. The introduced situation
is determined by several common and uncommon factors. The process of natural science education
in comprehensive school is one of those not adequate for the present day and achievements in
sciences. Such inadequacy first of all has relation with competence of teachers of natural sciences.
Insufficient competence is frequently determined by the inappropriate process of studies in
universities training would-be teachers of natural sciences. To some purpose, in a number of
countries, careful attention is paid to adopt new approaches for training teachers of natural
sciences, for example the international project IQST (Improving Quality of Science Teacher Training
in European Cooperation) / http://www.iqst.upol.cz/. Although the above introduced project is not
large enough, however it is expected that its results will have powerful impact on improving the
system of teacher training in universities. The need of the project can be clearly reflected by the
remark that in the entire participating countries one can observe lack of science teachers, mainly
of physics and chemistry teachers, as well as lack of students in this teacher training. There is not
doubt that science teaching has a crucial role to play in shaping the future development of the EU.
A valid point is that JBSE has found the reader. The editorial board receives interesting
manuscripts, suggestions, responses and positive evaluations. The staff of the magazine is grateful
to everyone for improving the image of the journal. In behalf of the editorial board I would like to
thank all the members of the board as well as the reviewers of the articles for thorough and
superficial examination of every paper presented. It’s valuable and immediate help necessary for
the magazine to be available for the reader. Ten editions have already been published. We expect
that any of the issues included interesting and valuable topics relevant to everyone engaged in
improvement of natural science education at all levels of the education system. The readers and
authors should accept the fact that due to the increase of the journal’s ratings, from now on, the
magazine will be published three times a year. Moreover, considering the standards defined by
the international community, the numeration of the periodical has been changed.
The editorial board is looking forward to collecting articles that discuss various issues. Public
natural science education (sophistication) is a burning question. Apparently natural science
education is crucial for training the present young generation. In this case, there is no difference
whether a young person will be engaged in natural sciences in the future. The increase of the
interest of those not involved in sciences or having a previously formed negative attitude towards
the subjects is a more complicated problem to be solved. This is concern and obligation of the
whole scientific pedagogical society working in the field of natural science education.
With kind regards!
Prof.dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas

Editor-in-Chief of JBSE,
Head of Natural Science Education Research Centre, Siauliai University, Lithuania
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ISSN 1648–3898
PUPILS’ MISCONCEPTIONS
ABOUT MAMMALS
Milan Kubiatko, Pavol Prokop Abstract. A misconception about

© Milan Kubiatko animals has been reported in various
© Pavol Prokop research reports on the pupils of all
age groups. However, deeper study
on the children’s concepts about
mammals has never been
conducted. This study suggests the
Introduction
ideas about mammals put forward
by the children aged from 10 to 15.
Pupils construct their knowledge through interaction
A questionnaire with 35 multiple
with the environment, and mostly based on an intuitive
choice and open - ended questions
approach (Lazarowitz & Lieb, 2006). Biology education should
were administered to 468 children
provide pupils with knowledge and skills that help them to
from 6 elementary schools in
understand everyday life in nature. The importance of biology
Slovakia. The children’s ideas were
education currently increases either due to the strong
examined in five dimensions (animal
impact of modern technologies on everyday life of all people
classification and phylogeny; food;
(Lappan, 2000) or due to the increase of environmental
foraging strategies; parental care;
problems that negatively influence people lives. However,
senses, morphology and anatomy).
children’s understanding of several important biological
Serious misconceptions about
topics often differs from those of scientists. These
mammals across all age groups were
differences in children’s concepts are well known as
found out. Our data provides direct
misconceptions (see Fisher, 1985). The misconceptions are
implications for teaching biology.
pervasive and resistant to change through conventional
teaching approaches (Trowbridge & Mintzes, 1985). Several
Key words: age, animals,
research reports show that the distribution of
misconception, mammals, pupils.
misconceptions is not restricted to the young children but
even to the students in high schools and colleges (Ryman,
1974a, 1974b; Trowbridge, Mintzes, 1985, 1988; Chen,
Huang, Wang 1994; Lazarowitz & Lieb, 2006). For example, Milan Kubiatko
Chen and Ku (1998) were interested in aboriginal children’s Comenius University, Slovakia
conceptions of animals and animal classification. They found Pavol Prokop
out that aboriginal children assigned the concepts like ‘move, Trnava University, Slovakia
eat, and attack’ to animals. The typical examples of animals
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PUPILS’ MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT MAMMALS ISSN 1648–3898
(P. 5–14)
for aboriginal children were lions, tigers and elephants. Similar findings were provided by
Huang (1996) who asserted that movement is a typical characteristic of an animal. Chen and
Ku (1998) and Tema (1989) found that children had anthropocentric feelings. The children
have made comparisons such as ‘unlike human’, ‘can not talk’, ‘very cute’ etc. with humans.
Research on children’s concepts about animal classification showed that pupils of all ages
including biology major college students often classified crawfish as a vertebrate (Trowbridge
and Mintzes, 1988) or thought that penguin was a mammal (Kellert, 1985; Trowbridge and
Mintzes, 1985, 1988; Braund, 1991; Prokop, Kubiatko, & Fancovicova, accepted manuscript)
perhaps because it lived in the sea like large marine mammals (Trowbridge & Mintzes, 1988;
Kattman, 2001). Turtles and reptiles are typically misclassified as amphibians (Yen et al., 2004)
or invertebrates (Braund, 1998).
The alternative conceptions about animals were typically measured by such simple tasks
as ‘circle the animals that have a backbone…’ (e.g. Trowbridge & Mintzes, 1988). However,
current research of Prokop, Kubiatko & Fancovicova (accepted manuscript) found that using
multiple questions on the same animal could show contradictory results. They asked children
aged from 7/8 to 14/15 to make a circle about various animals and found that about 40 % of
all children incorrectly classified a penguin as non-bird species. However, follow up questions
revealed that 56% of the children thought that a penguin does not lay eggs but bears chicks
as mammals do. Moreover, the majority (75 %) of the children thought that penguin’s body
was covered with hair or uncovered skin. The data indicates that misconceptions could be
largely camouflaged by the definitions children are taught at school and a simple question can
hardly uncover children’s concept about an animal. Thus, a series of additional questions (Ozay
& Oztas, 2003) or interviews (Braund, 1998) could lead to different in-depth results. Moreover,
no systematic research on children’s ideas about mammals has been conducted yet.
Biology as a school subject is tought separately from chemistry and physics in Slovakia.
The biology curricula are the same in all schools: fifth-formers are taught botany, sixth-formers
- zoology, seventh-formers - human biology, eighth-formers – geology. The courses on
palaeontology and biology are mixed and mostly focus on ecology in form 9. Thus, Slovakian
pupils should have a broad knowledge of morphology and systematic and habitat use of
common animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates after leaving form 6 (age 11/
12).
The aim of our study was to find out: 1) What are the pupils’ misconceptions about
mammals in elementary school? 2) How the misconceptions about mammals change from
form 5 to form 9?
Methodology of Research
The questionnaire about the children’s concepts of mammals consists of 35 open - ended
and multiple choice questions. The multiple choice questions included 2, 3, 4 or 5 possibilities,
but only one choice was correct. The questionnaire was submitted to a panel of experts in
zoology (two professors of zoology from different universities) and two biology teachers in
order to maintain validity of the questionnaire. All the questions criticized were improved or
excluded from the final version. The questions were subdivided in five categories: 1. Animal
classification and phylogeny; 2. Food; 3. Foraging strategies; 4. Parental care; 5. Senses,
morphology and anatomy. We coded every answer correct (1) or incorrect (0) or examined and
grouped all the answers from the open-ended questions. At the end of the questionnaire, the
children were asked for basic information such as sex, age and form.
The questionnaires were administered to six typical elementary schools in Slovakia. The
questions were answered by the pupils from forms 5 (n = 83), 6 (n = 86), 7 (n = 112), 8 (n = 86)
and 9 (n = 101). 468 completed questionnaires were received. The age of pupils varied from 10
to 15. The number of boys (n = 229) and girls (n = 239) was similar.
We used the Pearson Chi - square (χ2) statistics to evaluate the distribution of pupils’
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ISSN 1648–3898 PUPILS’ MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT MAMMALS
(P. 5–14)
responses. This test is based on measure of real differences between real frequencies in the
contingent table and the expected frequencies. The age - related differences were also
calculated using the Pearson Chi-square test (χ2). The Chi-square analysis may report relatively
small percentage differences as being statistically significant, although such differences may
not necessarily be educationally significant or of practical importance. Therefore, we decided
to calculate age-related trends following Skamp, Boyes and Stanisstreet (2004). If the Chi-
square value was statistically significant (p < 0.05), if the direction of the trend was consistent
(ether increasing or decreasing), and if there were at least three percentage points between
each of the eight grade levels, the data would be described as showing an age-related trend.
If the Chi-square value was not statistically significant or if the direction of the trend was
inconsistent (for example, increasing then decreasing) then the data would be described as
not showing an age related trend.
On the measure of reliability of the questionnaire, Cronbach’s alpha calculation was used.
The values of Cronbach’s alpha close around 0.7 or higher generally indicate that results are
consistent (Nunnaly, 1978). The statistic characteristics n - number of cases, X – average and
SD - standard deviation were used in the text.
Results of Research
Based on the distribution of correct and incorrect responses, we found out that the
maximum number of points acquired from the questionnaire was 34 (i.e. highest success) and
the minimum was 8 (i.e. lowest success). The total average score was X = 22.84 and SD = 4.22.
The value of Cronbach’s alpha was 0.67. This indicates that the questionnaire is marginally
reaching an appropriate reliability. The Cronbach’s alpha of Trowbridge and Mintzes’s (1988)
research instrument was found to be 0.5 which suggests that our questionnaire have
satisfactory reliability.
The descriptive statistic for the mean success that pupils acquired from the questionnaire
is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Basic statistic of questionnaire categories.
Category Number of N X SD
questions
Animal classification and phylogeny 7 468 4.2 1.51

Food 9 468 6.46 1.45
Foraging strategies 3 468 2.01 0.77
Parental care 4 468 2.49 1.01
Senses, morphology and anatomy 10 468 6.61 1.44
The highest mean score was found for the Food and Senses, morphology and anatomy
categories. In contrast, the behavioural categories like Foraging strategies and Parental care of
mammals were relatively less understood.
We found a statistically significant effect of age on the mean score from categories Animal
classification and phylogeny, Food and Parental care. More details are shown in Table 2. As shown
in Figure 1, the mean score obtained per each category was relatively stable and failed to show
great differences between several age groups. The categories in which the relationship between
age and the mean score reached statistical significance (see above) also showed a very slight
increase in the mean score as the pupils’ age increases. Moreover, the oldest pupils showed a
mostly decreasing trend in the mean score relatively to the younger learners.
7
(P. 5–14)
Figure 1. The average number of points obtained by the students for individual categories.
Table 2. χ2) between age and answers success.

The values of Pearson Chi-square (χ
Category Pearson chi - square p
Animal classification and phylogeny 68.2* 0.00066

Food 61.09* 0.01750
Foraging strategies 15.5 0.41578
Parental care 42.84* 0.00215
Senses, morphology and anatomy 57.42 0.10143
* p < 0.05
Animal classification and phylogeny
The majority of the children incorrectly thought that dinosaurs were closely related to
mammoths (51 %) and whales (8 %) rather than birds (41 %). The mean success of the pupils from
each grade on this item is shown in Figure 2.
Most of the children were correct (91.8 %) that whales did not lay eggs although relative
fewer children knew the same about bats (77.3 %). Also, 64.3 % of the children correctly knew
that the platypus lays eggs. The platypus was most frequently misclassified with birds (30.5 %),
but the majority of answers were correct (56.2 %). 337 children in total (72 %) were right that the
whale is a mammal and 156 children (33.3 %) incorrectly thought that the penguin was a mammal.
A doe was 200 times misclassified with a roe-deer.
8
(P. 5–14)
Figure 2. The percentage of the pupils correctly thinking that a dinosaur is phylogenetically
relative to birds rather than a mammoth or whale.
Food
The majority of the children (80 %) knew that food of the young dinosaurs was eating plants.
The similar question was about the young whales but only 52.4 % of the respondents knew that
they suck milk. The others marked that food of the young whales is plankton. Also, 82 % of
children knew that a hedgehog feeds on insects and earthworms, and only 17 % of children
showed food of the hedgehog as fruit and vegetable. The rest of the children thought that the
hedgehog feeds on garbage. The majority of the children (78 %) wrote an incorrect answer for
the food of a wild swine. These children wrote that the wild swine is a phytophagous animal. The
relative success of individual grades on this question is provided in Figure 3.
Most of the answers for the food of an elephant were correct that the elephant is a
phytophagous animal (66.5 %). Other children showed that elephants are omnivorous animals. A
similar proportion of correct answers was found in the case of food of bats (69.2 %). The most
frequent misconception was blood as a food of bats which was shown by 30 % of the children.
Also, the majority of the children knew why the beaver gnaws trees (90 %). The reason is teeth’s
corrosion, building of barriers and trees are source of food for the beaver. A similar amount of
children knew that the wolf is a carnivore (91 %). Over 90 % children knew that the squirrel
makes supplies of food for winter.
Figure 3. The percentage of the pupils that correctly knew that a wild swine is a omnivorous
animal.
9
(P. 5–14)
Foraging strategies
The majority of the children (91 %) knew that the wolf hunts in groups. Other possibilities
were: a fox, a bear and a lynx. The lynx was the most frequently marked for an animal, which
hunts in groups (nearly 5 %) The most frequent misconception about foraging strategy of a lynx
was that the lynx observes his prey from the shelter (31.4 %) but the majority of answers (i.e. that
lynx hunts in groups) were correct (63.2 %). Only 47.4 % of the children correctly knew that lions
usually hunt in groups. The most frequent misconception was that the lion observes the prey alone
from the shelter (48.3 %). The rest of the pupils showed that lions hunt in pairs. The relative
success of individual grades on this question is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. The percentage of the pupils that correctly knew that the lion hunts in groups.
Parental care
The majority of the children (65.4 %) knew that the squirrel raises its young in the nest in
treetops. The other 31.2 % of the children incorrectly thought that squirrels´ young do not need
parental care. More than 41 % of the children were incorrect that both parents take care of the
young deer but about half of the answers showed that the female takes care of the young deer
which was the correct answer (55 %). The majority of the children knew that young wild swines
are raised by the female (72 %). Less children were aware of biparental care in wolves (57 %), but
instead thought that only the female wolf takes care of young wolves. The relative success of
individual grades on this question is shown in figure 5.
Figure 5. The percentage successfulness of the pupils that correctly knew that young wolves
are taken care by both parents.
10
(P. 5–14)
Senses, morphology and anatomy
The majority of the children (95 %) answered correctly that the spines of the hedgehog serve
for protection against enemies. A similar amount of the children (98 %) knew that bats fly during
the night. Only about half of the pupils were right that brown bears overwinter because of lack of
food. The most frequent misconception for bears overwintering was cold and exhaustion. Nearly
84 % of the pupils knew that deers use antlers for fighting against rival males. A total of 150
children (32 %) marked an ear as the most developed sense of a mole, but the majority of the
answers were correct (62.6 %) that the most developed sense is touch. Nearly 62 % of the children
were not sure that a horse steps on the whole foot while walking. Other pupils answered correctly
that the horse steps on the last phalanxes of his foot. Nearly 67 % of the pupils had misconceptions
about dolphin’s breathing. Only one third of the pupils knew that dolphins breathe with lungs.
Nearly 25 % marked that dolphin breathes with branchias. The possibility that dolphins breathe
by lung sacs was marked by 26.5 % of the children. The rest of the children wrote that dolphins
breathe with air sacs.
The children had great misconceptions about the contents of camel’s hump. Nearly 80 %
answered that water is in the camel’s hump. Only 20 % of the children answered correctly that the
hump contains a fat. The relative success of individual grades on this question is shown in Figure 6.
More than 95 % of the children knew that the function of the kangaroo’s pouch is carrying
the young. Similarly, a high amount of children (86 %) was aware of the function of the rhino’s
horn, which serves for fighting.
Figure 6. The percentage of the pupils that correctly knew that the camel has the fat in her
hump.
Discussion and conclusion
This study showed that Slovakian elementary school pupils had serious problems with several
common mammals with other animals (see Kellert, 1985; Trowbridge & Mintzes, 1985, 1988;
Braund, 1991, 1998). Moreover, the follow up questions showed that although most of the pupils
were aware that a whale is a mammal, they were less sure that whales suck milk or feed on
plankton. These findings are in line with our current research focused on the children’ concepts
about birds (Prokop, Kubiatko & Fancovicova, acceptted manuscript) and support a necessity of
using the multiple questions focused on the same topic rather than using a simple question.
Moreover, these data have direct implications for biology practise and can be applied internationally.
Why are there the misconceptions about common mammals among the pupils of various
ages? Several reasons can be applied here. First, it might be caused by the teachers that are more
interested in ‘modern’ biology topics like microbiology, genetics or virology and zoology could be
considered relative less interesting. This is, however, unlikely, because Slovakian biology teachers
11
(P. 5–14)
consider zoology most interesting relative to biology of other grades (Prokop & Chuda, unpublished
data). Another possibility is that the pupils are relatively less interested in biology of mammals.
This possibility is also less likely, because our current research shows that Slovakian children greatly
favour zoology relative to other biology topics (P. Prokop, G. Tuncer, & J. Chuda, unpublished
manuscript), although the preference of mammals relative to other animals is less clear. Considering
the fact that the pupils of various age groups are mostly keep mammals as pets (e.g. Kidd & Kidd,
1985; Prokop, Prokop, & Tunnicliffe, submitted manuscript) the misconceptions about mammals
seem to be less likely linked with pupils’ inadequate interest in animals.
A simple classification of animals following their habitat (Kattmann, 2001) may explain the
pupils’ difficulties with dolphin breathing or food of whales. These large mammals live in the sea
like fishes that breathe with gills and feed on plankton. Thus, habitat of animals seems to be a
more important criterion than taxonomy for school age pupils (Kattmann, 2001) and large mammals
are simply considered to fishes (Natadze, 1963; Kellert, 1985; Trowbridge & Mintzes, 1988;
Berthelsen, 1999). Another problem can be semantic similarity between some mammals and
fishes. For example, a whale is ‘velryba’ which means ‘big fish’ in Slovak language. Similar problems
are discussed in Trowbridge & Mintzes (1988) but they do not explain the problem with classifying
dolphins or bats because their names are semantically totally dissimilar.
Another important issue that emerged from the pupils responses are culturally transferred
myths about some animals. Especially in the case of bats pupils usually wrote that the food of bats
is blood (it was not specified if human blood or blood of other animals) and they consider bats bad
for other animals. Bat folklore goes back many centuries. Aesop, in several of his fables, personified
bats as unscrupulous liars, manipulating other animals. In their art, the ancient Mayans of Central
America heralded bats as gods of darkness and the underworld. In the 16th century, English poet
John Heywood wrote that ‘these creatures that fly like birds, bite like beasts, hide by day and see
in the dark can surely be neither flesh, nor fowl’. The role of myths in the pupils’ ideas about
animals remains to be therefore seriously investigated.
The design of the natural science course based on the living organism concept in our elementary
schools begins with the most abstract class of living organism, followed by the subclass concept of
‘animal’ and ‘plant’, and then the even lower class concept of ‘mammal’, ‘bird’, ‘fish’ and ‘insect’.
From the constructivistic perspective, learning is an active process, whereby learners take
information from the environment and construct personal interpretations and meaning based on
prior knowledge and experience (Fraser & Tobin, 1998). This implies that the mental conceptions
of the younger children, yet little affected by formal school science learning, are highly influenced
by the personal ideas and experiences they construct about the world. We conclude that teachers
should teach more about such exotic mammals as the camel, rhinoceros, and the platypus and use
as many examples as possible (Trowbridge & Mintzes, 1988). The first hand experiences with
animals should enhance pupils’ interest (Lindemann-Matthies, 2005; Þoldoðova & Prokop, 2006)
and factual knowledge about animals (Inagaki, 1990; Prokop, Prokop, & Tunnicliffe, submitted
manuscript). We therefore propose that activities with animals through formal or informal learning
have significant potential for improving pupils’ knowledge about animals.
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Ðåçþìå
ÍÅÏÐÀÂÈËÜÍÛÅ ÏÐÅÄÑÒÀÂËÅÍÈß Ó×ÀÙÈÕÑß Â

ÎÒÍÎØÅÍÈÈ ÌËÅÊÎÏÈÒÀÞÙÈÕ
Ìèëàí Êóáÿòêî, Ïàâîë Ïðîêîï
Ñòàòüÿ ïîñâÿùåíà âûÿñíåíèþ îòíîøåíèé øêîëüíèêîâ ê ìëåêîïèòàþùèì â ïðîöåññå èçó÷åíèÿ

êóðñà «çîîëîãèÿ» â øêîëüíîì îáðàçîâàòåëüíîì ó÷ðåæäåíèè Ñëîâàêèè. Ñàìà ïðîáëåìà èäåíòèôèêàöèè
÷åëîâåêîì æèâîòíûõ, îñîáåííî ìëåêîïèòàþùèõ, àêòóàëüíà, ïîñêîëüêó è ñàì ÷åëîâåê îòíîñèòñÿ ê
ýòîìó êëàññó (ñåì. ëþäè). Âàæíî óñòàíîâèòü íå òîëüêî îòíîøåíèÿ ó÷àùèõñÿ ê æèâîòíûì, íî è
ïîíÿòü, ÷òî ëåæèò â èõ îñíîâå.
Áûë èñïîëüçîâàí îïðîñíèê ñîñòàâëåí èç 35 âîïðîñîâ. Â èññëåäîâàíèè ïðèíèìàëî ó÷àñòèå 468
ó÷åíèêîâ (229 ìàëü÷èêîâ è 239 äåâî÷åê). Ýìïèðè÷åñêèå äàííûå áûëè ñîáðàíû èç 6 øêîë ðàçíûõ
ãîðîäîâ Ñëîâàêèè. Áûëî óñòàíîâëåíî, ÷òî ó÷åíèêè èìåþò îøèáî÷íîå ïðåäñòàâëåíèå î êëàññèôèêàöèè,
ýêîëîãèè è àíàòîìèè ìëåêîïèòàþùèõ. Ìíåíèÿ ó÷åíèêîâ áûëè êëàñèôèöèðîâàíû íà ïÿòü îñíîâíûõ
êàòåãîðèé (êëàñèôèêàöèÿ ìëåêîïèòàþùèõ, ïèòàíèå, ïîèñê ïèùè, ìîðôîëîãèÿ è àíàòîìèÿ, çàáîòà î
ïèòîìöàõ). Îøèáî÷íûå ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ ó÷åíèêîâ óñòàíîâëåíû ïî âñåì êàòåãîðèÿì. Ïî ðåçóëüòàòàì
èññëåäîâàíèÿ ïðåäñòàâëåíà äèññêóñèÿ î ïóòÿõ óñîâåðøåíñòâîâàíèÿ ïðîöåññà îáó÷åíèÿ áèîëîãèè.
Êëþ÷åâûå ñëîâà: îøèáî÷íûå ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ, ìëåêîïèòàþùèå, îáó÷åíèå áèîëîãèè.
Received 23 October 2006; accepted 05 February 2007
Milan Kubiatko
PhD. student at Department of Didactics in Sciences,
Psychology and Pedagogy, Faculty of Natural Sciences,
Comenius University,
Mlynska dolina CH – 2 , 842 15 Bratislava, Slovakia.
Phone: + 421261296348
E-mail: mkubiatko@centrum.sk
Home page: https://www.fns.uniba.sk/~kubiatko
Pavol Prokop
Lecturer assistant at the Trnava University,
Department of Biology, Faculty of Education, Slovakia
and researcher in SAS (Institute of Zoology, Slovak
Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 845 06
Bratislava, Slovakia)
Priemyselna 4, PO Box 9, 918 43 Trnava, Slovakia.
Phone: + 421335516047
E-mail: pavol.prokop@savba.sk
Home page: http://pdfweb.truni.sk
14
ISSN 1648–3898
TRENDS IN WESTERN
SCIENCE CURRICULA AND
SCIENCE EDUCATION
RESEARCH: A BIRD’S EYE
VIEW
Onno De Jong Abstract. The present article starts

© Onno De Jong with a concise report of three
important waves of innovation in
Western science education, one in
the 1960s, one in the 1980s, and one
in the 2000s. The background of
Introduction each wave is concisely explicated in
terms of dissatisfaction with the
The present article deals with main developments in foregoing curriculum and the rise of
science education and research in science education in the new general theories on teaching
Western world. The aim is to provide the reader a bird’s eye and learning. The reported
view of relevant trends in the last 50 years. This overview does innovations have influenced the
not pretend to be complete, but rather provides the reader agenda of research in science
the main highlights. The article is an elaborated version of a education in the Western world. In
lecture presented at the third Scandinavian Symposium ‘Science the second part of the article, the
teaching for understanding’ that has been held at Karlstad main trends in topics and methods
University, Sweden, February 2006. of this research are reported. Finally,
The structure of the article is as follows. First, three main some main trends in science teacher
waves of science education reform are addressed. Then, trends education are concisely addressed.
in psychological theories of teaching and learning that shaped
the innovations are presented. Thereafter, trends in topics and
methods of science education research are reported. Finally, Keywords: science curriculum
trends in science teacher education are concisely addressed. innovations, trends, research topics
and methods, educational theories,
Trends in Science Curricula science teacher education.
In the last 50 years, several waves of science education

reform can be indicated in many countries. I will concisely Onno De Jong
address three main waves of reform as follows. Karlstad University, Sweden; Utrecht
An important starting point of the first wave can be University, The Netherlands
located in the middle of the Cold War era, in 1957, when the
former Soviet Union launched the first satellite (the
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(P. 15–22)
‘Sputnik”), into an orbit around the world. This evoked a shock around the world, and showed
the relative inferiority in science and technology in several other big industrialized countries,
especially the USA. Educational experts pointed out that one of the main causes of the deficit
was the relative low quality of the existing science curricula. They criticized the existing curricula
by characterizing them as old-fashioned, overloaded, and mainly facts-oriented. Although
this criticism was not very new, the ‘Sputnik’ effect made the policy makers more willing to
listen to it and to invest much more money in the development of new national science
curricula. Most of this reform was large-scale, for example, the North-American projects of
Chemical Education Materials Study (CHEM Study) and Chemical Bond Approach (CBA), and
the British project of Nuffield Chemistry. The leading projects for secondary schools focused
on understanding basic concepts and processes instead of knowing a large number of facts,
and for that reason, students got the opportunity to use special student data books. The new
curricula also focused on stimulating the development of basic scientific skills, and classrooms
were adapted or added for conducting laboratory work by students. Although the expectations
of the effects of the innovations were high, in general, the results were quite disappointing.
For instance, the increase of students’ enrolment in first-year university science courses was
modest, and many secondary school students continued to complain that the new curriculum
content was difficult to understand and not very interesting to them. The failure of these
curriculum reforms can be seen to be caused by several factors; one of the main causes concerns
the strong focus on the existing ‘body of knowledge’ of science from the expert perspective,
rather than from the student perspective.
Because of the disappointments of the 1960s reform and stimulated by an alarming
report from the USA, ‘A Nation at Risk’, published in 1983, a second wave of curriculum
innovations were initiated. In this reform, most projects were smaller scale, for example, the
North-American project of ‘Chemistry in the Community’ (ChemCom), and the British Salters’
Chemistry project. In the 1980s reform, the design of most courses was much more focusing
on ‘active learning’ of students, for instance, by introducing (open-) inquiry tasks in the school
lab. Moreover, efforts were made to make science much more meaningful to students by
relating science concepts and processes to situations from everyday life. Despite all these
efforts, the results of this wave of curriculum reform were also quite disappointing. For
instance, the enrolment in first-year university science was decreasing, and many secondary
school students did not see the relevance of the given contexts for understanding the related
concepts and rules.
In order to solve the reported difficulties, about 5-10 years ago, a third wave of innovative
science education projects came up. Some examples are the North-American project of
‘Chemistry in Contexts: Applying Chemistry to Society’ (CiC), and the Dutch project of ‘New
Chemistry’. At this time, it is too early to evaluate the value of the recent reform properly.
Finally, I will note that the interest in computer-assisted instruction and learning came up
between the second and third wave of reform, followed by the growing use of Internet in
science education.
Trends in Theories that Shaped Science Curricula and Courses
The three waves of science education reform were not only influenced by dissatisfaction
with the foregoing curriculum but were also shaped by several new perspectives that came
from the domain of educational psychology. I will summarize these perspectives and their
main impact on science curricula and courses as follows (see also Table 1).
The first wave of reform (1960s) was strongly guided by two different psychological
theories. The first one is often indicated as descriptive behaviourism. This theory focuses on
the idea of a stimulus-response mechanism that shapes behaviour by operant conditioning
(Skinner, 1953). Learning is considered as something that occurs in a ‘closed black box’ in each
human being; for that reason, only the input side (conditioning) and the output side (learning
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(P. 15–22)
outcomes) of this ‘box’ are considered. Because of this perspective, the use of ‘programmed
instruction’ became popular in curricula: series of tasks with direct feedback to answers of
individual learners. It also stimulated the introduction of multiple-choice questions in science
courses, especially for assessing students’ learning outcomes. The second influential
psychological theory is often indicated as cognitive development, and focuses on the idea of
the development of cognitive stages (sensorimotoric, pre-operational, concrete operational,
formal operational) in learners (Piaget, 1954). This perspective had an impact on the sequence
of introduction of science topics in science curricula and science textbooks.
The second wave of reform (1980s) was mainly guided by a theory that can be considered
as a reaction to descriptive behaviourism as well as a follow-up of the cognitive development
perspective. The new psychological theory mainly focuses on the throughput of the ‘black box’
(that is no longer seen as ‘closed’), so, it focuses on the learning process itself. This perspective
is generally indicated with the term cognitive psychology and mainly includes the theories of
guided discovery learning (Bruner, 1975) and information-processing mechanism of learning
(Gagne, 1977). Both theories stimulated the development of science curricula and courses
that paid much more attention to creating ways of active learning by students, especially by
promoting laboratory work for school students. In line with these perspectives, the instructional
strategy of the ‘learning cycle’ became influential, consisting of the phases of exploration,
conceptual invention, and application (Karplus, 1977). Finally, it can be indicated that, in reaction
to the use of multiple choice questions, the use of essay questions was promoted. This provided
science teachers the possibility for acquiring much more insight in students’ learning process.
The last wave of reform (2000s) was strongly guided by two related theories. First, the
social constructivist perspective. According to this perspective, learning is a dynamic and social
process in which learners actively construct meanings from their actual experiences in connection
with their prior understandings and the social setting (Driver, 1989). Knowledge and learning
are considered as fundamentally situation based. This point of view stimulated the development
of science courses that take much more into account students’ authentic ways of reasoning. It
also promoted the inclusion of science-technology-society (STS) issues in the curricula, and the
interest in the use of contexts that are really meaningful for students. Second, the socio-
cultural approach. According to this perspective, education is an enculturation process and
learning can be considered as a change from one socio-cultural environment, usual everyday
life experiences and knowledge, to a new, scientific environment, including a change of
languages (Vygotsky, 1986). This point of view also promoted the introduction of STS issues
and meaningful contexts in science curricula and courses, and, moreover, emphasized the
importance of using adequate language in textbooks and in the classroom.
Table 1. Science education reform and influential psychological theories.
Wave of reform Influential theory that shapes Issue of growing interest

curricula and courses
• 1960s • Descriptive behaviourism • Programmed instruction

• Stages of cognitive development • Sequence of science topics
• 1980s • Guided discovery learning • Lab work for school students

• Information-processing perspectives • Learning cycle
• 2000s • Social constructivism • Students’ ways of reasoning

• Socio-cultural perspectives • Role of context and language
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Trends in Topics of Science Education Research
In general, trends in science curricula and courses were accompanied by trends in topics of
science education research. In this section, I will concisely address several main trends in research
topics in the last 50 years.
In the 1960s reform, many science curriculum projects were based on the expertise and
opinions of leading natural scientists and science educators who were advised by experts from
other educational areas, such as the psychology of teaching and learning. Research in science
education did hardly exist at that time. It came up through the reform because there was increasing
interest in gathering evidence to establish the effects of the new curriculum projects on students’
knowledge and performance. Many other studies were focused on difficulties in teaching new
curriculum issues and the use of new teaching strategies, for instance, the use of ‘programmed
instruction’ approaches.
However, in the 1980s reform, new perspectives on teaching and learning caused a shift in
the interest of many researchers towards studies of students’ alternative conceptions and ways
of reasoning. In line with this interest, more and more studies focussed on students’ learning
process in terms of conceptual change. There was also a growing interest in studies of social and
cultural dimensions of knowledge acquirement, for instance, by investigating the discourses
between teachers and students in the classroom. Other trends were the growing interest in
studies of laboratory work, especially (open-) inquiry, the implementation and use of problem
solving strategies, and the use of Internet, computer software, and interactive multimedia.
For getting a more detailed overview of recent trends in research topics, I carried out a
content analysis study of three leading research journals in science education for the years 1995
and 2005. The selected journals were: Journal of Research in Science Teaching (JRST), International
Journal of Science Education (IJSE), and Science Education (SE). The research topics in both volumes
of these journals were classified by using a set of categories that was designed by a step-by-step
procedure. First, a list of topic categories was prepared that was based on the list of categories
used for structuring the research papers presented at annual conferences of the ‘National
Association for the Research in Science Teaching’ (NARST), and bi-annual conferences of the
‘European Science Education Research Association’ (ESERA). Second, the combined list was adapted
after repeated analysis of the content of both volumes of the journals. Third, categories with
scores less than 5% for each of both years were deleted from the list. In this iterative way, a list of
14 categories was developed and used for the final analysis. This list is given below.
• Students’ conceptions (e.g. about science topics and nature of science)

• Students’ attitudes (e.g. towards science and learning of science)
• Students’ learning processes (e.g. learning of science topics and nature of science)
• Teachers’ content knowledge (CK) (e.g. about science and nature of science)
• Teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) (e.g. about students’ difficulties and
how to teach science and nature of science)
• Teaching strategies (e.g. about use of approaches for teaching science)
• Developing teachers’ CK
• Developing teachers’ PCK
• Practical work (e.g. aims, formats, student skills, assessment)
• STS and context-based issues (e.g. use of everyday life issues)
• Problem solving (e.g. about conceptual and computational problems)
• Models and modeling (e.g. about use of scientific models and analogies)
• Information technology (e.g. use of Internet and interactive computer software)
• Gender (e.g. gender-specific patterns in learning)
The results of the analysis are given in Table 2. The table shows that the top three topics in
1995 were: ‘Students’ conceptions’, ‘Practical work’, and ‘Teachers’ CK’. In 2005, ‘Practical work’ is
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still among the top three, but ‘Students’ conceptions’ and ‘Teachers’ CK’ are replaced by the topics
‘Teachers’ PCK’ and ‘STS and context-based issues’. The ranking of the three new top topics increased
with at least 1% score in absolute sense. Other topics with increased ranking (with at least 1%
score in absolute sense) were: ‘Developing teachers’ CK’, ‘Developing teachers’ PCK’, ‘Students’
attitudes’, ‘Models and modeling’, and ‘Teaching strategies’. Topics with a decreased ranking (with
at least 1% score in absolute sense) were: ‘Problem solving’ and ‘Gender’. Topics with a ranking
that hardly changed (lesser than 1% score in absolute sense) were: ‘Information technology’ and
‘Students’ learning processes’. Finally, I will note that, in general, the ranking of a particular topic
depends on the choice of the other categories that are used for analyzing the content of the three
journals. So, another list of categories can give another ranking of the topics.
Table 2. Main research topics in three leading journals in science education (JRST, IJSE, SE) for
1995 and 2005.
Category of research topic Combined scores for 1995 Combined scores for 2005
(n = 137) (n = 173)
N/% N/%
• Students’ conceptions 18/13.1 12/6.9
• Students’ attitudes 5/3.6 11/6.4
• Students’ learning processes 10/7.3 12/6.9
• Teachers’ content knowledge (CK) 14/10.2 12/6.9
• Teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) 10/7.3 21/12.1
• Teaching strategies 10/7.3 15/8.7
• Developing teachers’ CK 2/1.5 11/6.3
• Developing teachers’ PCK 2/1.5 10/5.8
• Practical work 16/11.7 22/12.7
• STS and context-based issues 12/8.8 17/9.8
• Problem solving 11/8.0 3/1.7
• Models and modeling 9/6.6 14/8.1
• Information technology 9/6.6 11/6.4
• Gender 9/6.6 2/1.2
Trends in Methods of Science Education Research
In general, trends in methods of science education research correspond with trends in methods of
research in educational psychology. In this section, I will concisely give a general overview of the main
trends in the last 50 years.
Trends in Setting and Design of Research
Initially, many studies were carried out in settings outside school, quite often in psychological
laboratories that asked individual students to enact learning tasks about issues that not always were
incorporated in the current science curriculum. As a consequence, this research did not provide much
insight in the learning of students in realistic teaching-learning situations at school. Regarding the
design of research projects, I will note that many of these projects included large-scale studies, most of
them mainly quantitative oriented. However, it appeared that much of this research only provided
general data with unclear implications for teaching and learning at classroom level.
Later on, the setting of many studies became the classroom itself for getting a better ‘ecological
validity’ of the results of research. Regarding the design of research projects, I will note that a
growing number of projects became more small-scale, and often more qualitative ways of collecting
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data were used.

A rising kind of research is indicated as ‘design research’ (cf. Cobb, Confrey, diSessa,, Lehrer, &
Schauble, 2003). It is often related to the cyclic development of new (science) education programmes,
and usually investigates differences between expected outcomes of a programme, based on the aims,
the underlying framework, and the programme activities, and the real outcomes of a programme.
Trends in Instruments for Research
Initially, many research data were obtained by using quantitative instruments, for instance,
multiple-choice questions (cf. Nurrenberg & Robinson, 1994). The use of these instruments was often
quite fast and many data could be collected easily. However, data analysis could not provide much
information about the argumentation that was used by the students. This kind of information could
better be collected in another way, namely by using multiple-choice questions providing students to
explicate their answers, and essay questions of an open or a semi-structured nature.
Later on, more other qualitative tools were used, for instance, interviews with students, asking
students to draw concepts maps reflecting their knowledge of concepts and mutual relations (cf.
Mason, 1992), and inviting students to enact thinking-aloud tasks (cf. Bowen, 1994). The latter kind of
tasks includes that students are asked to say what they think when performing a particular task
(introspection) or, after finishing a task, to tell what they were thinking during the task (retrospection).
Combinations of research instruments were also used, for instance, asking students to design a concept
map by thinking-aloud, followed by an interview about the results. The value of all foregoing research
instruments is limited because they are not very fruitful for investigating teaching-learning science in
their usual context: the classroom or school lab environment itself.
The last years, a new research instrument becomes more and more popular among researchers,
namely, classroom protocols (cf. De Jong, 1995). These protocols can be produced by recording (on
audio-tape or videotape) discussions of students and teachers in educational situations and transcribing
the statements.
For investigating science teachers’ knowledge base (CK as well as PCK) and its development, some
upcoming research instruments are: (i) the stimulated recall method (Calderhead, 1981), (ii) the story-
line method (Beijaard, Van Driel & Verloop, 1999), and (iii) the lesson preparation method (De Jong,
2000). The stimulated recall method includes an interview in which a teacher has to look at a videotape
of his/her lesson that has been given shortly before and to explain what he/she thought and did at
specific parts of the lesson. This interview technique can be considered as a substitute for the thinking-
aloud technique which is not very appropriate because of the interrupting effect in the classroom
situation. The story-line method provides information about the teacher’s subjective evaluation of his/
her knowledge regarding particular aspects of teaching. By drawing a story-line, the teacher describes
his/her evaluation, on a scale from positive to negative, as a function of time. He/she is also asked to
clarify the main ups and downs in the story-line. Finally, inn the method mentioned last, the teacher has
to prepare some lessons about a specified topic but he/she is not allowed to consult any school textbook.
In a subsequent interview, the teacher has to explain the written lesson plan and to answer a number
of questions, for instance, about his/her knowledge of the curriculum topic, expected students’
conceptual difficulties, and intended strategies for teaching the topic.
Trends in Science Teacher Education
The science curriculum reform was also accompanied by innovations of science teacher education.
I will concisely address this issue as follows.
In the 1960s reform, an important way for supporting teachers consisted of the introduction of
teacher guides. In general, these booklets provided them information about the aims of the innovative
curriculum, suggestions for new teaching strategies, lesson schedules, and so on. However, very often, they
were hardly used, except for getting hints for demonstrations, suggestions for student practical work, and
answers to student exercises. Many teachers felt that the guides did not sufficiently fit their personal needs.
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Later on, in the 1980s reform, teacher guides became part of a new approach: teacher course,
mainly workshops for groups of teachers. A workshop could cover a couple of hours, a full week (often
scheduled as a summer school) or a longer period (spread out in time). These workshops offered the
participating teachers an orientation on the new science curriculum topics and the opportunity to
discuss their new roles with colleagues. This intended to be a step forwards in supporting teachers, but,
in reality, the impact of many workshops was washed out in school practices.
In the 2000s reform, another approach for supporting teachers was introduced: courses that
integrate workshops with teaching new curriculum topics in real classrooms. In general, collaborative
discussions of teaching experiences were seen as a good opportunity to promote teachers’ professional
development. Nevertheless, many teachers felt difficulties in adopting new topics and teaching
strategies that came from outside their own interest and beyond their usual teaching practice.
Recently, and in line with the former approach, a rising perspective on supporting teachers in the
context of curriculum innovations is developed, based on the idea of involving teachers in a much more
early stage of reform. This can be realized by inviting teachers to participate in small groups of
teachers, teacher educators, and curriculum developers. These groups should function as a learning
environment for each of the three stakeholders. In the new created learning community, teachers can
fulfil several roles, for instance, co-designers of new materials and teaching strategies, performers of
a pilot of the new teaching, and co-evaluators of experiences with the materials and strategies. At this
time, it is too early to evaluate the value of this rising approach properly.
Discussion
The present overview indicates a number of important developments in science curricula and
research in science education. In the last 50 years, a growing interest in research topics related to
students and their learning and teachers and their teaching can be indicated. Recently, an important
upcoming research topic is focused on the development of science teachers’ knowledge base (cf. De
Jong, Veal & Van Driel, 2002). Trends in science curricula and courses will come and go, and ‘hot topics’
in science education research will rise and fall. So far, so good. However, in my opinion, it is time to pay
much more attention to an old issue: the relationship between science education research and science
teaching practice. In the last half century, this relationship has been problematic. Several attempts
have been made to improve this relationship, for instance, by publishing a growing number of books
that would inform and support the practice of science teaching (see e.g. De Jong, Kortland, Waarlo &
Buddingh’, 1999; Monk & Osborne, 2000). Nevertheless, for many years, researchers have also pointed
out the poor effects of their efforts; for example, they complain that the outcomes of research often
do not find their ways into the practice of teaching of science (Shymansky & Kyle, 1992). On the other
hand, practising science teachers consider personal experiences, common sense, and official documents
as much more important sources of their professional knowledge than results of research (Costa,
Marques & Kempa, 2000). In conclusion, one of the biggest challenges of the near future of science
education is to bridge the gap between science education research outcomes and science teaching
practices in the classroom.
References
Beijaard, D., Van Driel, J., & Verloop, N. (1999). Evaluation of story-line methodology in research on
teachers’ practical knowledge. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 25, 47-62.
Bowen, C. W. (1994). Think-aloud methods in chemistry education. Journal of Chemical Education, 71,
184-190.
Bruner, J. S. (1975). Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Calderhead, J. (1981). Stimulated recall: a method for research on teaching. British Journal of Educational
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Cobb, P., Confrey, J., diSessa, A., Lehrer, R. & Schauble, L. (2003). Design Experiments in Educational
Research. Educational Researcher, 32 (1) 9-13.
Costa, N, Marques, L., & Kempa, R. (2000). Science teachers’ awareness of findings from education
research. Research in Science and Technology Education, 18, 37-44.
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(P. 15–22)
De Jong, O. (1995). Classroom protocol analysis: a fruitful method of research in science education. In
D. Psillos, D., (Ed.). European Research in Science Education (pp. 146-156). Thessaloniki: Thessaloniki University
Press.
De Jong, O. (2000). The teacher trainer as researcher: exploring the initial pedagogical content concerns
of prospective science teachers. European Journal of Teacher Education, 23, 127-137.
De Jong, O., Kortland, K., Waarlo, A.J., & Buddingh’, J. (Eds.). (1999). Bridging the Gap between Theory
and Practice: What Research Says to the Science Teacher. Hong Kong: ICASE.
De Jong, O., Veal, W., & Van Driel, J. (2002). Exploring chemistry teachers’ knowledge base. In J. Gilbert,
O. De Jong, R. Justi, D. Treagust & J. Van Driel (Eds.). Chemical Education: Towards Research-based Practice
(pp. 369-390). Dordrecht/Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Driver, R. (1989). Changing conceptions. In Adey, P., (Ed.). Adolescent Development and School Science
(pp. 79-99). London: Falmer Press.
Gagne, R. M. (1965). The Conditions of Learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Karplus, R. (1977). Science teaching and the development of reasoning. Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 14, 33-46.
Mason, C.L. (1992). Concept mapping: a tool to develop reflective science instruction. Science Education,
76, 51-63.
Monk, M. & Osborne, J. (Eds.). (2000). Good practice in Science Teaching: What Research has to say.
Buckingham/Philadelphia: Open University Press.
Nurrenberg, S. C., & Robinson, W. R. (1994). Quantitative research in chemical education. Journal of
Chemical Education, 71, 181-183.
Piaget, J. (1954). The construction of Reality in the Child. New York: Basic Books.
Shymansky, J. A., & Kyle, W. C. (1992). Establishing a research agenda: critical issues if science curriculum
reform. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29, 749-778.
Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior. New York: McMillan Comp.
Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
ÎÁÇÎÐ ÒÅÍÄÅÍÖÈÉ ÐÀÇÂÛÒÈß ÎÁÐÀÇÎÂÀÒÅËÜÍÛÕ

ÏÐÎÃÐÀÌÌ Â ÇÀÏÀÄÍÎÌ ÅÑÒÅÑÂÅÍÍÎ-ÍÀÓ×ÍÎÌ
ÎÁÐÀÇÎÂÀÍÈÈ
Îííî Äå Éîíã
Ñòàòüÿ íà÷èíàåòñÿ ñ êðàòêîãî îáçîðà òð¸õ çíà÷èìûõ âîëí èííîâàöèé â Çàïàäíîì åñòåñòâåííî-
íàó÷íîì îáðàçîâàíèè, èìåþùèõ ìåñòî â ïåðèîäàõ âðåìåíè îêîëî 1960, 1980 è 2000 ãîäîâ. Îñíîâîé
ñîîòâåòñâóþùèõ âîëí èííîâàöèé ÿâëÿëîñü íåóäîâëåòâîðåíèå ñî ñóùåñòâóþùèìè îáðàçîâàòåëüíûìè
ïðîãðàììàìè è ïîÿâëåíèå íîâûõ îáùèõ òåîðèé îáó÷åíèÿ. Ñîîáùàåìûå èííîâàöèè ñîîòâåòñòâåííî
îòðàçèëèñü íà ïîðÿäîê ïðîâåäåíèÿ íàó÷íûõ èññëåäîâàíèé â îáëàñòè åñòåñòâåííî-íàó÷íîãî îáðàçîâàíèÿ.
Ïîñëåäóþùåå ñîäåðæàíèå ñòàòüè çíàêîìèò ñ îñíîâíûìè òåíäåíöèÿìè ðàçâèòèÿ òåìàòèêè è ìåòîäîâ
ýòèõ èññëåäîâàíèé. Â çàêëþ÷åíèè êðàòêî õàðàêòåðèçîâàíû îñíîâíûå òåíäåíöèè ðàçâèòèÿ ïîäãîòîâêè
ó÷èòåëåé åñòåñòâåííî-íàó÷íûõ ïðåäìåòîâ.
Êëþ÷åâûå ñëîâà: èííîâàöèè ïðîãðàìì åñòåñòâåííî-íàó÷íîãî îáðàçîâàíèÿ, òåíäåíöèè, òåìàòèêà
è ìåòîäû èññëåäîâàíèé, òåîðèè îáðàçîâàíèÿ, ïîäãîòîâêà ó÷èòåëåé åñòåñòâåííî-íàó÷íûõ ïðåäìåòîâ.
Received 12 December 2006; accepted 12 February 2007
Onno De Jong
Professor of Chemistry Education (Ph.D., M.Sc, M.A)
Karlstad University, Division of Chemistry
SE-651 88 Karlstad, Sweden
E-mail: Onno.dejong@kau.se
Supervisor/Consultant for research in Chemistry

Education, Utrecht University, FISME
Princetonplein 5, NL-3584 CC Utrecht, The Netherlands
E-mail: O.deJong@phys.uu.nl
22
ISSN 1648–3898
TURKISH UNDERGRADUATE
STUDENTS’
MISCONCEPTIONS ON
ACIDS AND BASES
Tacettin Pinarbasi Abstract. This study is aimed at

© Tacettin Pinarbasi determining students’
misconceptions about acids and
bases. In order to fulfill this aim,
open-ended diagnostic questions
and semi-structured interviews were
Introduction used. The diagnostic questions were
administered to 91 undergraduates
A major thrust in science education research over the past who enrolled in the Primary Science
three decades has been the documentation of students’ Teacher Training Department in a
misconceptions (also termed alternative conceptions) in a wide state university in Turkey. In addition
range of subject areas (Pfund and Duit, 2004). These beliefs 11 students were interviewed in
have been shown to have the potential to impede future order to clarify their written
understanding, and have also been shown to be remarkably responses and to further probe
resistant to change. Research has shown that some students students’ conceptual understandings
tend to reject explanations that are in conflict with their beliefs of the questions asked in the test.
and prefer to retain an erroneous idea that makes sense to The findings revealed a number of
them (Stepans et al., 1986). It is critical to identify these misconceptions. The results have
misconceptions so that teaching can be carried out to help implications for tertiary level
students build their knowledge upon foundations that are teaching, suggesting that a
scientifically accurate (Uno, 1999). Since new knowledge is substantial review of teaching
constructed on the base of existing cognitive structure, strategies is needed.
alternative conceptions have to be dealth with in order to
address new ones developing. Key words: misconceptions, acids,
Bodner (1986), in his discussion of the constructivist bases, equilibrium, science
approach to chemical education, suggested that knowledge education.
cannot simply be handed down from instructor to students—
students must actively construct knowledge from new
information and their existing experiences and knowledge. Tacettin Pinarbasi
Students use their existing knowledge base to evaluate new Atatürk University, Turkey
information; if the new information is consistent with this
existing knowledge base, it can be assimilated. However, if the
23
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ACIDS AND BASES
(P. 23–34)
new information contradicts it, the knowledge base must be changed to accommodate the new
information. Because knowledge is constructed by the student (Resnick, 1983; Jonassen, 1991),
any erroneous information that is part of the student’s knowledge base may adversely affect
subsequent learning.
Studies in science education show that teaching strategies based on a conceptual change
approach have been effective in dispelling students’ alternative conceptions (Treagust et al.
1996). A conceptual change approach based on Piaget’s construct of disequilibrium and dealing
with students’ alternative conceptions has developed over the past 20 years, and has become a
central organizing concept in both science education research and science teacher education
(Thorley and Stofflett, 1996). Posner et al. (1982) have argued that in order for successful
conceptual change to take place, learners need to become dissatisfied with their existing belief
and the new concept has to be shown to be intelligible, plausible and fruitful. The design of
teaching approaches based on this idea has proven to help students change their alternative
conceptions (Chambers and Andre, 1997).
Several researchers have documented student misconceptions concerning acids and bases.
Cros et al (1986) investigated first year university students’ conceptions of the constituents of
matter and conceptions of acids and bases. The students were found to have a good knowledge
of formal descriptions, but inadequate conceptions of concrete phenomena, such as heat being
released during an acid-base reaction. The students did not appear to connect their knowledge
with everyday phenomena. In a follow-up study, Cros et al (1988) found that some of the
students had modified their concepts so that, for example, a scientific definition for acids replaced
the former descriptive definition. However other concepts, such as the descriptive definition
used for pH, hardly changed. Furthermore, introduction of Lewis generalizations which combines
acidity, basicity, electrophilicity and nucleophilicity within a broad integrated scheme opens a
new set of difficulties (Zoller, 1990).
Schmidt (1991) has stressed the example of a common misconception about neutralization:
that the neutralization of acid and base always gives a neutral product. He refers to the
‘neutralization’ label as ‘a hidden persuader’: after all pupils are usually introduced to
neutralization reactions through examples where strong acids react with strong bases to give a
neutral solution.
Hand and Treagust (1991) identified five key misconceptions about acids and bases among
sixty 16-year-old students. Then, they developed and implemented a curriculum about acids and
bases based on the conceptual change approach, which aimed to remedy the student
misconceptions. These were: an acid is something which eats material away; an acid can burn
you; testing of an acid can only be done by trying to eat something away; to neutralize is to
break down an acid or to change from an acid; a base is something which makes up an acid; and
a strong acid can eat material away faster than a weak acid.
Nakhleh and Krajcik (1994) established that some of students who participated in the
study had the following misconceptions: the pH is inversely related to harm and bases are not
harmful; bubbles or bubbling is a sign of chemical reaction or strength; acids and bases have
their own particular color or color intensity; the molecules fight and combine, and phenolphthalein
helps with neutralization; acids melt metals, acids are strong and bases are not strong; pH is a
compound called phenolphthalein, a chemical reaction and a number related to intensity
Erduran (1996) analyzed eight physical science textbooks for coverage on acids, bases, and
neutralization. She indicated that although textbooks are readable, they fail in making explicit
connections to important, underlying themes such as chemical change and physical properties.
Further she suggested that conceptual frameworks which the students are exposed to in
textbooks might be deficient not only in terms of content but also in terms of how content is
weaved into a broader framework.
In his study, Schmidt (1997) stated that the idea that in any reaction between an acid and a
base a neutral solution is formed has been found to be quite common among students. He also
determined that many students hold the misconception that conjugate acid–base pairs consist
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ACIDS AND BASES
(P. 23–34)
of positively and negatively charged ions, which can somehow neutralize each other.
Bradley and Mosimege (1998) investigated whether student teachers at a university and a
college of education hold any misconceptions about acids and bases. The misconceptions were
explored through the use of a questionnaire which focused on: theory of acids and bases;
properties of acids and bases; acid and base strength; pH function; equations for acid-base
reactions; molecular representations of acids and bases. The results of their study revealed that
achievement was disappointing generally and student teachers at the university performed
better.
In order to investigate twelfth-grade Greek students’ understanding of acid-base equilibria,
Demerouti et al. (2004) constructed and utilized a questionnaire consisting of ten multiple
choice and eight open-ended questions. They found that the students had misconceptions and
difficulties on the following topics: dissociation and ionization, definition of Brønsted-Lowry
acids and bases, ionic equilibria, neutralization, pH, buffer solutions, and degree of ionization.
Some of the misconceptions are similar to those reported elsewhere in the literature. Also, in
one of their current work (Kousathana et al. 2005), the development of students’ideas and
models about acids and bases (with emphasis on the Arrhenius, the Brønsted–Lowry, and the
Lewis models) were presented. In addition, misconceptions (alternative and instructional ones)
on acid-base (ionic) equilibria were examined from the history and philosophy of science
perspective. The relation between the development of the models and students’ misconceptions
were investigated.
The domain of acids, bases and neutralization offers a unique area for studying. This domain
constitutes a rich and complex conceptual framework which encompasses various key aspects of
chemistry: acids and bases possess sets of physical and chemical properties which need to be
weaved together carefully for a meaningful investigation of these chemicals; neutralization
involves chemical change, a central concern in chemistry that needs to be emphasized; an
explanation of neutralization makes reference to the atomic theory which is vital for
understanding of all topics in chemistry; at advanced levels, neutralization is considered in relation
to other important chemistry concepts such as reaction rate and chemical equilibrium. An
understanding of acids, bases and neutralization is crucial for understanding these related
topics.
The purpose of this study is to explore the conceptions of undergraduate students regarding
concepts of acids and bases and to determine the difficulties that students may have in
understanding these concepts. The findings and educational implications obtained from this
research are expected to provide useful references for science teacher trainers as well for
curriculum designers.
A diagnostic test composed of five open-ended questions was specifically developed for this
study (see Appendix). Question 1 required students to predict the pH of pure water at two
different temperatures. Students’ understanding of neutral solution was questioned by the second
question. Question 3 was used to find out whether students predict the pH of excessively diluted
solution of a strong acid. Question 4 tested students’ understanding of neutralization of a strong
base and a weak acid. Finally, question 5 aimed to explore students’ understanding of the hydrolysis
concept.
All questions were piloted and required modifications were made prior to the administration
of the test. The content validity of the test questions was assessed by three chemistry lecturers.
The questions were administered to 91 second year undergraduates enrolled in the Primary
Science Teacher Training Department in a state university in Turkey. In Turkish educational system,
primary school covers grades 1-8. The first part of the primary school (grades 1-5) is taught by a
class teacher, while the following years (grades 6-8) are taught by the subject teachers such as
science, mathematics, social science, computer, foreign language etc. Primary Science Teacher
25
ACIDS AND BASES
(P. 23–34)
Training Department in Turkey trains science teachers who teach science between grades 6-8
(approximately 12-14 years old). The subjects took General Chemistry-I and II in the first year, and
the second year they were attending an Analytical Chemistry course at the time of conducting the
research. A traditional lecturing approach was followed in the courses. The test was conducted
under normal class conditions without previous warning. The students were confirmed that the
results of the test would be used for research purposes and would be kept confidential.
Students’ responses to the diagnostic questions were analyzed. Misconceptions were
determined and percentages were calculated. The misconceptions identified over the 20% of the
subjects are reported here. In addition, 11 students were interviewed in order to clarify their
written responses and to further probe students’ conceptual understandings of the ideas tested
in the questions asked in the test. Interviewees were selected on the basis of their responses given
to the test. If a student presented a misconception and did not provide detailed or clear explanation
to his/her response was requested to interview. Interview time was varied between 20 minutes
and half an hour. All interviews were tape recorded after taking the interviewees’ consent and
transcribed for analysis. The interviews were not submitted to detailed analysis, instead they
were used in order to exemplify the misconceptions throughout the results section during discussion.
As the interviews were conducted in Turkish, the quotations reported in the paper were translated
into English by the author. In order to assure the quality of English, all translations were checked
by an English language expert from the English Language Department.
Results of Research
Table 1. Students’ misconceptions identified through students’ written responses.
Misconceptions %
pH of pure water (distilled or de-ionised) is always equal to 7 65
pH of a neutral solution is always 7 63
A solution of 10 M HCI has a pH of 8

-8
70
Neutralization of acid and base always gives a neutral product 35

In a neutralization reaction, when one of the reactants (acid or base) is weak,
the neutralization does not completely take place 41
Hydrolysis is to being separated of a matter into its ions by water 73
The results of the students’ written responses to question 1 (see Table 1) revealed that
65% of the students considered that pure water always has a pH of 7. In other words, they
believed that the pH of pure water is the same (7) at different temperatures, although the pH
of pure water is 7 only at 25oC. This kind of reasoning of the students suggests that they did not
consider the temperature effect on ionic product of water and of course, on its pH. The following
excerpt from a student’s interview exemplifies this notion (R and S stand for researcher and
student, respectively):
R: What can you say about the value of the pH of pure water?
S: It is 7.
R: Could you please explain, why?
S: I know that pure water is neither basic nor acidic, it is neutral. To be neutral, the pH should be 7…
Yeah I said, if water has a pH of 7, it is neutral.
R: OK. What would you say about the pH of pure water at different temperatures?
S: …must be same. It is 7.
26
ACIDS AND BASES
(P. 23–34)
…
R: … should water have different degree of dissociation at different temperatures?
S: I don’t think so. At any temperature, water would dissociate so that the concentrations of H+ and
OH- will be same, 10-7 M.
R: Why do you think so?
S: Because, in order for water to be neutral, its pH must be 7.
As can be clearly seen from the above dialogue, without considering the temperature
effect on ionization constant of water, the respondent stated that at every temperature, the
degree of dissociation of water would be the same. One possible reason for holding this
misconception could be attributed to the fact that during instruction, when the related topics
were being presented, no or insufficient emphasis of the temperature effect was placed on the
pH value of water. Also, in solutions of related exercises and problems, only saying that a pH of
7 means neutrality could cause the above misconception for the students, as can be seen in the
following excerpt from a student’s interview:
“…from all exercises and problems I have experienced, I know that pure water has a pH of 7”
The above situation is not different also for chemistry textbooks. The following statement
from a chemistry textbook (Fine and Beall, 1990, p.422) reflects this:
“pure (neutral) water has a pH of 7; pH values lower than 7 represent acidic solutions; and pH
values
higher than 7 represent basic solutions”
without referring to the temperature effect on pH values.

In addition, one possible reason for omitting temperature effect on equilibrium constant of
water can be attributed to the use of different terms, in different examples, for naming the
same concept. In other words, the students could probably be unaware that “ionic product of
water” stands for the “equilibrium constant for dissociation of water”. As indicated by
Selvaratnam (1993), terms such as ionic product, solubility product, dissociation constant…etc
should be used in terms of the equilibrium constant. This would help simplify learning, emphasizing
that the same principles are involved in all types of equilibria, otherwise it complicates the
learning of chemistry. Anecdotal evidence also supports this notion.
Question 2 revealed a misconception that the pH of a neutral solution is always 7. This view
held by 63% of the students supports the findings above mentioned, because it can be clearly
said that also for this case, the students did not consider temperature effect on pH. A typical
dialogue from an interview is representative of this notion:
R: Could you please define neutral solution?

S: It is a solution which has a pH of 7… like pure water.
R: Is it possible for the pH of a neutral solution to be higher or lower than 7?
S: No, then the solution would not be neutral. To be neutral, its pH should be 7… whatever done,
it is
impossible to change the value of neutral pH.
From the above dialogue, it is suggested that the students’ reasoning behind this
misconception is the same as that in previous misconception. The findings about the
misconceptions mentioned above is consistent with those in the work of Demerouti et al (2004)
with twelfth-grade students in which it was reported that the neutrality concept seemed to
confuse the students so that the majority of them defined this concept in terms of the pH= 7
value.
27
ACIDS AND BASES
(P. 23–34)
Question 3 required students to predict the pH of a solution of 10-8 M HCI. The majority of
the students (70%) reasoned that the pH of the solution would be 8. The students’ written
responses about this question showed that they simply used the equation of pH = -Log [H+] to
find out the pH of the solution, as indicated in the following excerpt from one of the written
responses:
“HCI → H+ + CI- pH=-Log [H+] => pH=-Log [10-8] and so, pH= 8”
10 -8
The analysis of the students’ written responses showed that many students tended to leave
the explanation section of this question blank rather than giving reasoning for their answers. This
is similar in the interviews in which they repeated some of the statements from their written
responses. The following excerpt from one interview confirms this rationale:
S: …according to pH=-Log [H+], pH will be 8.

R: but, this is an acid solution, isn’t it?
S: yeah…but the equation says that its pH is 8.
R: then, in this case, how can you explain that an acid solution has a pH of 8?
S: I don’t know…
However, the results of interviews and written responses revealed that few students
reasoned that the pH of the solution is 8, because it is too dilute. In addition, the students stated
that if an acid solution was getting dilute, the pH of the solution would be over 7. The following
excerption taken from one of the students’ responses best exemplifies this approach:
S: …its pH would be 8.
R: but, this is an acid solution, isn’t it?
S: Yeah.
R: then, in this case, how can you explain that an acid solution has a pH of 8?
S: for example…let’s… consider a solution of 10-5M HCI. If we diluted it ten times, the pH would be
6;
again diluted ten times, the pH would be 7; again diluted ten times, the pH would be 8.
A quotation from another student’s interview is similar:
“…If we added a large amount of water into this solution, we can make the pH of 8”
This misconception had been also revealed in a previous work in which it was reported that
the students holding the misconception assume that the strong acid determines the pH and
some took into account only the acid ionization (Demerouti et al. 2004). As they said, in the case
of low acid concentration, the ionization equilibrium of water is important and should be taken
into account.
Two common misconceptions relating to the neutralization concept were determined from
students’ responses to Question 4. The one held by 35% of the students was that the
neutralization of acid and base always gives a neutral product. This misconception suggests that
the students thought that all salts are neutral. The following excerpt from a student’s interview
best exemplifies this notion:
S: all neutralization reactions result in neutral solution.

R: Please explain why.
S: the products are water and salt…and we know water is neutral… also salt is neutral because its
structure contains no H+ or OH- which can ionize and so, the resulting solution would be neutral.
28
ACIDS AND BASES
(P. 23–34)
R: for a salt, is it possible to be acidic or basic?

S: No, because it is only a salt. If it was acidic or basic, then we should call acid or base, not salt.
The above finding was similar to that of Schmidt (1991), and Ross and Munby (1991), in
which it was stressed that most of the students misunderstood the concepts of neutralization
and neutrality, and they suggested that the reason of this misconception was that students
failed to realize the central role of water in neutralization reactions.
The results also indicated that some of the students of this study showed semantic
understanding in their explanation of neutralization concept; in a neutralization process, a
neutral product will occur. Schmidt (1997) also pointed out the negative influence of the term
“neutralization” which described reactions that leave neither acid nor base and indicated that
students have difficulties in understanding neutralization of a strong acid by a weak base. The
following quotation from an interview dialogue supports this notion.
“…this is neutralization, and it is clear that this causes neutral products.”
The misconception indicated that the students had the idea that acid and base consumes
each other completely in all neutralizations namely every neutralization yields a neutral solution.
As reported by Schmidt (1991), the reason for this can probably be attributed to introducing
students to neutralization reactions through examples where strong acids react with strong
bases to give a neutral solution.
The other misconception revealed by question 4 is that in a neutralization reaction, when
one of the reactants (acid or base) was weak, the neutralization does not completely take
place and the strong one (acid or base) determines the pH of the resulting medium. Relating
to the question 4. 41% of the students stated that the pH would be over 7, indicating that
after sodium hydroxide neutralized the initially ionized part of the weak acid, there will be
excess hydroxide ions in medium and this causes basic pH. This view clearly suggests that the
students consider that after the initially ionized part was neutralized, the weak acid will not
ionize any more. The following quotation from an interview dialogue emphasis this kind of
view:
S: ... here acid and base cannot completely consume each-other. Because, we know that the acid
partly ionizes and the ionized part will be neutralized. After this, there still will be acid and base.
R: OK. Will neutralization stop after the initially ionized part of the acid was consumed?
S: Yeah… because, there is no H+ any more.
R: What you think, will the rest of the acid dissociate to give more H+?
S: No... I don’t think so.
...
R: Could you please explain why the pH will be over 7?
S: There will be plenty of OH- ions from sodium hydroxide. This causes the basic pH of the solution.
The above dialogue demonstrates leads us to suggest that the student had possibly failed
to extend the application of the principles of chemical equilibrium to the ionization equilibrium
of a weak acid. However, some of the students did not provide logical explanations, but only said
that the pH will be determined by the stronger between the acid and the base. The following
written response of a student indicates this notion:
“…acid is weak, base is strong. So, the solution will have basic pH”
With regard to the above misconception, Demerouti et al. (2004) reported similar findings.
They found out that the respondents believed that for its neutralization, a strong base requires
more moles of a weak acid than that of a strong acid.
29
ACIDS AND BASES
(P. 23–34)
The results of the final question revealed a common misconception about the hydrolysis
concept. 73% of the students considered that in hydrolysis, water causes the separation of
substance ions. This suggests that these students regard hydrolysis as the ionic dissolution of
substances in water. The following excerpt shows this view:
S: …hydrolysis is a compound to be separated of into its ions by water.

R: Could you please give an example?
S: like, NaCI + Water ? Na+ + CI-
R: This is dissolution, isn’t it?
S: Yeah...but please pay attention that in that case, the solvent is water.
R: What do you mean? Please, explain more.
S: Yeah…I mean that it is a specific situation of dissolution… I think dissolution in water is specifically
called hydrolysis.
In the above dialogue it can be seen that the student consider hydrolysis as a sub-concept of
dissolution concept. Because, the students holding this view used the term hydrolysis only in the
case of dissolution of an ionic matter in water, excluding molecular dissolution, as clearly indicated
in the following quotation:
S: … if ionization takes place in water, this is called hydrolysis.

R: What about dissolving of sugar in water? Is that also a hydrolysis?
S: No, there is no ionization in dissolving of sugar, so no hydrolysis.
Conclusions and Implications
The results of this study showed that Turkish undergraduate students have a number of
common misconceptions in the topic of acids and bases. These can be summarized as:
• pure water (or a neutral solution) has always a pH of 7;

• the pH of an acid solution that is excessively diluted can be over 7;
• all salts are neutral in terms of acidity-basicity;
• the neutralization of a strong base by a weak acid (and vice versa) does not proceed to
completion (even if the reactants are in stoichiometric amounts), hence the resulting
solution is basic (or acidic);
• hydrolysis is considered as being the separation of a substance into ions by water.
The written responses given by the students revealed several misconceptions that probably
affect the quality of their learning in typical chemistry classes. In addition, the data from the
students’ interviews showed that in many cases their understanding of basic concepts is limited,
distorted, wrong, or missing entirely. In the light of this evidence, chemistry instructors may
sometimes overestimate their students’ understanding of basic acid-base concepts. It is clear
that instructors should consider supplementing the lecture format with a variety of active-
learning teaching strategies that would encourage the students to become aware of their
misconceptions. Instructors also would benefit from knowing their students’ misconceptions
and by making efforts at remediating them.
Garnett et al. (1990) and Garnett and Treagust, (1992a, b) have discussed some probable
origins of student misconceptions, based on interview studies The origins of these
misconceptions include: compartmentalization of physical science subjects; inadequate
prerequisite knowledge; misuse of everyday language in chemical situations; use of multiple
definitions and models; and rote application of algorithms. Misconceptions arise not only from
students’ contacts with the physical and social world and from textbooks (Cho et al. 1985), but
also as a result of interaction with teachers (Gilbert and Zylberstajn, 1985).
30
ACIDS AND BASES
(P. 23–34)
The prevalence of alternative conceptions amongst students suggests that undergraduate

education in chemistry should be modified so that the major conceptual problems are addressed
throughout the curriculum. Misconceptions showing lack of understanding of basic chemistry
principles suggest that the underlying principle may often be lost. The students often fail to
recognize when arguments are valid, and thus either over- or under-extend them. Using of
everyday language and examples presents both negative and positive opportunities. Students
who attempt to connect their studies with their prior experiences may not realize words may
have different meanings in everyday speech and in scientific discourse (Renstrom et al., 1990;
Gilbert et al., 1982).
The presence of the misconceptions challenges instructors to consider how best to instruct
students at this level. First, the instructor must determine which of these conceptions are
present in their classroom. To maximize the likelihood of new learning occurring in our
classrooms, it is vital that teachers take existing student knowledge into account. We have
often treated student minds as ‘blank slate’ onto which we can load concepts. If this were so,
education would be simple. The amount of learning that occurs in the science classroom and
indeed in any classroom is largely determined by the pre-knowledge that students bring with
them to the lesson. It is the students’ prior knowledge that influences what new or modified
knowledge they will construct as a result of their learning experiences in the classroom. The
students’ motivation level and attentiveness have a part to play, certainly, but what they
already know about a topic is by far the most important factor to consider (Ausubel, 1968) –
it will either be a bridge to new learning or a barrier.
As we have seen, many student misconceptions are highly resistant to eradication.
Researches indicate that many will never be overcome (Wandersee et al. 1994). Instructors
must then create the disequilibrium necessary for students to rearrange their conception in
the direction of the expert’s conception. If instructors acknowledge the possibility of
misconceptions concerning fundamental concepts even in an advanced undergraduate course,
they will be better able to develop scientifically accepted concepts by addressing and attempting
to remediate student misconceptions. Only then will the student’s ideas become congruent
with correct conceptions.
One of the most fruitful outcomes of the studies on children’s misconceptions is to alert
teachers to students’ difficulties in conceptualizing science knowledge and hence, as said,
suggest more effective strategies for improving classroom instruction. Before teaching a
concept, such as acids and bases, chemical bonding, redox, chemical equilibrium, teachers
should be able to check the literature to find out what is known about misconceptions that
students may bring to class and which teaching methods are the best in correcting these
misconceptions. Many research studies have identified common student misconceptions in a
wide variety of areas, including Science and these are contained in numerous journals.
Among many instructional materials, textbooks are most important information sources
for students. Many research studies have found that the textbooks used in schools have
inadequate or sometimes incorrect information (Soyibo, 1995). Therefore, textbook authors
should help teachers become aware of the common misconceptions students bring to the
chemistry classroom. In parallel to textbooks, guide materials and new teaching materials
that may help to remedy students’ misconceptions should be devised and presented to teachers’
usage.
Assisting students to overcome misconceptions can be a difficult and time consuming
task, one which takes time away from other science activities. It is this that often deters
teachers from making the effort. They complain that they have not the time because there is
too much content to cover. The answer is simple. If our lessons do not attempt to built on the
students’ correct understanding of concepts, then other, more important, science activities
may be a total waste of time. The misconceptions found here, and the additional alternative
conceptions reported elsewhere, provide a starting point for chemistry instructors who wish
to familiarize themselves with alternative conceptions and misconceptions their students
31
ACIDS AND BASES
(P. 23–34)
might possess. The results of this paper which summarize the prevalent misconceptions
identified in this study offer clues to instructors as to where other misconceptions might lie.
Acknowledgement
The author acknowledges the valuable comments and suggestions of the referees on the
earlier version of the manuscript.
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Appendix
Question 1 - Compare the pH values of pure water at 25oC and 70oC. Explain your
answer as carefully as you can.
Question 2 - What is a neutral solution? Explain your answer as carefully as you can.
Question 3 - Predict the pH value of a solution of 10-8 M HCI. Explain your answer as
carefully as you can.
Question 4 - At 25oC, when equal amounts of 0, 1 M NaOH (aq) and 0, 1 M CH3COOH

(aq) are mixed, what about the pH of medium?
a) pH > b) pH = 7 c) pH < 7
Explain your answer as carefully as you can.
Question 5 - What is hydrolysis? Explain your answer as carefully as you can.
33
ACIDS AND BASES
(P. 23–34)
Ðåçþìå
ÎØÈÁÎ×ÍÛÅ ÏÐÅÄÑÒÀÂËÅÍÈß ÒÓÐÅÖÊÈÕ

ÑÒÓÄÅÍÒÎÂ Î ÊÈÑËÎÒÀÕ È ÎÑÍÎÂÀÍÈßÕ
Òàöåòòèí Ïèíàðáàøè
Öåëüþ íàñòîÿùåãî èññëåäîâàíèÿ áûëî îïðåäåëåíèå îøèáî÷íûõ ïðåäñòàâëåíèé ñòóäåíòîâ î

êèñëîòàõ è îñíîâàíèÿõ. Äëÿ åå äîñòèæåíèÿ èñïîëüçîâàëèñü òåñòû ñ îòêðûòûìè äèàãíîñòè÷åñêèìè
âîïðîñàìè è ïîëóñòðóêòóðèðîâàííûå èíòåðâüþ. Áûë îïðîøåí 91 ñòóäåíò ìëàäøèõ êóðñîâ ôàêóëüòåòà
ïîäãîòîâêè ó÷èòåëåé-åñòåñòâåííèêîâ íà÷àëüíîé øêîëû îäíîãî èç ãîñóäàðñòâåííûõ óíèâåðñèòåòîâ
Òóðöèè. Êðîìå òîãî, 11 ñòóäåíòîâ áûëè ïðîèíòåðâüþèðîâàíû ñ öåëüþ îáúÿñíåíèÿ èõ ïèñüìåííûõ
îòâåòîâ è äëÿ äàëüíåéøåãî çîíäèðîâàíèÿ êîíöåïòóàëüíîãî ïîíèìàíèÿ âîïðîñîâ òåñòà ñòóäåíòàìè.
Èññëåäîâàíèå âñêðûëî ìíîæåñòâî íåïðàâèëüíûõ ïðåäñòàâëåíèé. Åãî ðåçóëüòàòû ìîãóò áûòü ïîëåçíû
äëÿ ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ òðåòè÷íîãî óðîâíÿ. Íåîáõîäèì îñíîâàòåëüíûé ïåðåñìîòð ñòðàòåãèé ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ.
Êëþ÷åâûå ñëîâà: îøèáî÷íûå ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ, êèñëîòû, îñíîâàíèÿ, ðàâíîâåñèå,
åñòåñòâåííîíàó÷íîå îáðàçîâàíèå.
Received 01 March 2006; accepted 20 February 2007
Tacettin Pinarbasi
Assistant Professor Dr.

Atatürk University, K.K. Education Faculty, Department
of Science and Mathematics Education,
25240, Erzurum, Turkey
Phone: +90 442 231 40 35; Fax: +90 442 236 09 55
E-mail: tacettin_p@yahoo.com
34
ISSN 1648–3898
A HANDS-ON ACTIVITY TO
PROMOTE CONCEPTUAL
CHANGE ABOUT MIXTURES
AND CHEMICAL
COMPOUNDS
Bayram Costu, Suat Ünal and Alipasa Ayas Abstract. The study revealed
students’ conceptions about
© Bayram Costu
mixtures and chemical compounds
© Suat Ünal
and also investigated the effects of a
© Alipasa Ayas hands-on activity designed to
improve their understanding of
differences between two concepts.
The sample consists of 52 seventh
grade students in a primary school.
Introduction Students’ ideas were elicited by a
test consisting of six open-ended
There have been many studies concerning students’ questions. An intervention designed
alternative conceptions about various science phenomena based on students’ preconceptions.
The intervention, in which two
(Pfundt and Duit, 2000). These studies generally agreed that
different colored balls of clay were
students come to science class with some beliefs and ideas about
used, comprises a hands-on activity
physical phenomena derived from their prior learning either whose aim was to help students
from school or from their interaction with the physical and social distinguish essential differences
world (Wandersee, Mintzes, and Novak, 1994; Duit, 2004). These between mixtures and chemical
beliefs and ideas are sometimes different from the conceptions compounds. After the intervention,
accepted by the scientific community. In the literature, a number the test was re-administered to the
of terms such as preconceptions, misconceptions, alternative sample as a post-test. Both
conceptions were used to describe these alternative conceptions. qualitative and quantitative
However, when these terms are used, they often convey a similar assessment indicated positive effects
meaning (Taber, 2000). In this article, the term ‘misconception’ is of the intervention on students’
understanding. The results suggest
used to describe any conceptions different from or inconsistent
that teachers and curriculum
with those accepted by the scientific community. For better
developers should take into account
learning, it has been advised by several researchers that the this kind of activities in order to help
students’ earlier conceptions should be taken into account at all students understand confusing
stages of instruction (Smith, Disessa, and Roschelle, 1993). concepts.
Over the past twenty years, research in chemistry education
has shown that a large proportion of the students or even Key words: students’ understanding,
teachers have problems understanding of element, compound mixture, chemical compound,
and mixture (Briggs and Holding, 1986; Ben-Zvi, Eylon, and hands-on activity.
Silberstain, 1988; Laverty and McGarvey, 1991; Ayas and
Demirbaº, 1997; Sanger, 2000; Taber, 2002; Papageorgiou, 2002;
Bayram Costu,
Papageorgiou and Sakka, 2000; Stains and Talanquer 2007a, b).
Suat Ünal and Alipasa Ayas
Stains & Talanquer (2007a) found out that misclassifications of a
Karadeniz Technical University,
substance commonly occurred when students failed to clearly
Turkey
identify or differentiate the distinct features that characterize
35
A HANDS-ON ACTIVITY TO PROMOTE CONCEPTUAL CHANGE ABOUT MIXTURES ISSN 1648–3898
AND CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS
(P. 35–46)
an element, a compound, or a mixture. Misclassifications have been observed in tasks involving

pictures at both the macro and the micro levels (Briggs and Holding, 1986; Sanger, 2000; Taber, 2002;
Stains and Talanquer, 2007a). In harmony with this result, some studies have also proven that
students frequently cannot distinguish between mixtures and chemical compounds (Briggs and
Holding, 1986; Ben-Zvi, Eylon, and Silberstain, 1988; Laverty and McGarvey, 1991; Ayas and Demirbaº,
1997; Papageorgýou, 2002).
Mixture and chemical compound is one of the fundamental concepts of science taught from
primary school onwards. An understanding of these concepts is a prerequisite for many science
concepts taught in the later stages of schooling. Both primary and secondary curricula aim to represent
this topic for students. These concepts are essential for students to grasp many aspects of chemistry.
For these reasons, revealing students’ misconceptions and facilitating conceptual change become
very important point. Although there are many studies eliciting students’ ideas about mixtures and
chemical compounds, there are few providing conceptual understanding about distinct features
between mixtures and chemical compounds. Amongst the mentioned studies before, only one
research made by Papageorgýou (2002) suggested a teaching strategy-in which a clay activity
included-for distinguishing mixture and compound, but he did not implement it. In this research, we
have tried to design a hands-on activity regarding the activities suggested by Papageorgýou (2002)
and we find it worth be investigating its success on remediation of students’ misconceptions.
Since new knowledge is constructed on the base of existing cognitive structure, misconceptions
have been addressed before new ones are developed. However, students’ misconceptions could be
so deeply rooted that traditional instruction may be somewhat inadequate for conceptual change
toward focused scientific concepts (Wandersee, Mintzes, and Novak, 1994). Studies in science
education show that teaching strategies based on the conceptual change approach have been
effective in remediation of students’ misconceptions (Smith, Blakeslee, and Anderson, 1993; Treagust,
Harrison, and Venville, 1996; Case and Fraser, 1999). The conceptual change approach suggests that
the four conditions must exist before a conceptual change is likely to occur (Posner, Strike, and
Hewson, 1982). These are:
(1) Students must become dissatisfied with their existing conceptions (dissatisfaction).
(2) The new concept must be clear and understandable for students (intelligibility).
(3) The current problem should be solved using the new concept (plausibility).
(4) Similar future problems can be solved by using the new concept (fruitfulness).
There are many specific instructional strategies based on the conceptual change model of
Posner, Strike, & Hewson (1982) such as concrete activities, refutational text, hands-on activities,
concept mapping, and computer-aided instruction and so forth. Hands-on activities were preferred
in this study due to their positive effects on conceptual change, students’ achievement and
understanding (Kahle and Damnjanovic, 1994; Case and Fraser, 1999). Hands-on activities are an
exciting way to help students to develop conceptual understanding. These activities can be done
individually, in small groups, or as a whole class. Hands-on activities as an active learning technique
enable students to construct scientific understanding of a subject through fun (Kahle and
Damnjanovic, 1994; Case and Fraser, 1999; Bilgin, 2006). Learners can engage in the process of
building their own knowledge structures from the acquired information in the activities. Moreover,
hands-on activities may improve students’ attitudes towards investigation, and students may find a
chance to observe links between natural phenomena and scientific facts. With hands-on activities,
students can acquire the basic skills required to carry out observations and experiments as well as
the methodology of investigating a subject in a scientific manner. They may also learn to express
accurately the processes involved as well as the results (Kahle and Damnjanovic, 1994; Freedman,
1997; Wenglinsky, 2000). Hence, we carried out the present study in an effort to address the
students’ misconceptions of mixtures and chemical compounds concepts and distinguishing both of
them.
The purpose of this study was to investigate effectiveness of a hands-on activity designed to
improve students’ understanding of mixtures and chemical compounds and their differentiations.
The following research questions were addressed:
36
ISSN 1648–3898 A HANDS-ON ACTIVITY TO PROMOTE CONCEPTUAL CHANGE ABOUT MIXTURES
(P. 35–46)
• What are the seventh grade students’ conceptions of mixtures and compounds?
• To what extent can a hands-on activity using different colored balls of plastic modeling
clay facilitate better understanding and provide conceptual change about these concepts?
The research was conducted with 52 seventh grade students (28 girls and 24 boys, whose ages
were ranged from 13 to 15 years) in a class of a public school which was randomly chosen in an urban
area in Trabzon, Turkey. The sample had studied the subject “Mixture and Compound” in the first
semester. Before the intervention, in order to assess the misconceptions held by these students,
“Mixture and Compound Test” (MCT) was devised by the researchers. The MCT consists of six open-
ended questions as shown in Figure 1.
Figure1. Mixture and compound test (MCT) used in this study.
The questions were phrased in a way that could be understood easily by the respondents. In
addition, all questions were piloted with a group of 26 seventh grade students and required
modifications were made prior to the administration of the test. The content validity of the test
items was ensured by science educators consisting of one professor of chemistry education and
two research assistants. In the first five questions, students were asked to define the terms of
mixture and chemical compound, their properties and distinctions between two in their words. In
the last question, students were asked to classify particulate drawings as a mixture or a chemical
compound. This question also requires students to explain their reasons. Students’ ideas about the
microscopic structural features of elements, compounds, and mixtures have mainly explored by
using particulate drawings (Briggs and Holding, 1986; Nurrenbern and Pickering, 1987; Sanger,
2000; Stains and Talanquer, 2007a, b) as in the present study.
The MCT firstly was administered to the sample as a pre-test. After the intervention, the
MCT test was re-administered to the sample as a post-test by which the effects of the intervention
was measured. The results of the pre- and post-tests were analyzed in order to assess quantitatively
what the effect of the intervention was. Also, students’ misconceptions and the effects of
intervention on them were calculated qualitatively based on pre- and post-test findings. Students’
responses to the test items were evaluated and scored regarding the following categories listed
in Table 1.
37
(P. 35–46)
Table 1. The criteria for the classification of students’ responses to test items.
Level of understanding Criteria for the classification of student responses Score
Sound Understanding Responses that include all components of the scientifically accepted 10 p
(SU) ideas
Understanding Responses that include most of the components of the acceptable 8p

(U) ideas
Partial Understanding Responses that include at least one of the components of the 6p
(PU) acceptable ideas but not all.
Partial Understanding With Responses that show partial understanding of concepts by students 3p
Misconceptions but that may also contain a kind of misconception
(PUM)
Specific Misconception Responses that include descriptive, incorrect or illogical information. 0p

(SM)
No Understanding Repeats a part or full of question, irrelevant or uncodable responses, 0p

(NU) and no answer. Such as “I don’t understand”, “I don’t know” or “I
have no idea”
Results of Research
Students’ Misconceptions of Mixture and Chemical Compound
The percentages of students’ answers in each category for the open-ended test items on pre-
test are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Percentage of students’ responses for categories of understanding on the pre- test.
Test Items SU U PU PUM SM NU
1 4 15 64 4 13 -
2 2 2 84 6 2 4
3 36 6 46 10 - 2
4 6 2 69 15 2 6
5 2 6 57 27 2 6
6-a 50 27 11 4 8 -
6-b 52 11 17 10 8 2
6-c 27 6 21 - 44 2
6-d 25 6 27 - 38 4
Since one of the research questions of this study was to determine students’ misconceptions
about mixtures and compounds, their explanations for the test items on pre-test were examined
in detail, especially two categories, “Partial Understanding with Misconceptions” and “Specific
Misconceptions” wherein they include misconceptions. In this way, students’ misconceptions and
difficulties were defined and presented in Table 3 in which their percentages of these also presented.
38
(P. 35–46)
Although the students had studied the subjects in the first semester, the findings of the pre-
test showed that the sample hold several misconceptions about mixture and compound as seen in
the Table 3. We identified that the students held some major problematic conceptions about
properties of the mixtures and compounds.
Table 3. Students’ misconceptions and difficulties elicited by analyzing the pre-test.
Students’ misconceptions and difficulties %
All mixtures are substances that do not have the same properties throughout the sample. Or, all mixtures are
heterogeneous** 23
Mixtures are pure substances** 21
Mixtures are homogeneous** 23
Mixtures are combination of the two or more substances that are not pure ** 15
Mixtures are always combination of two different elements** 27
The properties of the components in a mixture are not retained (C1)* 41
Mixtures always comprise of two substances** 21
The components of a mixture cannot be physically separated (A1)* 36
The components of mixtures can be separated but compounds cannot (A2)* 0
The components of a mixture combine in exact proportion (B1)* 25
Compound is a combination of two same elements** 27
Compounds are a combination of the two same substances** 23
Compounds are heterogeneous** 25
The properties of the components in a compound are retained (C2)* 38
Pure compounds are homogeneous mixtures** 15
The component of a compound can be separated only by the process of electrolysis (A3) * 17
The components of a compound combine in different proportion (B2)* 21
(*) : Misconceptions about differentiation between mixture and compound. (The intervention was designed based on these misconceptions)
(**) : Misconceptions taking into account by a few studies in the mentioned literature some of which activity were developed to refine these.
There were four basic ideas that some students found difficult to grasp and that gave rise to
many alternative conceptions.
Firstly, they failed to grasp the idea that mixtures are not pure substances. Instead, they think
that mixtures are pure substances. Some materials such as air, water, honey, yoghurt that students
encounter are frequently labeled “pure” in everyday language, although they are really mixtures
of substances. Consequently, conflict of meaning can arise for students. Also, they care about the
properties of air, water and so on; then they think that all mixtures are homogenous substances
by an over-generalization. In contrary to this view, some students think that all mixtures are
substances that do not have the same properties throughout the sample. But, it is known that
solutions are homogenous mixtures having the same properties throughout the sample. Students
may have the idea that mixtures are heterogeneous because of the under-generalization regarding
the properties of some mixtures.
Secondly, some students think that compounds cannot be separated in anyway or others
think that they only can be separated by the process of electrolysis. Although the components of
a mixture can be physically separated, those of a chemical compound cannot be separated unless
chemical methods are used. A possible reason for this may be the view that compounds are new
substances that exist by a combination of two or more elements by losing their properties. Moreover,
this view may stem from that science teachers and textbook authors use electrolysis method in
most cases to separate a chemical compound.
Although a chemical compound is a substance formed by joining of two or more elements
together through chemical bonding, a mixture is the combination of elements or compounds
without any chemical bonding. The third problematic ideas held by students were that a mixture
39
(P. 35–46)
or a chemical compound is the combination of two elements, not more. As mentioned above, this
may stem from the common usage of examples of compounds or mixtures consisting of two
components in science classes. Although the components of a mixture are in random proportion,
those of a compound are in specific proportion. In contrary to this, some students have the idea
that a mixture is in specific proportion and a compound is in random proportion. These students
probably mixed up the concepts of mixture and compound and use these concepts instead of each
other. We suggest that, this stems from students’ previous experiences. When students observe
that their mothers mix up the ingredients of a meal in a specific proportion, they may erroneously
conclude that mixtures should be in specific proportion. Since students’ previous experiences are
very important in formation of misconceptions, especially at younger ages, they resisted changing
their preconceptions.
Finally, some students have an idea that although the properties of the components in a
compound are retained, the properties of a mixture differ from its components. This idea may
also be the result of the students’ confusion with the concepts of mixture and compound.
As a general consideration of the four basic ideas, it is concluded that students have difficulties
about the properties of mixtures and compound and the differentiations between them. To
overcome these difficulties, an intervention was designed based on the study by the Papageorgýou
(2002) who suggested a teaching strategy in which a clay activity included to distinguish mixture
and compound.
Effects of Intervention in Facilitating Conceptual Change
Design of Intervention
As a general evaluation of pre-test data (see Table 3), the findings generally indicate that
students do not fully differentiate between mixture and chemical compound; hence, they held
some major misconceptions about properties of mixture and compound. While some of them
have been given in the literature (Sanger, 2000; Stains and Talanquer, 2007a), the others that
were essential differences between mixtures and chemical compounds have not. In order to
achieve conceptual change, the intervention was designed (See Appendix).
The intervention was suggested in a study by Papageorgiou (2002), however, it was not
administered and its effects in facilitating conceptual change were not investigated. The
intervention, in which two different colored balls of clay were used, comprises a hands-on activity
whose aim was to help students to distinguish essential differences between mixtures and chemical
compounds. It was adapted to Turkish context and phrased in a way that could be understood
easily by the respondent. In addition, it was piloted with a group of 26 seventh grade students and
required modifications were made prior to the administration. The final form of it was administered
the sample as a group activity. Each group consisted of four students. Hands-on activity lasted for
two 40 minutes period.
At the beginning of the hands-on activity, the worksheet (see Appendix) on which students
would write down their responses was handed out to each group. Then, they were asked to follow
the steps given in the activity paper. During the instruction, students’ were encouraged to discuss
their ideas with their peers about what would happen in the given circumstances in the activity to
check their prior knowledge, ideas and beliefs and to construct the concepts properly in their
mind. Finally, they made real laboratory experiments about mixture and chemical compound at
the end of the activity to compare results derived by the clay activity with those deduced by the
real experiments. In harmonious with constructivist view and conceptual change model, initially it
was provided for students to make them aware that their prior ideas were insufficient in explaining
the given phenomena. Challenging students’ misconceptions with the experiences contradict to
their existing cognitive structures; students were forced to be dissatisfied with their existing
concepts. Then, they were provided experiences in which the new scientific concepts would seem
plausible, intelligible and fruitful to them.
40
(P. 35–46)
Evaluation of Intervention
To find out the changes on students’ understanding of the differences between mixture and
chemical compound, the MCT was re-administered to the sample as a post-test following the
intervention. The misconceptions and their percentages before and after the instruction are
given in Table 4.
Table 4. Students’ misconceptions and their changes after the intervention
Misconceptions Pre-Test Post-Test Conceptual Changes

% % %
All mixtures are substances that do not have the same properties
throughout the sample. Or, all mixtures are heterogeneous. 23 15 (+ 8)
Mixtures are pure substances 21 10 (+ 11)
Mixtures are homogeneous 23 8 (+ 15)
Mixtures are combination of the two or more substances that
are not pure. 15 8 (+ 7)
Mixtures are always combination of two different elements. 27 13 (+ 14)
The properties of the components in a mixture are not retained (C1)* 41 6 (+ 35)
Mixtures always comprise of two substances. 21 10 (+ 11)
The components of a mixture cannot be physically separated (A1)* 36 4 (+ 32)
The components of mixtures can be separated but
compounds cannot. (A2)** 0 8 (- 8)
The components of a mixture combine in exact proportion (B1)* 25 0 (+ 25)
Compound is a combination of two same elements. 27 12 (+ 15)
Compounds are a combination of the two same substances 23 15 (+ 8)
Compounds are heterogeneous 25 10 (+ 15)
The properties of the components in a compound are retained (C2)* 38 2 (+ 36)
Pure compounds are homogeneous mixtures 15 2 (+ 13)
The component of a compound can be separated only
by the process of electrolysis (A3) * 17 3 (+ 14)
The components of a compound combine in different proportion (B2)* 21 0 (+ 21)
(*) : Misconceptions about differentiation between mixture and compound. (The intervention was designed based on these misconceptions)
(**) : Misconceptions taking into account by a few studies in the mentioned literature some of which activity were developed to refine these.
+ : shows positive conceptual change, - : shows negative conceptual change
As can be seen from Table 4, as a general evaluation of the data, percentages of the students’
misconceptions except for A2 dropped from pre-test to post-test. This shows that conceptual
change occurred in students’ minds. However, conceptual change did not occurred merely in
misconception A2.
Since the intervention was designed based on the essential differences between chemical
compound and mixture, misconceptions about them was examined in detail. If an average is taken
over the items testing particular misconceptions, on average misconception A1 dropped from
36% to 4%, misconception A2 increased from 0% to 8%, misconception B1 dropped from 25% to
0%, misconception B2 dropped from 21% to 0%, misconception C1 dropped from 41% to 6%, and
misconception C2 dropped from 38% to 2%. It will be noted that while the greatest conceptual
change seemed to occur in connection with misconceptions A1, B1, B2, C1, and C2, conceptual
change with respect to misconception A2 did not.
Moreover, students’ overall achievement scores on pre- and post-test were calculated and
data was analyzed by means of SPSS 10.0 ™ to make statistical comparisons between two cases
and to determine the overall effectiveness of the activity.
41
(P. 35–46)
Table 5. The summary of the paired sample t-test.
Subject (N) Mean Std. Deviation df t p
Pre-test 52 52.87 14.66 51 -8.134 .000

Post-test 52 70.23 14.98
After the statistical analysis, it was found out that there is a significant difference between pre-
and post- test in favor of post-test (t(26) = -8.134, p<0.05). As can be seen from Table 5, students
performed higher scores in post-test than in pre-test.
Conclusions
This paper suggests some answers to the two research questions posed in the introduction. In
response to the first question, we found several misconceptions some of which were previously reported
in the literature. The use of the test appeared to highlight the major difficulties students have.
Amongst them, we identified that there was a major problematic issue for many students about
differentiations between mixtures and chemical compounds. Intervention in order to overcome this
difficulty was developed based on the literature.
The second research question is whether an intervention using a hands-on activity facilitates
better understanding and provides conceptual change about these concepts? A response to this question
is that the intervention generally did have positive effects upon students’ understanding. It is clear
from the Table 4 as a qualitative data and Table 5 as a quantitative data. Both quantitative and
qualitative analysis indicated a clear increase on understanding of mixtures and chemical compounds
on the average for groups of students. But, complete conceptual change was not seen in their
understandings. As explained by Chinn & Brewer (1993), there are several reasons why complete
conceptual change is so difficult. On being given information that contradicts a strongly held belief, a
learner may ignore it, trivialize it, compartmentalize it, hold it in abeyance, change an insignificant part
of the current belief but otherwise keep it intact, or provide a more complete conceptual change. On
this basis the changes with respect to misconceptions A1, B1, 2 and C1, 2 can be regarded as significant.
This result indicate that present study that use of hands-on activity can be one of the effective means
for inducing conceptual change.
However, conceptual change with respect to misconception A2 was not effective. While this
misconception is not seen in the pre-test results, it is seen in the post-test. It is inferred from this
finding, intervention led to form a new misconception. In hands-on activity; a small yellow colored ball
of clay mixed up with a blue one and therefore a larger green ball formed. Since the new existing
green colored ball of clay different from the older ones in terms of their colors, students erroneously
may think that small blue and yellow colored balls of clay did not compose from the larger green
colored ball of clay. Probably, the analogical connections of similarities between colored balls of clay
and elements were not obvious for the students. As mentioned by Taber (2001) and Nottis & McFarland
(2001), analogy may raise an unexpected misconception as seen in this study. Sometimes analogical
connections of similarities are not obvious and may require attention in instruction through different
techniques such as bridging. Therefore, teachers need to focus on the goal of helping students to
develop qualitative models of physical phenomena that can help students to make sense of abstract
concepts. Moreover, although it is not seen in this study, students may think it is necessary to heat two
elements to form a chemical compound. This view is valid only when the experiment about formation
of FeS was done in teaching of subject. Therefore, teachers in their classes should emphasize that heat
is not necessary to form compounds and show an illustration of how a compound can form without
heat (for example, the elements sodium and oxygen can form sodium oxide at room temperature).
As a final remark, there are a number of teaching ways or strategies that are applicable in a
classroom situation and that may be used for conceptual change in students’ ideas. On the basis of the
present study, it can be deduced that hands-on activities may be powerful way to foster science
42
(P. 35–46)
learning viewed from a conceptual change perspective. If teachers demand to get their students to
learn meaningfully, they need to employ various strategies or tools in their classes to enhance student
understanding of problematic science concepts. A variety of learning activities which optimize student
involvement in the learning process help students to improve their performance. No one asserts that
the students who are exposed to the teaching for conceptual change will immediately relinquish their
preconceptions in favor of the scientists’ explanations of the concepts unless they are persuaded that
their preconceptions are wrong and deficient for the given phenomena. Therein, preconceptions are
tenacious and may require repeated challenges in different settings and contexts to replace students’
newly structured knowledge. Therefore, it is necessary to develop effective teaching ways, tools or
strategies and present to teachers for their use in science classes to teach abstract and difficult science
concepts.
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Appendix. A clay activity as intervention used in the study.
44
(P. 35–46)
As continued Appendix
Ðåçþìå
ÑÎÁÑÒÂÅÍÍÀß ÏÐÀÊÒÈ×ÅÑÊÀß ÄÅßÒÅËÜÍÎÑÒÜ

Ó×ÀÙÈÕÑß Â ÐÀÇÂÈÒÈÈ ÏÎÍÈÌÀÍÈß ÑÌÅÑÅÉ È
ÕÈÌÈ×ÅÑÊÈÕ ÑÎÅÄÈÍÅÍÈÉ
Áàéðàì Êîñòó
Êîñòó,, Ñóàò Óíàë
Óíàë,, Àëèïàñà Àÿñ
Èññëåäîâàíû ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ ó÷åíèêîâ î ñìåñÿõ è õèìè÷åñêèõ âåùåñòâàõ, à òàêæå âëèÿíèå èõ

ñîáñòâåííîé ïðàêòè÷åñêîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè, ðàçðàáîòàííîé äëÿ óëó÷øåíèÿ ïîíèìàíèÿ ðàçíèöû ìåæäó
äâóìÿ ïîíÿòèÿìè. Âûáîðêà ñîñòîÿëà èç 52 ó÷åíèêîâ ñåäüìîãî êëàññà áàçîâîé øêîëû. Äëÿ âûÿñíåíèÿ
45
(P. 35–46)
ïðåäñòàâëåíèé øêîëüíèêîâ èñïîëüçîâàëè òåñò èç øåñòè ñâîáîäíûõ âîïðîñîâ. Íà îñíîâå ýòèõ èñõîäíûõ
ïðåäñòàâëåíèé áûëà ðàçðàáîòàíà ìåòîäèêà îðãàíèçàöèè ïðàêòè÷åñêîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè øêîëüíèêîâ ñ
äâóìÿ ïëàñòèëèíîâûìè øàðèêàìè ðàçíîãî öâåòà. Öåëü äàííîé ìåòîäèêè - ïîìî÷ü ó÷åíèêàì óñâîèòü
ñóùåñòâåííóþ ðàçíèöó ìåæäó ñìåñÿìè è õèìè÷åñêèìè ñîåäèíåíèÿìè. Ïîñëå çàíÿòèé ïî ýòîé ìåòîäèêå
â âûáîðêå áûë ïðîâåäåí çàêëþ÷èòåëüíûé òåñò.
Êà÷åñòâåííûå è êîëè÷åñòâåííûå îöåíêè ñâèäåòåëüñòâóþò î ïîëîæèòåëüíîì ýôôåêòå ìåòîäèêè â
ðàçâèòèè ïîíèìàíèÿ ó÷åíèêîâ. Ó÷èòåëÿì è ðàçðàáîò÷èêàì ó÷åáíûõ ïðîãðàìì ñëåäóåò èñïîëüçîâàòü
ýòîò âèä äåÿòåëüíîñòè, ÷òîáû ïîìî÷ü ó÷åíèêàì ðàçëè÷àòü ÷àñòî ñìåøèâàåìûå ïîíÿòèÿ.
Êëþ÷åâûå ñëîâà: ïîíèìàíèå ó÷åíèêîâ, ñìåñü, õèìè÷åñêîå ñîåäèíåíèå, ñîáñòâåííàÿ
ïðàêòè÷åñêàÿ äåÿòåëüíîñòü
Received 06 October 2006; accepted 25 February 2007
Bayram Costu
Assistant Professor at Karadeniz Technical University,
Fatih Faculty of Education Secondary Science and
Mathematic Education Department,
Chemistry Education, 61335, Akcaabat-Trabzon,
Turkey
Phone: +90 462 248 23 05
Fax: +90 462 248 73 44
E-mail: bayramcostu@yahoo.com
Suat Ünal
Ph D. Student, Research Assistant
Karadeniz Technical University, Fatih Faculty of
Education
Secondary Science and Mathematic Education
Department,
Turkey
Phone: +90 462 248 23 05
Fax: +90 462 248 73 44
E-mail: unal_suat@hotmail.com
Alipasa Ayas
Professor at Karadeniz Technical University, Fatih
Faculty of Education, Secondary Science and
Mathematic Education Department,
Turkey
Phone: +90 462 248 23 05
Fax: +90 462 248 73 44
E-mail: ayas@ktu.edu.tr
46
ISSN 1648–3898
DEVELOPING
PROSPECTIVE PHYSICS
TEACHERS’ SKILLS OF
INDEPENDENT
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
USING OUTDOORS
APPROACH
Oleg Popov, Irina Tevel Abstract. This paper discusses the

© Oleg Popov development of an Introductory
© Irina Tevel Physics course at a Pedagogical
University in Russia. The course
focuses on developing students’
skills of independent experimental
work. Piotr Gal’perin’s (1902-1988)
ideas, that learning should begin
Introduction with a profound orientation to the
learning task and integrate students’
Currently, the Russian educational system is experiencing self-reflections, provide a theoretical
many innovations and is being rapidly reformed. The new ground for the course development.
educational paradigm, personality oriented education, calls for An outdoor context was used to
the creation of optimal conditions for the development of inspire and implement the students’
potential capacities of learners and their self-realisation. self-directed projects. Evidence of
Particular emphasis is placed on the development of learning the outcomes of different elements
skills (e.g. to collect, process and critically value information) of the course implementation was
and generic modes of learning activity (e.g. problem solving, collected through action research
experimenting). However, schools and teacher education methodology. The results show that
institutions hardly manage to keep up with these the students deepen their skills of
transformations (World Bank /Âñåìèðíûé áàíê/, 2005). School inquiry and value doing
practice is still based on studying the ‘fundamentals of sciences’. independent planning and
This emphasis in the curriculum was introduced during the Soviet implementation of experimental
school reform 1964-1966, leading to an excessive academisation activities in an outdoor
of school programs and textbooks, and an overloading of environment.
teaching with the collection of facts to be reproduced in formal
exams (Dneprov, 2005). Key words: introductory physics,
According to recent international comparative studies on students’ projects, outdoors.
school students’ performance in science e.g. PISA, Russian
students have problems in applying school knowledge in an
everyday context and exercising critical thinking skills. They Oleg Popov,
demonstrated greater problems than pupils from some other Umeå University, Sweden
countries when working with information, reading and Irina Tevel
analysing texts and interpreting data presented in non-textual Karelian State Pedagogical University,
forms. Many Russian students also have difficulties making Republic of Karelia, Russia
47
DEVELOPING PROSPECTIVE PHYSICS TEACHERS’ SKILLS OF INDEPENDENT ISSN 1648–3898
EXPERIMENTAL WORK USING OUTDOORS APPROACH
(P. 47–57)
observations and inferences, drawing conclusions from data and controlling the results (Kovaleva,
2005a, 2005b).
Currently, Russia is an active partner in OECD educational collaboration. The OECD (2003)
suggests the importance of learning about general methodological principles of scientific activity
(inquiry), such as:
• recognising scientifically investigable questions
• identifying evidence needed in a scientific investigation
• drawing up or evaluating conclusions
• communicating valid conclusions.
Ideas of teaching physics through and for learning basic principles of scientific exploratory
activity that are attuned to the OECD’s definition of scientific inquiry are well known, recognised
and promoted in Russia. Borisenok and Kondratiev (2003) emphasise that induction into inquiry
includes learning the general methodological foundations for investigative work. According to
Êondratiev (1998), students should learn to carry out independent research activities, which
include: identification of researchable problems, development of strategy and the tactics of
posing and solving problems using a combination of algorithmic and heuristic approaches.
In an educational context, we can distinguish three types of inquiry: open, guided and
structured (or closed) inquiry. Open inquiry assumes students’ ability to independently formulate
a study question (goals), design and conduct investigation and communicate results. In guided
inquiry the teacher assists students in choosing the questions for investigation and developing
the experiments. Structured inquiry is characterised by a rather strict “cookbook like” type of
teacher’s instructions (prescriptions) on what and how to study. These three types of inquiry are
also described in Russian educational literature as research-like, heuristic and reproductive
methods of teaching/learning (obuchenie) correspondingly (Lerner, 1981).
The need for special physics courses for pre-service teachers that are preparing to teach
science to students as a process of active inquiry is recognized by leading physics education
researchers (McDermott, 2006). Examples of such courses and projects developed in the USA
could be “Physics by Inquiry” (McDermott et al, 1996) and “Explorations in Physics” (http://
physics.dickinson.edu/~eip_web/EiP_homepage.html) which integrate the use of guided-inquiry
techniques with self-directed hands-on students’ activities.
Russian teacher education students have to master and acquire competence in teaching
the foundations of inquiry in a manner consistent with how they are expected to teach. Thus,
the task that teacher educators face is to engage students into practices that support learning
science as inquiry.
Below, we will discuss the development of an Introductory Physics course at Karelian State
Pedagogical University (KSPU) aimed to shift the focus of teaching/learning from structured
(closed) inquiry in laboratory setting to more open forms of inquiry also using outdoor settings.
Background
The ideas and incentive for the course development came from a cooperative project
between the Swedish and the Russian science teachers’ educational institutions. In Sweden, the
teacher education curriculum has long been open for local variations and creative solutions. The
Swedish colleagues’ search for innovative methods and contexts in physics education has led to
an exploration of the possibilities of outdoor teaching.
Outdoors physics education was introduced at the Department of Mathematics, Technology
and Science education (Umeå University) as a part of science teacher training at the beginning
of the 1990’s. The teaching/learning strategies included:
• Students’ investigations of real-world problems in natural settings,
• Collaborative work in small groups of students (2-3 persons) on school-oriented
problems outdoors,
• Peer assessment of the results of group activities.
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(P. 47–57)
The teacher framed the guided inquiry work of students by introducing the context of
learning (outdoors settings) and tools available (simple and easily accessible equipment). Students
had time (two days per project) to discuss the ideas in the particular area of physics, plan and
implement activities. Each group was assessed by the results of their practical demonstration of
activities outdoors and a report of the study that was distributed to each participant of the
class.
The ideas of this approach were used and developed further in the Russian partner teacher
training institution in an Introductory Physics course. The ‘outdoor physics approach’ with
examples/cases for study is presented on the website of our collaborative project http://
outdoorphysics.educ.umu.se.
Theoretical framework
A general theoretical framework used for reflection on the course development was an
approach to learning developed by Gal’perin (Gal’perin, 1969, 1985) and his followers. This
approach assumes the importance of creating a basis for the students’ orientation to the learning
activity and the acquisition of generic modes of activity (Gal’perin, 1969, 1985; Talyzina, 1984).
The orientation basis includes revealing the implicit rational structure of empirical objects and
their essential relationships. It provides the students with the means to make conceptual
generalisations allowing them to perceive the studied phenomenon as a meaningful whole
(Arievitch, Stetsenko, 2000).
Following the ideas of Gal’perin and Òàlysina, we assume that prospective teachers should
create a model and generic mental structure of the activity when approaching concrete
experimental activities and actions. Òàlysina (1984) underlines the importance of creating the
learning situations (using a limited number of concrete activities) and giving students the
necessary time to reveal a structure, construct consistent mental models and develop a basis for
orientation to the activity rather than superficially cover a large number of experiments.
Another important theoretical statement of Gal’perin and Òàlysina (ibid.) is about the way
a basis for orientation is developed. It can be introduced by the teacher or acquired independently
by the student. The latter is considered more effective. In Gal’perin’s approach, teaching/learning
always occurs in the form of students’ active exploration of the subject studied under the
guidance of a teacher (Arievitch, Stetsenko, 2000).
Let us consider the structure of experimental activity (in physics education) developed by
Usova (1988). This structure includes the following steps:
• define the goal of an experiment, theoretically justify the experiment
• plan a sequence of actions
• create material conditions for the experiment
• execute the work according to the plan
• mathematical treatment of data, estimate uncertainties in measurements
• analyse the results, draw conclusions.
The elements of this structure exemplify the generic skills of inquiry that students should
be able to manage and reflect about. In accordance with Gal’perin’s approach, students have to
focus on goals and plans (a basis for orientation) before they carry out the activity practically,
and control and validate the results at the end of the activity. This allows students to be active
agents of the learning activity.
Management of the process of experimental activity at a metacognitive level is emphasised
here. The importance of the development of metacognition (“knowledge, awareness and control
of one’s own learning”, Braid (1990)) in students for effective organization of scientific inquiry
is broadly accepted in the science education community. For example, White and Frederickson
(2000) describe use in a school project of an inquiry cycle: question – predict – experiment –
model – apply and argue for the importance of students’ systematic reflection and self-assessment
of their progress through the elements of the cycle. White and Frederickson (2000) also focus
49
(P. 47–57)
(as Gal’perin does) on development of students’ self-regulatory skills, including “skills for planning
and monitoring such as determining goals and developing strategies for achieving those goals
and then evaluation their progress to see whether their plan needs to be modified”.
In the experimental activity, basic and advanced levels of skills can be distinguished
(Kondratiev, 1989). Basic level skills consist of the specific skills of collecting and treating data
such as managing equipment, making measurements, presenting the results, etc. These skills
can be trained and repeated in order to achieve the form of algorithmic procedure that can be
done rather automatically, without the necessity of doing much ‘thinking work’ about these
elements of practical activities.
An advanced level skills, such as identification of problems, formulation of goals, posing
hypotheses, planning experiments, searching for alternative means and methods, analysis,
evaluation and interpretation of results, can not achieve algorithmic form. These are creative,
productive skills in comparison with rather reproductive basic skills.
Thus, the approach used in the course emphasises the importance of providing experiences
for the students to develop advanced experimental skills and a methodological awareness of
practical investigations.
Research questions
The general aim of this paper is to analyse the development and the outcomes of an
Introductory Physics course for prospective teachers
The specific questions of the study were
• how the new design of the course has influenced students’ abilities to formulate
goals, plan experiments, analyse and evaluate results.
• what role can an outdoor context play in developing students’ skills of inquiry and
independent work during experimental activities.
In this part of the paper we will briefly present the course development and methods of
research used for its study.
The context of the course development
The Introductory Physics course is a locally developed course for the prospective physics
teachers at KSPU. It is conducted during one term (September-January, 17 weeks, 2 hours every
week). The general aim of the official course plan is to introduce students to a university tradition
of physics and prepare them for further studies.
All the first year students at KSPU have passed through the “Single State Exam” which is
used to define school graduation marks and serves as a selection tool for university entrance.
Our analysis of the results of this exam in physics shows that students’ subject knowledge is
relatively low, rather formal and readily applied mainly in standard situations.
The benchmarking test that was given at the beginning of the Introductory Physics course
also shows that students have many conceptual problems. They can use physics terminology
without a real understanding of the concepts and have poorly developed skills in applying these
concepts to explain everyday phenomena.
The students come from schools to KSPU with very limited experience of independent work
and self-directed activities. Usually, they have had little chance to ponder what and how to
investigate during practical physics activities. They have just followed algorithmic type of
laboratory work instructions in the textbooks or teachers’ hand-outs.
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(P. 47–57)
The focal points of the course design
In the current design, the Introductory Physics course aims to engage students in scientific
inquiry in both laboratory and outdoor contexts. There is a gradual shift from closed inquiry
(frontal laboratory activities) at the beginning of the course towards more open inquiry forms of
work (small groups’ project activities) at the end of the course. This also defines two main stages
in the course organization; we can call them a preparatory and a project part. They are separated
by time and place. The preparatory stage (the first part that is organised in an indoors laboratory
setting) focuses on the deepening of basic experimental skills and planning simple experiments.
The project stage (the second part that is organised in outdoor settings) focuses on the development
of advanced experimental skills and meta-process skills (development of generic modes of
experimental activity).
Work outdoors is considered as a means to liberate students’ initiative, developing their skills
of independent design and implementation of experiments. The following analytical structure for
the course development was suggested based on the theoretical framework of the paper:
Table 1. Analytical structure for the course development
Learning problem Teaching/learning activities Mode of activity
Basic level
Learn how to do basic actions Prescriptive, step-by-step instruction Reproductive
Advanced level
Learn how to plan experiments Heuristic dialog1 between the teacher
and the students, guided planning Reproductive + heuristic
Learn to develop theoretical Independent pair work + Heuristic

justification of experiments discussion with the teacher
Improve acquired skills and Independent pair (group) activities + Heuristic + research
learn their complex application discussion
Table 1 above reflects the principle of the gradual evolution of students’ actions in the structure
of experimental activity. In this table “learning problem” describes generic tasks for the students;
“teaching/learning activities” describes the organisational form of students’ work, and “mode of
activity” describes the degree of openness and creativity in students’ activities.
In the current organisation of the course, particular attention is paid to the development of
advanced level skills such as goal formulation, planning, analysis and evaluation of the results of
the experiments. Development of physics communication skills was also an issue to consider. As a
rule, students do not bring with them from schools the skills of oral, written and diagrammatic
communication in physics. So, it was necessary to pay constant attention to how students talk,
draw and write physics, in order to facilitate their orientation in and implementation of
experimental activities.
Research methods
Action research methodology was used to collect evidence about the outcomes of the course
development. According to McNiff and Whitehead (2002), action research is a form of practice
1 Heuristic dialog is a Socratic form of dialog where the teacher does not tell students the answer, but
rather asks probing questions or guides their search for information.
51
(P. 47–57)
which involves data gathering, reflection on the action as it is presented through the data, and
making claims to knowledge based on validated evidence.
The choice of research methods was justified by the need for the approbation of the new
course structure and methods, in the situation where the course teacher was also an active
researcher of her own practice. Action research encourages the use of a range of techniques in
order to look at what is happening from a variety of angles and points of view while monitoring
intended and unintended outcomes of actions. Most action research studies have a built-in spiral
of activity e.g. idea > reconnaissance > plan > act/implement > evaluate > amend plan > act/
implement > etc (Weiner, 2003). Document analysis, participatory observations of the students’
activities, analysis of the students’ assignments, questionnaires and course evaluations were all
used to gather evidence in this study.
The teacher in the Introductory Physics course (one of the authors) kept a diary with personal
accounts of observations over her own and students’ group activities, including notes on hypothesis,
interpretations, reactions and explanations that provided an overview of the course development
over time. She also conducted informal interviews with students on a regular basis during the
course implementation to monitor the effect of actions. Analytical memos on evidence collected,
emerging problems, new hypotheses and ways of conceptualising the situations in the course
were exchange by the researchers (authors) via email, Skype contacts and during face-to-face
meetings in order to get shared insights.
The new course design has been gradually developed over the last three years. The number
of students in the group was about 15 each year. All of them wrote course evaluations that were
introduced for the first time in the physics department.
Results of Research
Students entering the Introductory Physics course already have a perception of what the
practical aspects of an experimental activity are and possess basic level experimental skills that
are further developed in the course. However, they have a low awareness of the methodological
aspects of the experimental activity and low level of advanced experimental skills. We provide
below our analysis of students’ work at different stages of experimental activities following
Usova’s generic structure of experimental activity (Usova, 1988). Our reflections on students’
difficulties with learning problems (presented in table 1) lead us to make some suggestions for
further development of the course.
Planning the experimental activity
There are several important actions in the process of planning experimental activities, including
the choice of the study object, identification of the goals and the sequences of executive actions to
reach the goals.
Choice of a study problem
The work to prepare students for carrying out independent investigations was done
consistently and purposefully during the whole course. After refreshing and learning new basic
skills of experimental activity during the preparatory part of the course, students were asked to
select a topic for self-directed project work. The students had to design their own studies and
construct solutions to the problems. They got some ideas from popular science TV programs and
their personal life experience, suggesting, for example, the study of a person’s reaction time to
different types of signals (light, sound, etc) in different contexts, the measurement of different
parameters of a snowflake (weight, size, volume, shape, etc). Many natural and everyday objects
were used for solving experimental problems outdoors.
Often, students had a general interest in some issue or phenomenon, but did not know how
52
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to approach a problem. In other words, they could not see how to connect it to physics and
formulate study goals. There was also an affective aspect to consider, many students did not have
experience in searching for problems to investigate and seeing themselves as capable of
formulating and solving new problems. The strategies used to change students’ from being
consumers to becoming generators of physics problem were of using heuristic dialog between the
teacher and students, encouraging brainstorming in small groups of students, and changing the
context of the study, i.e. using an outdoors approach.
In general, the students were interested in having the possibility of doing self-directed
experimental study in an environment unusual for them (outdoors). However, most of them
preferred to select a topic from the list suggested by the teacher or from the website http://
outdoorphysics.educ.umu.se.
We came to the conclusion that students should be stimulated to think about their own
experimental problem formulations already at the beginning of the course. Thus, they will have
time to discuss possible options with the teacher, peers and other people. They can also try out
their ideas in parallel with developing the basic skills of experimental work.
Goal formulation
Many of the students have difficulties in defining the goals of their inquiry. The lecturer’s
observations during the course show that students can hardly distinguish between the theme and
object of study and the goal of the experiment. For example, students were asked in a process of
guided inquiry to study the cooling of hot water (theme). The object of the study is given (hot
water) and the students have to define for themselves the goal of the study. They have to
formulate what exactly should be done in the experiment, i.e. formulate the study questions, like
how temperature changes with time and on what parameters and how it depends on? This was
not an easy task for many of them at the beginning of the course.
We can suggest that improvement of the students’ goal formulation activities needs particular
attention during the course. For example, the use of specific exercises has been planned where
goals initially are not clear, but after the goal is identified the process of work is easily understood
and becomes routine procedure. When carrying out the experimental work, students have to be
aware of the necessity of returning to the formulated goal in order to control that the goal has
been achieved and perhaps partially reformulate it or find new goals for further studies.
However, it is not possible to state that all students can manage the formulation of goals well
by the end of the course. This process deserves constant attention as clear goals are necessary for
the success of any experimental activity.
Developing a systemic view of the experimental activity
An important part of an orientation base for experimental activity is thinking through the
experiment as a whole. This is a complex task for students to learn. We found that asking students
to prepare a written instruction for an experiment (before doing it) that gives guidance for ‘the
next group coming for the course’ is useful for developing orientation and planning skills. Students
have to think through, discuss and present in a brief form the sequence of actions, and what they
should pay attention to. Thus, the task stimulates their meta-reflection about experimental activity.
This also gives training in communicating about developing experimental procedures.
Planning experimental activities outdoors introduces additional difficulties for the students.
They are not used to thinking about the influence of the surrounding environment on the occurrence
of an experiment. They tend to idealise a situation as it would be in a traditional laboratory
setting. For example, they do not consider that the wind can influence the speed of sound
propagation, or that a parachuting object moves first with acceleration and if its uniform motion
should be studied, there is a need to shift the point of timing from the point of releasing the
object, etc.
The purposeful work on developing students’ skills of planning the experimental activities
gave the results. By the end of the course, most of the students could create and write down the
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design of the experiment, select the proper equipment, and choose methods of data analysis
quite independently.
The results of the questionnaire delivered at the end of the Introductory Physics course (a
part of the course evaluation) show that the independent development of experimental procedures
or with some guidance by the teacher are considered as the most productive ways of work. As
students wrote in their comments, this helps them to develop their thinking and gives better
understanding of the activity and freedom of actions, “I always remember better, what I have
solved on my own after some struggle”. But they value the teacher’s guidance as it can save time
and help to avoid dead ends in the search for problem solutions in experiment development.
Within the framework of a single course, it is not possible to teach students to ‘think and do
experiments like a physicist’; and it was not the task. For us it was important that students gained
a systemic view of the experimental activity, which they showed in planning, presenting the
results of their work and reflecting about their activities.
Theoretical justification of the experiment
This stage of experimental activity is also very demanding for students as they do not have
much experience from school physics of the theoretical underpinning of their practical work.
Several aspects of students’ activities based on the lecturer’s observations are lifted below.
Identifying a model
One of the major problems for students in ‘thinking about the physics of the experiment’ was
the identification of a suitable model to describe the object or phenomenon. It was challenging for
many of them to think about the fact that the same object can be described by different models
depending on the situation. For example, the same metal sphere can be considered as a material
point, rigid body, elastic body, mathematical pendulum, physical pendulum, etc in different contexts.
The students had difficulty in seeing the
limitations of the models as they are applied in
certain circumstances. For example, in the
preparatory part of the course students were asked
to prove formula describing the correlation between
the period of a mathematical pendulum and its
length using a graphical method of data analysis.
During the discussions and in their drawings students
revealed confusion about the relative size and mass
of the pendulum’s body and suspension and the
concept of small amplitude, which is important for
satisfying a mathematical pendulum model. Their
drawings of the experiment could look like the left-hand diagram in contrast to the right-hand
(correct) diagram.
At the beginning of the course, students often tried to search directly for known formulas
and equations that suited the problem posed, without understanding that the choice of formulae
comes after creating a clearly defined physics model describing the phenomenon. For example, a
student was asked to discover the water pressure at the bottom of a barrel. He picks up the
Mendeleev-Clapeyron equation for ideal gas (where all relevant parameters are present, like
mass, pressure and volume) and tries to find a solution. He did not reflect first about the physics of
the phenomena and find a suitable model and start to calculate later. It takes time for students to
become aware of the nature and utility of physics models as well as the processes by which they
are created, tested, and revised.
Making students aware of the functions and limitations of the models was an issue of constant
attention during the course implementation.
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Finding proper language and concepts
Many problems appeared in the course because students lacked the skills of applying physics
concepts and physics language. They had difficulties in using appropriate terminology to describe
physical phenomena. For example, many of them could not distinguish between the properties of
objects/phenomena and physics quantities, e.g. between air resistance as a phenomenon and
forces of resistance that describe this phenomenon. If they could not identify physical parameters
describing the phenomenon, they could not define goals and plan experiments either.
Another aspect of physics language usage was the relevance of language for the context and
situation. When asked to explain phenomenon, students often tend just to describe it in physics
language rather than make explanation. For example, “Why does a body move uniformly?” The
usual responses were that it happens when a body has a constant velocity, or when acceleration is
zero, instead of making an analysis of forces acting on the body.
In the course, students had to develop skills of working with literature that were new for
them when approaching experimental problems. Usually, they have learned in school that physics
problems have well defined methods of solution and a single answer and also that it is possible to
find “ready made knowledge” (necessary theoretical foundations, laws and formulas, model
problems, etc.) in a certain section of the textbook.
Students were facing physics problems during the course that were not easy to solve using
“ready made knowledge” from a single textbook. They had to refer to different sources of
information in order to formulate a hypothesis, choose a method and an appropriate model to
work with. Often, they had to go over disciplinary borders in search of the necessary knowledge
and this was also an unusual task for them.
In general, development of students’ physics communication skills and work with information,
concepts and terminology was a component of the course under constant attention of the teacher.
New forms of student-teacher collaboration
When students work with experimental problems outdoors expected results can be quite
unexpected. It was difficult to foresee what physics knowledge students can gain and need in
order to solve problems that they identify and plan solutions to. This also tested the lecturer’s
competence, openness and readiness to support the students’ initiatives even if the design of
inquiry was not clear from the beginning and outcomes were unpredictable.
Many authentic problems appeared during the outdoor work that challenged the course
teacher. She had to supervise in new conditions where no standard answers could be offered as in
the case when dealing with traditional “model problems” (e.g. with blocks and inclined planes).
The complexity of the real world situations demanded the deep analysis and use of fundamental
principles of physics in order to answer students’ “simple questions”. The lecturer had to be more
researcher and partner for students in this work rather than possessor of the right answers. This
situation, when the teacher had to think together with a student about genuine problems is not
what teachers are normally trained to do in teacher education. This was a rather new experience
for the course participants.
Many students have experienced ‘a joy of discovery’ and ‘intellectual surprises’ while working
with outdoors projects. The interviews and course evaluations revealed that students became
more interested in working with physics. Many of them indicated intentions to improve their
work, to find out details or verify their data collected in the outdoor experiments. Several of them
expressed surprise that the simple equipment and common school knowledge allowed them to
“make exciting discoveries”. By the end of the course, students also felt more comfortable working
with outdoor cases.
These responses give us evidence of the positive outcome of the Introductory Physics course
where student acquired important skills of inquiry through experimental activities and active
collaboration with the teacher and peers.
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Conclusions
In the new course design, priorities shifted towards developing students’ advanced skills of
experimental activity and understanding of inquiry. The students learned to reflect about
experimental activity as a whole. The generic skills of inquiry developed indoors were applied and
further developed when solving practical problems outdoors.
The evidence collected during the course revealed a generally positive attitude of the first
year students towards the new teaching methods. The students had more time and possibilities to
discuss the ideas and to plan and implement investigations. They felt responsibility for their own
learning and ownership of their projects. Positive changes in students’ attitudes towards the
experimental work could be identified. The most significant improvement took place in planning
the inquiry, as well as in results analysis.
The course development work gives us evidence that the students’ orientation in generic
forms of experimental activity is productive and particular important in teacher education.
Prospective teachers get better possibilities of acquiring skills of inquiry and not only content. The
outdoors approach enriched the design of the introductory physics course. It inspired the new
vision of the objectives and structure of this course. Generally, students gave a positive response
in evaluations of outdoor studies ranging from satisfaction to a very positive attitude.
However, one course can not change the system. Unfortunately, we can state that the courses
where students continue their studies after the Introductory Physics course represent the rather
traditional scholastic culture of physics courses, with creativity limited to finding standard solutions
for standard problems.
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Îëåã Ïîïîâ, Èðèíà Òåâåëü
Â ñòàòüå ðàññìàòðèâàåòñÿ êóðñ ýëåìåíòàðíîé ôèçèêè, ðàçðàáîòàííûé â ÊÃÏÓ äëÿ ñòóäåíòîâ 1

ãîäà îáó÷åíèÿ è íàïðàâëåííûé íà ôîðìèðîâàíèå ó íèõ óìåíèÿ ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíî âûïîëíÿòü ýêñïåðèìåíò.
Ìåòîäîëîãè÷åñêóþ îñíîâó êóðñà ñîñòàâëÿþò èäåè Ï.ß.Ãàëüïåðèíà î òîì, ÷òî âûïîëíåíèþ äåÿòåëüíîñòè
äîëæíî ïðåäøåñòâîâàòü âûÿâëåíèå è îñìûñëåíèå ó÷àùèìèñÿ åå ñòðóêòóðû. Îñîáåííîñòüþ êóðñà
ÿâëÿåòñÿ âûäåëåíèå ñïåöèàëüíîãî ýòàïà âíåàóäèòîðíîé ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíîé ýêñïåðèìåíòàëüíîé ðàáîòû
ñòóäåíòîâ. Èññëåäîâàíèå ïðîöåññà è ðåçóëüòàòîâ ðàáîòû ïî êóðñó âåëîñü ñ èñïîëüçîâàíèåì ìåòîäèêè
action research. Ðåçóëüòàòû ïîêàçûâàþò, ÷òî êóðñ ðåøàåò ïîñòàâëåííûå çàäà÷è ôîðìèðîâàíèÿ ó ñòóäåíòîâ
ìåòîäîëîãè÷åñêèõ çíàíèé è àäåêâàòíûõ èì ñïîñîáîâ äåÿòåëüíîñòè u îáëàäàåò âûñîêèì ìîòèâàöèîííûì
è ýâðèñòè÷åñêèì ïîòåíöèàëîì.
Êëþ÷åâûå ñëîâà
ñëîâà: ôèçè÷åñêèé ýêñïåðèìåíò, ïðîåêòíàÿ äåÿòåëüíîñòü, âíåàóäèòîðíàÿ ðàáîòà.
Received 31 January 2007; accepted 05 March 2007
Oleg Popov
Deputy Head of the Department, Department of
Mathematics, Technology and Science Education,
Faculty of Teacher Education, Umeå University
901 87 Umeå, Sweden
Phone: + 46-70-155 0711
E-mail: oleg.popov@educ.umu.se
Home page: www.educ.umu.se/~popov
Irina R. Tevel
Senior lecturer, Faculty of Physics and Mathematics,
Karelian State Pedagogical University
186860, 17, Pushkinskaya Street, Petrozavodsk,
Republic of Karelia, Russia
Phone: + 79217017555
E-mail: tevel@sampo.ru
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EARLY SCIENCE TEACHING

IN THE NEW PRIMARY
SCHOOL IN SLOVENIA
Abstract. Focusing the problem of Vlasta Hus, Boris Aberðek

rapidly disappearing interest for © Vlasta Hus
© Boris Aberðek
natural science and technical studies
the Slovene school system began to
reform natural science and technical
teaching from the beginning - from Introduction
the primary level. The article

With establishment of a new independent state, Slovenia
presents the results of the empirical changed its school system from the primary to the university
level. Careful taughts have been spent and still are in the area
study, which monitored the changes
of natural science and technical education/technical science
of quality in early science teaching teaching. Focusing the problem of rapidly disappearing interest
on primary level after changes of for natural science and technical studies the Slovene school
system began to reform natural science and technical teaching
school system at the end of the from the beginning - from the primary level. It is very possible,
millennium. that the reason for this disappearing interest for science and
technology studies is not connected only with the way how we
are teaching, but also (maybe primary) because our life style
and our worth in general has been changed. In this paper this
socio-economical point of view will not be discussed. However,
we will give our attention only to the pedagogical, didactical
point of view.
On the primary level (in the first trilenium of the
compulsory nine year “basic” school) the natural science and
technical education are implied in the school subject, so called
“E n v i r o n m e n t a l e d u c a t i o n ” (Krnel, 1996). This
subject has replaced the existing subject called “Early natural
Key words: empirical study, science
and social studies”. The curriculum of the Environmental
education, primary school. education is based on recent theoretical, developmental,
psychological and methodological findings (Pohl, 1997, Pohl,
2000a, Pohl, 2000b). It results from the learning target and
Vlasta Hus, Boris Aberðek process strategy of the curriculum planning and it is based on
University of Maribor, Slovenia the constructivist and humanistic theory of learning and
teaching, with greater emphasis on cross-curricular links
between subjects, and on increased teacher autonomy (Bloom,
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(P. 58–65)
1984, Fullan, 2001). The only compulsory parts of the curriculum are the teaching aims while the
pupils’ activities, didactic recommendations and suggested cross-curricular links are an optional
part and can therefore be replaced with more convenient criteria. In the didactic references of the
national curriculum for the Environmental Studies a particular emphasis is placed on the
consideration of pupil’s experiences and ideas, on children’s concrete activities, which should be
controlled in the first grade and which should lead to concrete products, on the variety of teaching
forms and methods, on a significant consideration of individual differences in pupils’ abilities, and
on indirect observations of the environment (White book, 1995, National curricula board, 1998).
Such an orientation of the teaching will eliminate the basic deficiencies, which appeared in
the subject of Early natural and social studies like: the prevailing frontal teaching, the prevailing
verbal-textual and illustrative-demonstration teaching methods, too much of dealing with ideas,
which led to factography and to a low level of knowledge (Kordigel, 1991/1992). The emphasis
was placed on the realization of mainly material tasks of school lessons, whereby the functional
and educational tasks were neglected. These are the evaluation findings of the experimental
introduction and observation of the curriculum from 1957 (Ðegula, 1964) and from 1983 (Adamiè,
1990). The results of the international comparative studies IAEP, in which also our third-year pupils
were included (natural science), showed more increased efficiency in tasks which demanded only
a reproduction of what was learned than in tasks, in which it was necessary to integrate knowledge
and use it in solving certain problems. In accomplishing the latter tasks they occupied the last place
(Piciga, 1993, Kordigel, 2002).
In this paper we present the study, in which we have tried to find out how the planned
changes in the curriculum of the Environmental Studies were realized in practice by means of
empirical research (Hus, 2001, Hus, 2005).
Definition of the problem
In our research we have tried to find out how the lessons of Environmental Studies in the first
year of the “new” nine-year education programme differ in quantity and quality from the lessons
of the Natural and Social Sciences in the first year of the “old” eight-year education programme.
According to the “new” education programme the children start their education at the age of 6
and continue until the age of 15 while according to the “old” education programme the children
started their education at the age of 7 and have continued until the age of 15 (Labinowicz, 1989).
We focused on planning and presenting both subjects within three common thematic clusters. We
compared teaching aims and analysed their dimensions (Pohl, 2000a, Pohl, 2000b). We analysed
the appropriateness or suitability of interaction, teaching methods, teaching aids, resources, lesson
structures or stages of lessons and the participation of pupils in relation to the achievement of the
teaching aims in both subjects. We were also interested in the pupils’ attitude towards the respective
subject. We investigated the teacher’s opinion about the reformed school subject (Zoldosova,
2006).
Method
The basic research method was causal non-experimental method of pedagogic research.
Sample and data gathering
On the level of the indirect observations of both subjects the sample contained:
• 18 detailed curriculum or annual teaching plans, 9 for each subject or in other words
one from each unit of the Board of Education),
• 36 teaching plans, including the teachers, who were involved in the indirect lesson
observations of both subjects.
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(P. 58–65)
Four primary schools belonging to the Maribor region of the Board of Education were selected for
the direct systematic classroom observations of the Environmental Studies and Natural and Social
Sciences. Two schools started introducing the nine-year primary school programme in the academic
year 1999/2000 while the other two schools carried out the programme of the eight-year primary
school programme. A class of the first year pupils was selected in each school. The research included
eight primary school teachers and two nursery nurses.
Classroom observations were performed in February, April and May in the academic year 1999/
2000 according to three common thematic clusters: Celebrations, Garden and Meadow. Each cluster
lasted for three 45-minute lessons. The time of audio and video recorded materials added up to 18
hours for each of the subjects.
The final year students and the graduate students of the Department for Junior Primary School
Programme at the Faculty of Education helped us with the direct classroom observations. They had
been trained for this task for a longer period of time. Several students were involved in some aspects
of the lessons in order to achieve greater data objectivity.
Technical equipment was yet another means for classroom observations. A cassette player was
used during all classroom observations. A video camera was used to record only one lesson at each
school.
Regarding the pupils’ feelings during the lessons the sample contained all four classes of selected
schools. 286 pupils were involved in the ES and 269 in the NNS.
All the teachers and nursery nurses who were teaching the first year pupils in the nine year
primary school programme in the academic year 1999/2000 (128) were included in the sample of
examining the teachers’ and nursery nurses’ attitude towards the Environmental Studies. However,
the data processing involved only 39.8% of them.
Instruments
This research used the following instruments:

• A curriculum evaluation criteria (the National Curriculum, detailed curriculum, thematic
clusters and teaching plans);
• An observation protocol (to record some dimensions of the learning process, to record
levels of questions and strategies for asking questions, to observe the distribution of the
teacher’s questions among the pupils-Hopkins, to write down pupils’ activities during a
lesson, to observe the stages of the lesson );
• A checklist (to assess the typical characteristics of the learning process);
• Two questionnaires (one for the pupils and one for the teachers and nursery nurses).
Data processing
The data was processed on the level of descriptive and inferential statistics. The procedure of
frequency distribution (f, f%) was used along with the chi-square test (χ2) and Kullback test (2i)
(Kullback,1968).
Results of Research
The most important findings are the focusing point of the results and interpretation.
The evaluation and comparison of teaching aims in the national curriculum
The main finding was that there are differences in both curriculums which depend mainly on the
various starting points of the values and different strategic plans of both curricula. The teaching aims
of the Environmental Studies are more students centred. They are written on all three levels (general,
periodic and operational). Their cognitive component is emphasised. However, the aims of the natural
60
(P. 58–65)
science field are more central. The teaching aims of the Natural and Social Sciences are oriented more
toward the society. They are written only on the general level. Their educational component is
emphasised and the focal points are the aims of the social science field.
The evaluation and comparison of teaching aims in the detailed curriculum of teachers’ plans
The differences between the two subjects can be seen in the planning of teaching aims according
to their written records, in the definition of their temporal realization, in the number of recorded aims
and considering the correlations with other subjects, as well as the analysed detailed curricula and
teaching plans. There are no differences between the subjects in the written records of teaching aims
in their dominant extent and dominant taxonomic levels of cognitive teaching aims (knowledge).
It can therefore be said that although there is a different approach in the curriculum planning of
the Environmental Studies, the teachers and nursery nurses are confronted with the following specific
problems when designing teaching aims: their operation, determining their basic extent and their
variety.
In the table below is the data gathered by means of systematic observations of lessons of both
subjects.
Do the lessons of the Environmental Studies differ from the lessons of the Natural and Social Sciences
regarding the affirmation of pupils’ grouping?
Table 1. The number and the structural percentage of lessons with the dominant grouping of
pupils.
Lessons ES NSS
Grouping pupils F f% f f%
Whole-class grouping 5 27.8 13 72.2

Group work 12 66.7 1 5.6
Pair work 0 0.0 0 0.0
Individual work 1 5.6 4 22.2
Total 18 100.0 18 100.0
[2 i = 14.58 >χ2 (p = 0.01, g = 3) = 11.34]

From the statistic point of view there is a significant difference between the Environmental
Studies and the Natural and Social Sciences regarding the dominant grouping of pupils. The group
work was the most dominant grouping during the Environmental Studies and whole-class grouping
during the Natural and Social Sciences.
Do the lessons of the Environmental Studies in the first year differ from the lessons of Natural and
Social Sciences based on the general use of teaching methods?
Table 2. The number and the structural percentage of lessons of the dominant teaching
methods.
ES NSS
Teaching methods f f% f f%
Verbally textual 6 33,3 16 88,9

Illustratively-demonstrational 2 11,1 0 0.0
Laboratory-experimental 8 44,4 2 11,1
Experiential learning 2 11,1 0 0.0
Total 18 100,0 18 100.0
[2 i = 13.15 >χ2 (p = 0.01, g = 3) = 11.34]
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From the statistic point of view there is also a significant difference between the Environmental
Studies and the Natural and Social Sciences regarding the dominant teaching method.
The laboratory-experimental teaching method was the most dominant teaching method
while teaching the Environmental Studies and verbally-textual teaching method while teaching
the Natural and Social Sciences.
Is there a difference between the types of pupils’ activities during the Environmental Studies and
the Natural and Social Sciences in achieving target teaching aims?
Table 3. Types of activities pupils participate in during the Environmental Studies and the
Natural and Social Sciences.
Pupils‘ activities ES NNS

f f% f f%
Physical 486 26.9 586 22.3

Sensory 367 20.3 323 12.7
Mental 415 23.0 741 29.1
Expressive 538 29.8 912 35.8
Total 1806 100.0 2544 100.0
[2 i = 76.01 > χ2 (p = 0.001, g = 3) = 16.27]
There is a significant statistic difference between dominant types of pupils’ activities

during the lessons. The pupils attending the Environmental Studies were more physically
active and used their senses more while the pupils who attended the Natural and Social
Sciences were more expressive and mentally active.
The most dominant physical activities during the Environmental Studies were object
manipulation and walking and during the Natural and Social Sciences walking and standing
up.
The most prevailing mental activity was recognition during the Environmental Studies
and counting during the Natural and Social Sciences.
Throughout the Environmental Studies pupils expressed themselves mostly by talking to
their partners and throughout the Natural and Social Sciences they answered the teacher’s
questions.
The most common sensory activity throughout the Environmental Studies was seeing
(observing) and the following activity: thinking, which means more problem solving oriented;
the Natural and Social Sciences it was hearing (listening), and the following activity: learning
what was heard, which means factography oriented.
Are there any differences in the didactic structure between the two subjects?
There is no statistically significant difference between the two subjects (χ2 = 3,00, P =
0,05) regarding the number of teaching stages during the lessons observations. Additionally,
only three out of five possible teaching stages occurred.
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Table 4. Approximate length of each stage of both subjects and the number of lessons where
an individual stage occurred.
Teaching stages ES NNS

min No. hours min No. hours
Motivation 7.5 16 11.0 18

New subject matter 24.4 9 35.5 16
Practice 33.2 10 0.0 0
Revision 16.2 6 20.5 8
It is evident from the table above that on average practice lasted the longest during the lessons
of the Environmental Studies. In the lessons of the Natural and Social Sciences the new subject matter
prevailed but there was no practice. In addition, neither of the subjects contained testing and assessment
as an individual stage.
Are there any differences between the two subjects regarding prevailing teaching aids and sources of
knowledge?
During the Environmental Studies the most prominent teaching materials (didactic aids) were
the ones for practical usage of pupils. Pupils worked with various materials such as clay, paper, steel
wire, and used various tools, for example, scissors, trowels, whole punches, etc.
During the Natural and Social Sciences the teaching materials (didactic aids) demanded more
mental action from the pupils, such as work with handouts, different texts, and more action from the
teacher, namely work with overhead projector (OHP), OHP transparencies, writing on the board, etc.
There is no statistically significant difference (χ2 = 1.38, ρ = 0.05) between the Environmental
Studies and the Natural and Social Sciences regarding the prevailing sources of information and
knowledge. In both subjects the straightforward reality is the most prevailing source of knowledge.
On the basis of the classroom observations and the checklist data about the characteristic features
of the teaching process it can be seen that the lessons of the Environmental Studies were designed
according to modern pedagogical doctrine (Marentiè Poþarnik, 2000, Strmènik, 1998, Tomiè, 1999),
that means that students were put in more active role, than at the lessons of the Natural and Social
Sciences. Teaching aims planned mainly in a cognitive way in the Environmental Studies were realized
with those pupil groupings and teaching methods which ensured active participation of pupils in the
teaching process to a greater extent. However, problems do already exist in the initial stages of the
lesson structure and the accomplishment of individual phases when the teacher or nursery nurse
communicate with the pupil.
How did the pupils feel during the lessons?
There exists a statistically significant difference between the subjects according to the pupils’
feelings (χ2 = 44.12, ρ=0.001). In general, pupils who attended the Environmental Studies felt
themselves more successful, more comfortable, simply better, than the ones who attended the Natural
and Social Sciences. This was influenced by internal and external organisation of the lessons. The pupils’
feelings were not influenced much by the external organisation of lessons but by the teacher’s or
nursery nurse’s didactic-methodological basis of the teaching process, or in other words, the choice of
pupil groupings, teaching methods, teaching aids, sources of knowledge, accounting for teaching
stages when achieving specific teaching aims. They were selected in the Environmental Studies in
order to enable active role of pupils in the teaching process. Positive feelings, such as pleasure towards
work, excitement and interest, were detected during the lessons which involved active pupils’
participation. They enjoyed the work while making a butterfly, making a garden in the classroom,
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picking up meadow plants, chasing meadow animals, making a herbarium, etc. Most activities pupils
were involved in resulted in a tangible product. Pupils were happy and proud of their own success. Each
pupil had an opportunity to assert themselves according to their abilities. These activities mainly
involved group work that is why the pupils were working as a team, helping each other, exchanging
opinions, persuading each other, solving conflicts, etc. Their learning was typical of natural and
experiential learning which is very close to the pupils of this age.
What do the teachers and nursery nurses think of the Environmental Studies a year after its
implementation?
The opinions of the teachers and nursery nurses do not differ significantly when it comes to the
questions in the questionnaire. They both classify the subject of the Environmental Studies among the
relatively popular subjects as they believe this is due to a higher degree of the psychological and
physical effort of the teacher and the lack of suitable didactic materials.
Both teachers and nursery nurses realize there are problems in devising the lessons of this subject
particularly when it comes to detailed annual planning of the curriculum. However, they do not mention
any major problems with the subject’s performance and its evaluation (MacBeath, 2001). A year of
team work experience between a teacher and a nursery nurse has been assessed as very successful.
Most of them think that team work contributed to making the lessons of the Environmental Studies
more qualitative. They have exposed the greater opportunities for active pupil groupings and teaching
methods, as well as better chances for the individualisation of the lessons. According to the
questionnaires the most appropriate additional education was organised by the publishing houses
Drþavna zaloþba Slovenije and Modrijan when the coursebooks series on the subject were published.
The less appropriate education turned out to be the one offered by both Pedagogical Faculties and the
Board of Education. The pedagogic workshops were the best rated form of education.
Conclusion
We have discovered that in most aspects the Environmental Studies teaching is of better quality
(because it is more student oriented, the quality of knowledge is better etc.) if compared to the
teaching of the Natural and Social Sciences regarding the observed didactic components. This can be
seen as a result of different conceptual and didactic structures of the Environmental Studies and
additional continuous work and team work of the teaching staff. Furthermore, it is due to a better
material basis/financial status of the Environmental Studies lessons, a lower number of pupils in the
class and also to the phenomenon of innovation. The fact that the pupils feel better and the teachers,
as well as nursery nurses have a more positive attitude towards the subject, is very stimulating. The
results of our research should, above all, contribute to the quality of planning, implementation and
evaluation of the teaching of the Environmental Studies in the first year, as well as in the following two
years of the nine-year primary school programme. We also consider them useful in the education of
the future teachers and nursery nurses of the Environmental Studies in the primary school education.
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Ðåçþìå
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ØÊÎËÀÕ ÑËÎÂÅÍÈÈ
Âëàñòà Ãóñ, Áîðèñ Àáåðøåê
Ñòàòüÿ ïðåäñòàâëÿåò ðåçóëüòàòû ýìïèðè÷åñêîãî èññëåäîâàíèÿ, öåëü êîòîðîãî áûëî ïðîàíàëèçèðîâàòü

èçìåíåíèå êà÷åñòâà åñòåñòâåííîíàó÷íîãî îáðàçîâàíèÿ â íà÷àëüíûõ øêîëàõ Ñëîâåíèè ïîñëå ðåôîðìû
ñèñòåìû îáðàçîâàíèÿ. Ïîñëå ñîçäàíèÿ íîâîãî íåçàâèñèìîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà, Ñëîâåíèÿ èçìåíèëà åå øêîëüíóþ
ñèñòåìó îò íà÷àëüíîãî äî óíèâåðñèòåòñêîãî óðîâíÿ. Â ñòðàíå òîæå íàáëþäàåòñÿ òåíäåíöèÿ áûñòðîãî
ñíèæåíèÿ èíòåðåñà ê åñòåñòâîçíàíèþ è òåõíèêå. Èçõîäÿ èç äàííîé ñèòóàöèè ñëîâåíñêàÿ øêîëüíàÿ ñèñòåìà
íà÷àëà ïðåîáðàçîâûâàòü åñòåñòâåííîíàó÷íîå è òåõíè÷åñêîå îáðàçîâàíèå ñ íà÷àëüíîãî óðîâíÿ (íà÷àëüíîé
øêîëû). Â íàøåì èññëåäîâàíèè ìû ïðîáîâàëè óçíàòü, êàê óðîêè «Èññëåäîâàíèå îêðóæàþùåé ñðåäû» íà
ïåðâîì ãîäó “íîâîé” äåâÿòèëåòíåé ïðîãðàììû îáðàçîâàíèÿ îòëè÷àþòñÿ ïî êîëè÷åñòâó è êà÷åñòâó îò
óðîêîâ Åñòåñòâåííûõ è Îáùåñòâåííûõ íàóê íà ïåðâîì ãîäó “ñòàðîé” âîñüìèëåòíåé ïðîãðàììû îáðàçîâàíèÿ.
Êëþ÷åâûå ñëîâà: øêîëüíàÿ ñèñòåìà, åñòåñòâåííîíàó÷íîå îáðàçîâàíèå, íà÷àëüíàÿ øêîëà.
Received 20 February 2007; accepted 13 March 2007

Vlasta Hus
Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Education,
University of Maribor, Slovenia.
Koroðka cesta 160, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia.
E-mail: vlasta.hus@uni-mb.si
Boris Aberðek
Professor at the Faculty for Science and Mathematics,
University of Maribor, the Head of department of
Technical Education and Vice-dean for research work
and post graduate studies.
Koroðka cesta 160, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia.
E-mail: boris.abersek@uni-mb.si
65
(P. 26–34)
THE INFLUENCES OF
ELEMENTARY SCIENCE
TEACHING METHOD
COURSES ON A TURKISH
TEACHERS COLLEGE
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
MAJOR STUDENTS’
ATTITUDES TOWARDS
SCIENCE AND SCIENCE
TEACHING
Abstract. The main purpose of this Lutfullah Turkmen

study was to find the influences of
© Lutfullah Turkmen
elementary science teaching method
courses on Turkish elementary
education major students’ attitudes
toward science and science teaching
in a Turkish Teachers College. The
results of both pre and post-test
scores showed that elementary
education major students have Introduction
positive attitudes toward science and
science teaching. Statistically, only Turkey, like the other developing countries, pays great
one significant positive change attention to education. The majority of Turkish people believe
(pair-wise t-tests) was found
that reaching the level of developed and civilized countries
between the pre and post-test
scores; that is, students significantly
can only be accomplished through education, especially science
gained more positive attitudes education. From the beginning of Turkish Republic, education
toward science teaching. On the is one of the main concerns of Turkish Governments. These
other hand, the mean difference governments have tried to make some changes mostly related
after taking elementary science to curriculum in education, according to the current conditions
teaching method courses did not and trends in the world. Therefore, the latest Turkish science
show a significant result on the
curriculum attempt has put more emphasize on fostering
attitudes toward science. As a result
of this study, it can be concluded
scientifically literate citizens or students who are aware of
that Elementary science teaching science process skills, hands on science or science for every day,
method courses have a positive have positive attitudes towards science (Ministry of National
influence on attitudes toward Education, 2004). Despite giving special attention to the science
science teaching but this conclusion education, the outcome of science education is not seen at the
is not the same for the attitudes satisfactory level in Turkey. For example, the results of two
toward science.
nationwide exams show that the average performance on
Key words: science education,
elementary science teaching,
the high school placement exam after eight-grade is 2.75 out
attitudes toward science. of 25 science questions. In the university placement exam, a
similar result can be seen in the science section with the
average of three correct answers out of 45 questions. It means
Lutfullah Turkmen that the average achievement of students is around 10% for
Usak University, Turkey science questions (Milliyet, 2005). A similar result could be seen
in the 2006 University Placement Exam. From the one-million
five hundred thousand Turkish high school graduates entered,
66
ISSN 1648–3898 THE INFLUENCES OF ELEMENTARY SCIENCE TEACHING METHOD COURSES
ON A TURKISH TEACHERS COLLEGE ELEMENTARY EDUCATION MAJOR
STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS SCIENCE AND SCIENCE TEACHING
(P. 66–77)
850 thousand students could not get one net correct answer in science section with 29 questions
(Milliyet, 2006).
It would be necessary to find out the main reasons behind this low achievement level in
the science area. Also, this question is one of the main concerns for science educators and
researchers in Turkey. Related to this problem, Jelinek (1998) reported that one of the most
important reasons for the low achievement seems to be students’ low interest and negative
attitudes toward science. A study by Haladyna, Olsen and Shaughnessy (1982) indicated similar
results that showed students’ feeling toward science, their achievement in science area and
their future career preferences strongly correlated with students’ attitudes toward science.
Similar results could be seen in the studies of Oliver & Simpson (1998) and Shriley (1990) that
the achievements of students in science show meaningful relation with their attitudes toward
science.
Attitudinal studies in the science education area could be mainly classified into four
different areas. The first area covers elementary, middle and high school students’ attitudes
toward science, and the effects of science courses, experiments, and scientific school visits.
Additionally, under the same title, the longitudinal studies closely examine the influence of
school years from the beginning to the graduation (Gibson & Chase, 2002). The second area
mostly deals with college level elementary and science education students’ attitudes toward
science and science teaching. Additionally, in service science and elementary teachers’ attitudes
towards science and science teaching would be classified under the same area (McGinnis &
Parker, 1999; Ediger, 2001; Turkmen, 2002). In attitudinal studies, the third area mainly
compares the attitudes of students and teachers coming from different countries through an
international perspective in science education (Ye, Wells, Talkmitt, & Ren, 1998). The last area
closely scrutinizes the correlations of attitudes toward science and science teaching with some
factors such as gender, achievement level, and socio-economic variables (Weinburgh, 2000).
The main tenets of the nature of science and attitudes toward science can be overlapped
in some ways, such as the scientific view, method, and enterprise. The findings of some studies
indicate that if science teachers apply the nature of science and improve students’ attitudes
towards science; students increase their achievements in science courses (Bloom, 1989;
Brickhouse, 1992; Friend, 1985; Gabel, 1980; Moore, 1973; Moore & Foy, 1997; Munby, 1983).
Therefore, the latest curriculum development of Turkey in science education has underlined
the importance of attitudes toward science (MNE, 2004). As mentioned earlier, science and
elementary teachers and candidates have important roles in conveying positive attitudes to
the students. On the other hand, the ways of how we can make in-service and pre-service
science and elementary teachers be aware of the importance of attitudes toward science as
well as science teaching would not be answered easily in current teacher preparation context.
The main purpose of this study is to examine how science teaching method courses are
effective to gain positive attitudes toward science and science teaching for the elementary
teacher candidates in a Turkish teachers college.
Hypotheses to Be Tested
In this study, the following null hypotheses were tested.

Junior level elementary education major students do not have positive attitudes toward
science and science teaching.
There is no statistically significant change in the attitudes of junior elementary education
major students toward science and science teaching between fall and spring semester after
taking elementary science teaching method courses I and II.
There is no statistically significant change happened between male and female junior
elementary education major students’ attitudes toward science and science teaching after taking
elementary science teaching method courses I and II.
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THE INFLUENCES OF ELEMENTARY SCIENCE TEACHING METHOD COURSES ISSN 1648–3898
(P. 66–77)
Theoretical Framework
In the world, from the elementary schools to colleges, science is one of the major subject
courses. The current main objectives of science courses could be classified as fostering
scientifically literate people who are capable of using science process skills and have positive
attitudes towards science. For that reason, almost more than nine decades, attitudes towards
science have been one of the main research areas in science education. Historically, the question
“What is the Scientific Attitude?” was first posed by Ebel (1938) who defined both “attitude”
and “scientific attitude.” The definition was that “An attitude is a stabilized mental set which
expresses itself in a tendency to react to any member of a class of stimuli in the same general
way.” Later, scientific attitudes were defined as “existence in the minds of outstanding men
of science,” (Ebel, 1938; Shrigley, Koballa, and Simpson, 1988).
Although attitudes towards science have an important place in science education,
measuring them in science education context are not easy and have no consensus between
science researchers and educators (Munby, 1983). One of the earliest scales called “A Test for
Scientific Attitude.” to measure attitudes was developed by Hoff (1933). After the 1960’s, the
number of tests measuring scientific attitudes and attitudes towards science increased. Some
of them were widely used to reveal the attitudes of middle school, high school and college
students, and of pre-service elementary and science teachers.
Attitudinal studies in science education area are mostly pertinent to elementary, middle
and high school students’, and in some cases college students’ attitudes towards science.
Investigating the science teaching attitudes of the teachers who are responsible for teaching
science in schools is important because the importance of promoting and developing students’
attitudes towards science is crucial. Studies tried to examine how teachers’ attitudes correlates
with students’ interest, achievement, and attitudes towards science. General belief about the
attitudes of teaching is that if teachers hold positive attitudes towards teaching of a field or
a course, these positive attitudes should have an impact on their ways of teaching. Positive
attitudes also drive their motivations and their enthusiasms for teaching higher levels (Pigge
& Marso, 1997). Studies conducted on pre-service teachers or teachers’ candidates indicate
that if student teachers have high grades and positive attitudes, they want to enter teaching
area early (Villeme & Hall, 1980). The findings of Ramsay & Ransley (1986) support the idea
that teachers with positive attitudes also influenced students’ achievements. The other studies
covering attitudes towards teaching, in particular towards science teaching, are related to
the effect of science teaching method courses, science courses, student teaching experiences,
and longitudinally the differences of attitudes towards teaching between grade levels. The
findings of attitudinal studies in science showed that the number of science courses which
student teachers took and the differences between freshman and senior student teachers’
attitude towards science teaching indicated some differences such as, the more science courses
taken by student teachers, (and) the higher their education levels from freshman to senior,
the more they have positive attitudes towards science teaching (Gabel, 1980; Ateaq, 1995).
The study of Moore (1975) investigated another aspect of attitudes towards science teaching
that whether some particular science teaching method courses as a summer workshop for
elementary school teachers had any effect. In the result, some particular courses for science
teaching increased attitudes towards science teaching significantly but after a certain time
their attitudes again came to the initial level (Moore, 1975). Additionally, pre-service science
teachers’ attitude towards science and science teaching were investigated by Turkmen to
reveal Turkish teachers’ attitudes (1999). It showed that pre-service science teachers of Turkey
held positive attitudes towards science and science teaching.
Gender seems to be one of the important predictors of students’ achievement in science
learning and attitudes towards science (Welch, Welberg, & Fraser, 1986; Shamai, 1996). Gender
related research indicate that boys favor science courses more than girls (IAEP, 1992; Faye,
68
(P. 66–77)
1997). An international study conducted by International Assessment of Educational Progress

(IAEP, 1992) covering 20 countries and students from nine to thirteen-year old found that
there was a considerable gap between male and female students for their attitudes towards
science and science teaching in those countries except Taiwan and Jordan. In those countries,
boys prefer mostly mathematics and physics courses while girls tend to take biology courses
(Shibeci, 1984; IAPE, 1992). The same findings could be also seen in other studies that males
have more positive attitudes towards science than girls. According to the report of Weinburg
(2000) and Simpson and Oliver (1985), boys have significantly more positive attitudes than
girls among 4000 students studying at grade 6 through 10. Besides, Jones, Howe, & Rua (2000)
presented the similar results that 6th grade female students felt science courses more difficult
to understand than male students did. This tendency resulted in choosing future careers of
students that women made almost 15% of work force in science related areas (Chapman,
1997).
In fact, more than six decades attitudes concerning science and in some cases science
teaching have an important place in science education, in the US. However, in some countries
such as Israel, China, the United Kingdom, and South Korea, studies dealing with students’, pre
and in service science and elementary school teachers’ attitude towards science and science
teaching are not in a satisfactory level from the international perspective. It would be thought
that this gap would be filled with the new attitudinal studies from the international arena.
Therefore, it would be necessary to investigate pre-service elementary teachers’ attitudes
towards science as well as science teaching and the influence of science teaching method
courses (elementary courses of didactics of science) on pre-service elementary teachers’
scientific and science teaching attitude in a Turkish context.
The instrument used in this study was developed by Moore (1973) and it was one of the
most commonly used scales to measure attitude towards science and science teaching called
‘Scientific Attitude Inventory’ (SAI) and Science Teaching Attitude Inventory (STAI) respectively.
However, under the criticism of Munby (1983), SAI and STAI were revised and improved as SAI-
II and STAS-II (Science Teaching Attitude Scale-II) by Moore and Foy (1997). Although the
original form of the scale is in English and it was translated into Hebrew, Thai, Arabic, and
Spanish languages (Moore & Foy, 1997), it was necessary to translate the STAS-II into Turkish
for the sake of this study. Therefore, the researcher (whose native language is Turkish)
translated the instrument into Turkish. Turkish students’ and academics’ validated the accuracy
of translation, and their recommendations were considered in the final Turkish Translation.
The STAS-II has 60 statements related to science and science teaching. These statements
are rated using a Likert-type scale and consist of 30 positive and 30 negative statements. The
statements are also evenly divided to measure attitudes towards science and science teaching.
They are also classified under eight main sub-scales, five of them are related to attitudes
towards science and the other three are related to attitudes towards science teaching. Each
sub-scale also has two additional sub-scales with positive (A) and negative (B) parts. Therefore,
the total number of sub-scales is 16. All statements are assigned to these16 sub-scales.
The courses instructed by the author were designed to teach some basic elements of
science teaching in elementary schools to the elementary education major students in a
teachers’ college of Turkey. The main objectives of the courses mainly focused on the nature
of science and science teaching methods. In that context, students tried to understand and
discern the main tenets of the nature of science, the definition of science, how the scientific
knowledge could be formed, changed, and developed by using scientific method, how science
is different from other academic disciplines, the relation of science and technology as well as
some aspects of contemporary science teaching methods in students centered meaning.
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(P. 66–77)
Data Gathering and Time Frame
This research was conducted in two sessions in a Teachers College in Turkey. Generally,
when elementary education major students become junior, they have to enroll Elementary
Science Teaching Method Course-I in the fall semester and Elementary Science Teaching Method
Course-II in the spring semester. To collect data for the pre-test, students were asked to fill
out the questionnaire during the first class session of Elementary Science Teaching Method I
by the instructor. At the end of spring semester, the same procedure was repeated in order to
collect data for the post-test during the last class session of Elementary Science Teaching
Method Course II.
Statistical Procedure
Calculating the responses of subjects to each statement, for which maximum and minimum
points are between 5 (strongly agree) and 1 (strongly disagree), made the scoring of STAS-II.
After filling out the questionnaire, the responses were converted to the computer environment.
Due to the instrument’s (STAS-II) likert-scale feature, the range of responses was from 5
(referring the most agree) to 1 (referring the most disagree) for the positive statements, and
the opposite for the negative statements (most agree 1 through most disagree 5). Finally, if
the mean of attitudes is higher than 3, it is classified as positive attitude towards science and
science teaching since the neutral score is 3.
The collected data was analyzed under two parts, one of which was applying pair-wise-t
tests for pre and post test results that would indicate whether a significant difference can be
observed before and after taking Science Teaching Method Courses (I-II). The other part was
checking gender differences within pre and post-test results as well as between pre and post-
test results. To run this part of statistical analyses, MANOVA (with two dependent variables
(pre-test and post-test results separately) and an independent variable (gender) was used in
the computer environment to get pair-wise t-test results. Independent t-tests were employed
to scrutinize any significant differences between gender types for the beginning of the study
as well as for the end of the study.
Participants
Data was gathered from one of the Turkish Teachers’ College students whose majors and
class levels were elementary education and junior, respectively. The sample size of the study
was 29 female and 21 male (the total number of students is 50) elementary education students
enrolled to and successfully finished both Science Teaching Method I-II Courses.
Results of Research
The study has three main parts. In the first part, research questions were answered by
testing hypothesis for attitudes toward science. In the second part, the same thing was reported
for attitudes toward science teaching. In the last part, attitudinal change was examined for
gender. The scale employed in this study has two parts: attitudes toward science and science
teaching. Also, each part has its own sub-scales. The mean scores and standard deviations of
sub-scales of attitudes toward science could be seen in the following table. Additionally the
differences between mean scores of pre and post-tests were presented in the following table
whether significant differences exist.
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(P. 66–77)
Table 1. The average means and standard deviations of pre-service elementary and science
teachers’ attitudes towards science and pair-wise t-test results.
Sub- General Contents of sub-scales in Mean Std. t df p

scales attitudes towards science Deviation
Pre Post Pre Post
1A The laws and/or theories of science 3.84 4.11 0.64 0.60 2.475 49 0.017 *
are approximations of truth and are
subject to change.
1B** The laws and/or theories of science 2.97 2.74 0.57 0.52 2.593 49 0.012 *
represent unchangeable truths
discovered through science.
2A Observation of natural phenomena 4.07 3.99 0.72 0.65 0.716 49 0.477
and experimentation is the basis of
scientific explanation. Science is
limited in that it can only answer
questions about natural phenomena
and sometimes it is not able to do
that.
2B** The basis of scientific explanation is 2.77 2.50 0.86 0.60 1.788 49 0.080
in authority. Science deals with all
problems and it can provide correct
answers to all questions
3A To operate in a scientific manner, one 3.84 4.05 0.81 0.57 1.699 49 0.096
must display such traits as
intellectual honesty, dependence upon
objective observation of natural
events, and willingness to alter one’s
position on the basis of sufficient
evidence.
3B To operate in a scientific manner one 4.17 4.08 0.64 0.56 0.835 49 0.408
needs to know what other scientists
think; one needs to know all the
scientific truths and to be able to take
the side of other scientists.
4A Science is an idea-generating activity. 3.78 3.91 0.59 0.46 1.241 49 0.221

It is devoted to providing explanations
of natural phenomena. Its value lies in
its theoretical aspects.
4B** Science is a technology-developing 2.13 1.98 0.74 0.64 1.481 49 0.145
activity. It is devoted to serving
mankind. Its value lies in its practical
uses.
5A Progress in science requires public 3.63 3.75 0.93 0.69 -0.920 49 0.362
support in this age of science;
therefore, the public should be made
aware of the nature of science and
what it attempts to do. The public can
understand science and it ultimately
benefits from scientific work.
5B Public understanding of science 3.16 3.13 0.70 0.64 0.226 49 0.822
would contribute nothing to the
advancement of science or to human
welfare; therefore, the public has no
need to understand the nature of
science. They cannot understand it
and it does not affect them.
Total Attitudes toward Science 3.47 3.44 0.32 0.23 0.557 49 0.580
* p<0.05
**lower than 3 points
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(P. 66–77)
As mentioned previously, the scale (STAS-II) used in this study has five sub-scales on the
attitudes toward science. If the mean of a sub-scale is higher than three points, it is considered
that elementary teacher candidates have positive attitudes toward that part of the sub-scale. On
the other hand, it is necessary to make a reminder that in negative sub-scales (Bs) if the mean
score is less than three, they have negative attitudes toward these sub-scales. Also, if the mean
scores are higher than three, they do not support the statements but they have positive attitudes
toward those negative sub-scales. For positive sub-scales (As), the opposite should be considered.
Overall Elementary Teacher Candidates have positive attitudes toward science at the
beginning. However, after taking Elementary Science Teaching Method Courses, (I and II) there is
no significant change observed between pre and post test results. Elementary teacher candidates
have problem to fully conceive the meaning of scientific laws and theories, and the way of getting
scientific knowledge (Sub-scales 1A, 1B, 2A and 2B). They accept scientific theories and laws are
changeable truths (1A). However, there is a contradiction in their attitudes that they perceive
scientific theories and laws as not changeable (1B) at the same time. Pairwise t-test shows that
there is only a significant change toward positive direction for sub-scale 1A and B after taking
Elementary Science Teaching Method Courses (I-II) but not for the other sub-scales. The other
problematic area for elementary science teacher candidates is the perception of science and
technology that they conceive technology as science (Sub-scale 4B). This situation was not changed
after taking Science Teaching Method Courses (I-II). In the following table, attitudes toward science
teaching were examined with the same approach.
Table 2. The average mean of pre-service elementary and science teachers’ attitudes towards
science teaching in sub-scales.
Sub- General Contents of sub-scales in Mean Std. t df p

scales attitudes towards science Deviation
Pre Post Pre Post
6A The idea of teaching science is 3.31 3.53 0.67 0.65 2.387 49 0.021*
attractive to me; I understand
science and I can teach it.
6B I do not like the thought of teaching 3.96 4.03 0.78 0.55 -0.659 49 0.513
science.
7A There are certain processes in 3.79 3.88 0.48 0.43 1.034 49 0.306
science which children should know,
i.e., children should know how to do
certain things.
7B** There are certain facts in science 1.85 1.96 0.51 0.75 1.050 49 0.299
that children should know.
8A Science teaching should be guiding or 3.48 4.21 0.63 0.91 4.877 49 0.000*
facilitating of learning. The teacher
becomes a resource person.
8B** Science teaching should be a matter of 1.86 1.82 0.51 0.44 0.421 49 0.675
telling children what they are to learn
Total Attitudes toward science teaching 3.06 3.25 0.27 0.27 4.422 49 0.000*
* p<0.05
** lover than 3 point
Overall, the attitudes of elementary science teacher candidates toward science teaching
show significant change after taking Elementary Science Teaching Method Courses (I-II) in a positive
direction (Table 2). In the sub-scales of attitudes toward science teaching, there are some interesting
points. For example, they see the function of teacher as a facilitator in sub-scale 8A. Moreover,
72
(P. 66–77)
the mean of sub-scale 8A indicates significant change toward positive direction. On the other
hand, the same teacher candidates accept that science teaching should be a matter of telling and
teaching some certain facts (7B and 8B). This negative attitudinal approach was not altered even
after taking Elementary Science Teaching Method Courses (I-II).
For the last research question, attitudes of pre-service elementary teachers toward science
and science teaching were analyzed whether there is a significant difference between male and
female pre-service elementary teachers after taking Elementary Science Teaching Method Courses
(I-II)
Table 3. Male and Female Elementary Teacher Candidates’ Attitudes toward Science and
Science Teaching before and after Taking Science Teaching Method Courses and
Independent t-test Results between Genders
Gender N Mean Sd t df p
Toward Pre-test Female 29 3.36 0.22 -2.952 48 0.005*

Science Male 21 3.62 0.39
Post-test Female 29 3.39 0.25 -1.885 48 0.066
Male 21 3.51 0.19
Toward Pre-test Female 29 2.98 0.26 -2.384 48 0.021*
Science Male 21 3.16 0.25
teaching Post-test Female 29 3.19 0.24 -1.839 48 0.072
Male 21 3.33 0.30
* p<0.05
At the beginning, within both attitudes toward science and science teaching, there were
significant differences. However, after getting science teaching method courses, these significant
differences were not observed. The reason is that at the beginning the attitudes of pre-service
female elementary teachers were significantly lower than those of pre-service male elementary
teachers but at the end of science teaching method courses, female pre-service teachers’ attitudes
were positively changed and significant differences disappeared. In the following table, these
differences, whether they are significant between pre and post-tests based on gender by using
pair-wise t-tests, will be reported.
Table 4. Paired-wise t-test Results of Female and Male Teachers’ Attitudes toward Science
and Science Teaching between Pre and Post-tests.
Pre-test Post-test t df p
Section Gender N Mean Sd N Mean Sd
Attitudes Female 29 3.36 0.22 29 3.39 0.25 -0.608 28 0.548

toward Male 21 3.62 0.39 21 3.51 0.19 1.056 20 0.304
Science
Toward Female 29 2.98 0.26 29 3.19 0.24 -3.627 28 0.001*
Science Male 21 3.16 0.25 21 3.33 0.30 -2.510 20 0.021*
teaching
* p<0.05
Attitudes toward science were not changed both for female and male elementary teacher
candidates after taking science teaching method courses. However, attitudes toward science
teaching indicate a positive significant change both for female and male elementary teacher
candidates.
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(P. 66–77)
Discussion
This study analyzed the influence of Elementary Science Teaching Method Courses on the
attitudes of pre-service elementary teachers toward science and science teaching in a Turkish
Teachers’ College. Especially for the science part, the sub-scales of STAS-II cover some of the
major aspects of the nature of science. For the science teaching part, some of the main science
teaching approaches were scrutinized.
First of all, it was found that pre-service elementary teachers have positive attitudes
toward science and science teaching. Similar results were also found within the studies of
Gabel (1980), Bonnstetter (1984) and Ateaq (1995) that employed the same instrument.
These results could be interpreted in different ways. For example, Pigge & Marso’s study
(1997) shows that if pre-service or in-service elementary teachers hold positive attitudes
toward science, teachers’ positive attitudes toward science could influence students’ attitudes
positively which would increase students’ achievement in science courses.
Pre-service elementary teachers’ attitudes toward science were not changed even after
taking Elementary Science Teaching Method Courses (I-II). In fact, as an instructor of those
courses, special attention was paid to the main tenets of nature of science during the course
work. On the other hand, they consider the nature of scientific knowledge as certain truths
and the way of getting scientific knowledge as from certain authorities revealed in the Sub-
scales of 1B and 2B (Table 1). This understanding was not changed after taking the method
courses. Interestingly, at the same time, they strongly believed that scientific theories and
laws are approximations and changeable truths and the way of getting scientific knowledge
is based on observations revealed in Sub-scales of 1A and 2A (Table 1).
The other problematic area is the definition of science and technology; that is, pre-service
elementary teachers perceive many technological works and instruments as science (Table-1,
sub-scale 4B). It means that they can keep the opposite ideas related to the nature of science
at the same time and this contradiction was not changed under the influence of science
teaching method courses. Similar results were found in the studies of Bonnstetter (1984) and
Lederman (1986).
Like attitudes toward science, attitudes toward science teaching reflects that pre-service
elementary teachers hold the opposite attitudes toward certain aspects of science teaching,
such as the way of teaching and what can be taught in science. For instance, they support the
opposite ideas about the role of the teacher in science classes as a facilitator and at the same
time as a conveyer of the certain facts in science which are revealed in Sub-scales 7A, 8A, and
8B (Table 2).
Previous studies using the same instrument (STAS-II) to measure the attitudes of pre-
service science teachers (Turkmen, 1999) and newly enrolled freshman elementary education
students (Turkmen, 2002) revealed similar results. In the following tables, the means of the
sub-scales of STAS-II of the previous studies are compared with the results of the current
study.
Table 5. Means of sub-scales of STAS-II covering attitudes toward science in three different
Turkish studies.
Sub-Scales 1A 1B 2A 2B 3A 3B 4A 4B 5A 5B
Y1999 3.95 2.87 3.92 2.70 3.97 4.20 3.96 1.95 3.64 3.24
Y2002 3.87 2.90 3.91 2.60 3.83 4.08 3.72 2.04 3.78 3.27
Current 3.84 2.97 4.07 2.77 3.84 4.17 3.78 2.13 3.63 3.16
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Table 6. Means of sub-scales of STAS-II covering attitudes toward science teaching in three
different Turkish studies.
Sub-Scales 6A 6B 7A 7B 8A 8B
Y1999 3.85 4.30 3.77 1.81 3.87 1.93

Y2002 3.30 3.85 3.88 1.78 3.76 1.81
Current 3.31 3.96 3.79 1.85 3.48 1.86
It could be easily seen that the means of sub-scales are so closed that almost there are no
differences exist although the sizes of the samples of the studies (Y1999=648, Y2002=191, and
Current=50) were different. From these results, it could be thought that in Turkish context, pre-
service science and elementary teachers have similar attitudes. There would be different reasons
for these close means of sub-scales of STAS-II in Turkish context. One of the reasons can be related
to the education system and curriculums of Turkey from elementary school level to teachers’
college level nationwide. Additionally, a study conducted by Bonnstetter (1984) used the same
instrument to measure Exemplary Science Teachers’ attitudes toward science in the US and revealed
the similar results. It could be thought that pre-service elementary and science teachers seem to
hold similar attitudes toward science and science teaching. Especially the commonalities are mostly
related to the nature of scientific knowledge and the definition of science and technology.
The studies of Weinburg (2000) and Simpson and Oliver (1985) reported that male students
have higher level attitudes towards science than female students, as found in this study (Table 3
and 4). Additionally, between pre and post-test results, there is no significant gain observed for
the attitudes toward science for female and male pre-service elementary teachers but for the
attitudes toward science teaching, there is a significantly positive gain observed for female and
male pre-service elementary teachers after taking Elementary Science Teaching Method Courses
(Table 4). It could be concluded that especially science teaching method courses could positively
influence the attitudes of female pre-service elementary teachers toward science teaching (Table
4).
Implications for Education and Suggestions
This study reveals that elementary science teaching courses seems to be not enough to
change the attitudes toward science although special attention was paid to the definition of
science and technology, and the nature of scientific knowledge. From this finding, it could be said
that attitudes to a certain subject or area, in our study toward science and science teaching, are
the result of gradual accumulation of a longitudinal process. In this study, pre-service elementary
teachers’ attitudes toward science teaching showed significant change after taking Elementary
Science Teaching Method Courses. However, Moore (1975) reported that the attitudes of teachers
toward science teaching changed significantly after taking special summer science teaching courses
but after one year later, the attitudes of teachers toward science teaching came to almost the
initial level. Therefore, changing attitudes toward science and science teaching positively with
giving special science teaching courses or workshops is part of an iceberg in which making subjects
keep the positive attitudes over the years is a core and hard concept. This implies that the
development of attitudes requires long time instead of a certain period of time. For that reason,
it is necessary to give special attention to develop positive attitudes of students not only in college
years but in entire educational enterprise.
Further studies should examine the reasons about why pre-service elementary and science
teachers hold negative attitudes for certain areas especially for the nature of scientific knowledge
and why they can not differentiate between science and technology.
75
(P. 66–77)
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Ðåçþìå
ÂËÈßÍÈÅ ÊÓÐÑÎÂ ÌÅÒÎÄÈÊÈ ÏÐÅÏÎÄÀÂÀÍÈß ÎÑÍÎÂ

ÍÀÓÊ ÍÀ ÎÒÍÎØÅÍÈÅ ÑÒÓÄÅÍÒÎÂ ÒÓÐÅÖÊÎÃÎ
Ó×ÈÒÅËÜÑÊÎÃÎ ÊÎËËÅÄÆÀ, ÑÏÅÖÈÀËÈÇÈÐÓÞÙÈÕÑß
ÍÀ ÍÀ×ÀËÜÍÎÌ ÎÁÓ×ÅÍÈÈ, Ê ÅÑÒÅÑÒÂÅÍÍÛÌ
ÍÀÓÊÀÌ È ÈÕ ÏÐÅÏÎÄÀÂÀÍÈÞ
Ëóòôóëëàã Òóðêìåí
Öåëüþ äàííîé ðàáîòû áûëî èçó÷èòü âëèÿíèå êóðñîâ ìåòîäèêè ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ îñíîâ åñòåñòâåííûõ
íàóê íà îòíîøåíèå ñòóäåíòîâ îäíîãî èç òóðåöêèõ ó÷èòåëüñêèõ êîëëåäæåé, ñïåöèàëèçèðóþùèõñÿ íà
íà÷àëüíîì îáó÷åíèè, ê åñòåñòâåííûì íàóêàì è èõ ïðåïîäàâàíèþ. Ðåçóëüòàòû ïðåäâàðèòåëüíîãî è
ïîñëåäóþùåãî òåñòèðîâàíèé îáíàðóæèëè ó ñòóäåíòîâ, ñïåöèàëèçèðóþùèõñÿ íà íà÷àëüíîì îáó÷åíèè,
ïîëîæèòåëüíîå îòíîøåíèå ê åñòåñòâåííûì íàóêàì è èõ ïðåïîäàâàíèþ. Ñòàòèñòè÷åñêèì ìåòîäîì
áûëî íàéäåíî ëèøü òîëüêî ïîëîæèòåëüíîå èçìåíåíèå (ïîïàðíûå t-òåñòû), òî åñòü ñòóäåíòû çíà÷èìî
ïðèîáðåëè áîëåå ïîëîæèòåëüíûå óñòàíîâêè íà ïðåïîäàâàíèå åñòåñòâåííîíàó÷íûõ äèñöèïëèí. Ñ äðóãîé
ñòîðîíû, ñðåäíåå ðàçëè÷èå ðåçóëüòàòîâ äî è ïîñëå ïðîõîæäåíèÿ êóðñîâ ìåòîäèêè ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ îñíîâ
íàóê íå óêàçûâàåò íà çíà÷èìîå óëó÷øåíèå îòíîøåíèÿ ê íàóêàì êàê òàêîâûì . Ðåçóëüòàòû äàííîãî
èññëåäîâàíèÿ ïîçâîëÿþò çàêëþ÷èòü, ÷òî êóðñû ìåòîäèêè ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ îñíîâ åñòåñòâåííûõ íàóê
ïîëîæèòåëüíî âëèÿþò íà îòíîøåíèå ê èõ ïðåïîäàâàíèþ, îäíàêî â îòíîøåíèè ñàìèõ íàóê ýòîãî
ñêàçàòü íåëüçÿ.
Êëþ÷åâûå ñëîâà: åñòåñòâåííîíàó÷íîå îáðàçîâàíèå, ïðåïîäàâàíèå îñíîâ åñòåñòâåííûõ íàóê,
îòíîøåíèå ê íàóêå.
Received 11 August 2006; accepted 14 March 2007
Lutfullah Turkmen
Asst. Professor, Department of Primary Education,
Faculty of Education, Usak University.
Usak Universitesi Egitim Fakultesi 1Eylul Kampusu
64100 Usak-Turkey
Phone: +90.276.2634269
E-mail: l_turkmen@yahoo.com
77
(P. 26–34)
EXPLANATIONS FOR
PHYSICS PHENOMENA
GIVEN BY PRIMARY SCHOOL
WOULD-BE TEACHERS
Abstract. A naturalistic case study on Tuula Keinonen

the way primary school would-be © Tuula Keinonen
teachers explain physics was
conducted in Science and
Technology Education. The study
dealt with explaining physics
phenomena (mechanics,
Introduction
thermodynamics, optics and
electricity) at the beginning and at
Science instruction depends on the development of the
the end of the course on physics.
hypothetico-deductive reasoning ability (Kwon & Lawson,
Although the students used
2000). Even children begin to make logical connections,
everyday and scientific knowledge
establishing links between their actions and the reactions of
their explanations also offered
the objects (Carvalho, 2004). However, most arguments in
mixed information that comprised
everyday life are non-deductive in nature (Voss, 1989, p. 220).
both types. When using scientific
These everyday ideas, strongly held, may interfere with
knowledge the most advanced
learning, and need to be replaced with correct conceptions
justifications were found in the
(Warren et al., 2001, p. 530). The validity of a non-deductive
issues concerning mechanics and
argument is considered in terms of it being sound and based
electricity related phenomena. The
on three criteria: Is the reason relevant to the conclusion? Does
students mainly used everyday
it support the conclusion? Are all the reasons taken into account
expressions discussing the cases of
that could support the contradiction of the conclusion? Such
light and heat.
arguments are not valid or invalid; they are regarded as being
relatively sound or unsound. Informal reasoning may be
regarded as the process of reasoning that occurs when
individuals generate a non-deductive argument and/or
evaluate its soundness. (see Voss, 1989, p. 220.)
Keywords: explanations, reasoning,
Reasoning, arguments, or explanations are often
arguments, teacher education,
considered in terms of everyday and scientific knowledge.
physics education.
Everyday knowledge means common knowledge about natural
phenomena acquired by most people in their daily life and
early schooling before coming to a more systemic study of
Tuula Keinonen science (Reif & Larkin, 1991, p. 736). It also means everyday,
University of Joensuu, Finland colloquial language or common sense ways of talking and
thinking (Leach & Scott, 2000, p. 43) developed, learned and
reinforced through everyday communication. Scientific
78
ISSN 1648–3898 EXPLANATIONS FOR PHYSICS PHENOMENA GIVEN BY PRIMARY SCHOOL
WOULD-BE TEACHERS
(P. 78–91)
knowledge is developed and proved valid by scientific communities and means a more formalized
way of talking and thinking than everyday knowledge (Leach & Scott, 2000, p. 43). Science is
ártificial´ and is in several respects distinctly different from the ńatural´ knowledge of everyday
life (Reif & Larkin, 1991, p. 736). The most central notions of scientific explanations are causal
coherence and evidentiary support (Sandoval, 2003). Causal coherence embodies scientific
explanations articulating causal mechanisms in order to explain phenomena and demands that
chains of causes and their effects cohere sensibly. The criterion for evidentiary support reflects
the idea that explanations are constructed to explain patterns of data, and so it should be clear
how the data relates to the claims. The difference between high and low coherence explanations
is the use of language that explicitly marks causal claims: because, caused, thus, due to (Sandoval,
2003). Along everyday and scientific knowledge, school science knowledge has also been discussed
in literature. School science is different from real-life problem solving on the grounds of the
criterion used for judging the value or correctness of an idea: the approval of an authority in the
shape and form of the teacher and the textbook (Claxton, 1991, 55).
A great deal of international research has been carried out on the typical ways that students
explain natural phenomena (see Duit, 2004) and how these so-called alternative conceptions
develop over time (Driver, Asoko, Leach, Mortimer, & Scott, 1994). The students at different
levels have been studied in several contexts: Sandoval (2003) has studied high school students´
explanations for an event of natural selection, and has examined the causal coherence in the
explanations; Gómez Crespo and Pozo (2004) have studied the relationship between students´
everyday knowledge and scientific knowledge of the students in the case of understanding how
matter changes; and Carvalho (2004) has considered how children build up explanations in physics.
In any particular content area, the students may have alternative conceptions as well as other
ideas that are more scientifically acceptable (Palmer, 1999). The knowledge type the students
used may also depend upon the question asked (Solomon et al., 1996).
The significance of instruction in relation to the explanations has also been highlighted in
literature. Greenwood and Schribner-MacLean (1997) have studied elementary school teachers
and the effect of instruction on their explanations in the context of physics and in particular optics.
Wiser and Amin (2001) have found that the scientific concept became compatible with the everyday
concept through metaconceptual teaching in which explicit reference was made to the fact that
laypersons and scientists use the same words for different referents, and that both
conceptualizations can be integrated into one conceptual system with the latter explaining the
former. Hogan and Maglienti (2001) have extended the research to link cognitive perspectives on
the nature of reasoning processes, further to sociocultural perspectives on the origin of reasoning
practices, in other words, the cultural practices of various groups. According to them, people seem
to possess both informal heuristics for thinking and more formal rules of logic, and they use
whichever one suits a particular purpose.
The aim of Finnish school science is that school leavers will be able to apply their science
knowledge to everyday situations, to take a justified stand on different issues and to convey their
conclusions to other citizens. These abilities can be regarded as being especially important for
primary school teachers who hold discussions with their pupils on versatile questions concerning
unexpected everyday situations, at the same time maintaining pupils´ positive attitudes to science
(attitudes, see Simon, 2000). The teachers´ explanations on versatile science phenomena have to
be both comprehensible for children and in accordance with scientific knowledge. The explanations
are constructed through the knowledge which is acquired in everyday communication and
education. According to the constructivist point of view, pre-knowledge has a significant role.
Sometimes the students may learn the right way of thinking and understanding but not the right
scientific concepts (Aho et al., 1993). Therefore everyday explanations may also be acceptable in
some circumstances, they may also show understanding. The aim of this study is to clarify firstly,
how primary school would-be teachers explain everyday physics phenomena, secondly, how the
explanations differ in different physics topics, and thirdly, how these explanations differ from
those given in other circumstances.
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EXPLANATIONS FOR PHYSICS PHENOMENA GIVEN BY PRIMARY SCHOOL ISSN 1648–3898
WOULD-BE TEACHERS
(P. 78–91)
This study is a descriptive case study in which the physics explanations given by the students
are regarded as discourses. Discourse analysis is based on constructive, everyday use of language
(Roth & McGinn, 1998) and involves the ways of thinking about discourse (theoretical and
metatheoretical elements) and treating discourse as data (methodological elements) (Wood &
Kroger, 2000, p. 3). The focus is not on language as an abstract entity, but as the medium for
interaction; analysis of discourse then becomes an analysis of how students explain. Discourse
analysis also involves interpretative work with categorization. While reading, it should be considered
how the discourse is being read. The obvious could be the starting point, considering what is
missing or included and asking whether a particular word of the text relies on some assumption.
Besides discourse analysis there is a need for content analysis too, in the context of which the
concepts the students use in connection with the phenomena.
This study has a different viewpoint compared to earlier research. Firstly, several physics sub
areas are considered in the same study. Secondly, the explanations are considered in an everyday,
but, not however in a simple context. Generally the studies in literature, report explanations
made in a more academic science education context. The focus is on the way to explain, but also
compared is the ability to explain, and the students´ use of explanations in other tasks.
Participants and data collection
The participants in this study were seventeen primary school would-be teachers participating
in Science and Technology Education. All the students were in their third year of teacher education.
Science and Technology Education is a voluntary minor study, and the students who had chosen the
education as a part of their Master´s Degree, made up about 22% of all the third year students.
At the beginning and at the end of the physics course in Science and Technology Education,
the students filled in a questionnaire which included physics questions on mechanics,
thermodynamics, optics and electricity. Before the students filled in the questionnaire, the
researcher discussed the aims of the study with them and reminded that the study did not influence
their marks. The students were also reminded that it was important to be able to discuss everyday
science phenomena with pupils. At first, the students chose one of the four given answers, which
they thought was the most correct one. After, they were asked to justify their choice. The method
was tested in the pilot study in a similar context. The questions were chosen from a book written
for the public (Mäkelä & Suvanto, 1984) instead of the course book, in order to avoid direct
explanations learned by heart. Most of the questions were unfamiliar to the students, the purpose
of which was to model situations where pupils ask versatile, difficult and complex questions not
directly included in the curriculum. Due to the findings of the pilot study, the questions on four
different topics were chosen. Nine questions were chosen as most of the concepts in them were
those also discussed in primary school, however, in a different context and in a simpler form. It is
the language (concepts) and the way of explaining, more than giving the correct answers, which is
in focus in this study. The questions and alternative answers for choices are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. The multiple questions to be explained and the choice of alternatives (in Finnish,
Mäkelä & Suvanto, 1984; in English, Keinonen, 2005).
Why is the astronaut in the satellite flying round the Earth a) The gravitation does not influence him anymore,
weightless? b) The gravitations of the Earth and the Moon cancel out each
other,
c) The gravitations of the Earth and the Sun cancel out each
other,
d) The astronaut is not weightless.
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WOULD-BE TEACHERS
(P. 78–91)
If one wanted the weight to be at its lowest where would it be a) on the shore
more advantageous to weigh oneself, on the shore or in the b) in the mountain
mountain? c) there is no difference.
The car is driving the one hundred-kilometer-drive from Helsinki a) 120 km/h
to Hämeenlinna. During the first 50 kilometres the velocity is 40 b) 160 km/h
km/h because of the traffic jams. What should the velocity be c) 200 km/h
during the last part of the drive in order to have the mean d) is not possible.
velocity of 80 km/h?
What happens to the room temperature, when the door of the a) the room temperature does not change
refrigerator is opened? b) the room gets warmer the whole time
c) the room cools off the whole time
d) at first the room cools off, then it gets warmer.
When one brews a pot of tea, the quickest way to boil the water a) to use the lowest power so that water just starts to boil
is to immediately use the highest possible power. But what is b) to use the highest power
the most economical way to do it? c) the way used has no influence on the total consumption of
electricity.
The landscape reflected on the calm water surface is a little bit a) yes
darker and upside down, compared to the original landscape. Is b) no.
it otherwise the same?
What is the colour of the shadow that the Sun makes on the a) black
snow? b) grey
c) red
d) blue.
On the top of the antenna of the car radio there is a knob, a) it improves the audibility
because b) a sharp top could be dangerous
c) it prevents the antenna from vibrations when the wind blows.
Orienteers know that they can not trust the compass under a) north
power lines. If the power line is in the east-west direction (as b) south
shown in the figure), then under the lines the needle of the c) east
compass shows d) west
e) anywhere.
Data analysis
Discourse analysis requires a particular orientation to texts and a particular frame of mind. In
this study, it came from physics education and the context of the study. The frame was thus
connected to the causal connections, present or absent, and to the concepts used or not used in
physics. The analysis was started by carefully reading the texts which itself involved interpretation,
and then guided to further analysis. In the following, according to qualitative research methodology,
interpretation and analysis are tightly connected to each other. The examples are aimed at
showing the versatile ways of interpreting explanations by looking at them from different
viewpoints (causality, concepts, language) but based on the data. Finally, data-based analysis has
lead to choosing two ways of categorizing the explanations: Did the answer explain the phenomena
or not? Was it an everyday or scientific explanation? As an example of the interpretation and
analysis process, below we present the first of the nine questions and the explanations given to it
by the students.
An example of the data and its interpretation and analysis
The first question on the weightless astronaut is the farthest from the students´ daily life.
The subject however, is familiar from news and books. The correct answer is item d) and its physics
81
WOULD-BE TEACHERS
(P. 78–91)
explanation is the following: Neither the astronaut nor the satellite is weightless. The influence
of the gravitation is not noticeable, because both are in the falling motion due to gravitation. The
motion is difficult to understand as a falling motion, because the distance to the Earth is the same
the whole time. This is due to the fact that the satellite moves with the same velocity in the
direction of the Earths´ surface, and the Earths´ surface moves away in the same velocity, as the
satellite falls towards the Earth.
The students mostly connected the astronaut´s weightlessness to gravitation, as seen in
the following discourse. (B refers to the explanations at the beginning of the physics course and
P8 refers to the student.)
The astronaut always weighs something. When he is floating in Space, he still weighs something,
but gravitation is not strong enough for him to stay in place. BP8
The astronaut always weighs something can be interpreted as expressing the concrete
weight people have and measure. It is not seen to contain the existence of gravitation. According
to the student´s interpretation, the astronaut is ´floating´ in Space. In the question, the issue
is about the flight of the satellite. Floating indicates the visual image people have about motion
in Space. Does the student think that floating and flying are synonyms? The student speaks
about the astronaut´s floating, not that the satellite floats or that the astronaut is inside the
satellite. She has not considered the problem in the present context, but has spoken generally
about floating in Space. The student states that the gravitation is not strong enough. She refers
to the change of gravitation in Space, but she does not mention which gravitation she means.
Probably the student only means the gravitation of the Earth. Énough´ seems to mean the
distance being long enough to decrease the gravitation. The student sees the opposite of flying
to be ´should stay in place´. She says that when gravitation is strong enough, the astronaut
should stay in place. The student thinks that only the gravitation of the Earth is essential in
Space. She does not understand or at least realize that gravitation can generally be due to other
objects in Space too.
Explanations for the ´weightless astronaut´ problem connect gravitation to weightlessness,
but the language which is used cannot as a whole (connecting floating to weightlessness) be
seen as adhering to the physics explanation. There are some attempts at logical reasoning by
using the word ´because´.
The astronaut still has the same weight, but the pressure in Space is different, because of that the
astronaut is floating in the shuttle. There is no gravitation. BP11
Gravitations of the Earth also influence the astronaut, because otherwise the satellite would float.
EP17
(E refers to the explanation at the end of the course on physics.) Even though physics
concepts on gravitation, floating and pressure were used, these explanations are in forms that
do not exactly fit into the physics explanation. The concepts were not used precisely enough in
order to make them physics explanations. They rather resemble daily life reasoning. Here also
the emphasis is not on the right concept, however some attempts have been made to explain
the phenomenon.
Most of the explanations concerning the weight of the astronaut, lay somewhere between
daily life reasoning and the physics (scientific) explanation.
The astronaut is so far from the Earth, that the gravitation of the Earth does not influence
anymore. BP7
The gravitation of the Earth does not extend outside our atmosphere. EP6
These explanations include the fact that gravitation is dependent on distance, but the
students have not understood the phenomenon correctly. They also stated that the Earth´s
gravitation has no influence in Space or outside the atmosphere; there is no gravitation in space;
in Space it is a weightless place; the attraction force of the Moon is weak; g is no longer the
Earth´s attraction force, but there is another attraction force.
Another type of weightlessness-phenomenon described by the students, was one that sounded
like a physics explanation, but was expressed by using sentences that sounded like daily talk.
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The astronaut always weighs something. When he is floating in Space he also weighs something,
but the gravitation is not so strong that he ćould stay in place´. BP14
Weight is a different thing from mass. Even if the gravitation of the Earth doesn´t influence so
much anymore, there are other forces in Space which influence – the astronaut is not weightless.
EP11
The statement about weightlessness is right, but the other sentences are not precise enough
to be taken quite as statements relating to physics.
Two of the students used the physics concepts in the quite right way, but did not explain the
phenomenon correctly. Although the statements are right, they do not explain the question
asked.
The gravitation law is also valid in Space. BP15
In Space, the satellite is just under the influence of the Earth´s gravitation, because it orbits the
Earth, then small gravitation influences the astronaut. EP14
These students have probably understood the influence of gravitation in general but could
not reason the question asked. It may also be that they have learned to memorize this fact and
therefore it was the first idea which came in this connection.
Every explanation (21 in total) included gravitation. The argument that gravitation does
not exist outside the atmosphere is a misconception. None of the students tried to explain the
influence of the two motions, which are essential in the situation. Some students had
misunderstanding that gravitation would not influence in Space. All students had limited
understanding of the phenomena. The concepts which students used were scientific concepts
but the explanations were mostly incorrect and weak in logic. It must be noticed that the
explanation that sounds like physics does not mean that the explanation, or even the answer, is
correct. On the other hand, an everyday explanation could be accepted as a correct one. At this
stage of the research, the knowledge level of the students was not under consideration. Both
correct and incorrect answers were analysed in the same way to find out the type of language
or knowledge used by the students.
Results of Research
Twelve of the seventeen students answered the questions in both cases before and after
the instruction period. In addition, three students answered only once and two of the respondents
didn’t answer the questionnaire at all. In the following, the explanations are presented from
the three different viewpoints found in the analysis: the causality, the degree of explanation,
and everyday vs. scientific knowledge.
Causal coherence
When paying attention to absences it was noticed that there were few causal connections
in the explanations. This kind of language was only used in some explanations.
In Space, the satellite is just under the influence of the Earth´s gravitation, because it orbits the
Earth, then small gravitation influences the astronaut. EP14
The weight g is smaller in the mountains because the Earth´s gravitation there…less further away
from the Earth´s core, the mass does not change. EP17
Sunlight has all wavelengths. Because the snow reflects white light, the counter colour of white
is black? Black colour. BP8
Following the statements únder the influence of the Earth´s gravitation´ and ´because it
orbits the Earth´ the student should state that both are in the falling motion due to gravitation.
In the second explanation the student correctly thinks that all wavelengths (white light) reflect
from the snow, but does not take into account that due to scattering from the atmosphere, the
light is more blue than red.
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Categorization of explanations and their justification
The primary school would-be teachers justified their choices of alternatives by using words,
phrases or concepts which did not noticeably differ from the concepts introduced in the school
books or expressions used in everyday life and based on experiences. In some explanations,
students tried to explain (Earth´s gravitation is smaller on the mountain) the phenomenon, but
some explanations were purely tautological phrases repeating the question or its alternative
answers in some other form (the temperature difference between the room and the refrigerator
normalizes; cf. the last alternative in the question). In some explanations correct concepts were
used, but the phenomenon was not explained (when entering the water, the light beam refracts
towards the normal to the surface; the sentence is right, but on its own it does not explain the
phenomena). There were also rather irrational explanations (inessential facts from the viewpoint
of the phenomenon; There is more mass in the knob, thus waves can reach it easier). The frequencies
of the explanations in this categorization are shown in Table 2. The tautological phrases here do
not answer the question ‘why’, thus they do not explain the phenomenon.
Table 2. Categorization of the explanations ranging from real to irrational explanations.
subject of the question explained tautological correct concepts irrational quantity

phrases used, but not explanations
explained
astronaut/gravity 21 3 1 1 26
mountain/gravity 15 1 6 0 22
car/velocity 4 5 0 8 17
refrigerator/heat transfer 5 7 1 8 21
boiling/heat transfer 3 16 1 1 21
mirror/refraction 0 18 3 0 21
snow/scatter 2 8 4 3 17
antenna/charge density 0 1 0 12 13
compass/electric field, magnetic field 5 10 0 1 16
quantity 55 69 16 34 174
Most of the explanations were tautological phrases (69). Less than half (55) were true
explanations and most of them were associated with the questions on gravity.
Categorization of explanations in terms of everyday or scientific explanations
Reasoning has often been studied in literature in the framework of everyday-scientific

knowledge. In this study the students used some kind of colloquial language in their descriptions.
They also reasoned in the way of physics and mixed different ways to explain. These notions
finally led to the categorization of the students´ explanations by using definitions of both everyday
and scientific knowledge (see Reif & Larkin, 1991; Leach & Scott, 2000; Author, 2005).
Explanations such as,
The faster the water boils, the less electricity is consumed. BP14
The surface of the water is like a mirror. BP1,
serve as good examples of knowledge based on everyday communication. In everyday knowledge
it is important to pursue the sub goal of predicting and sometimes of explaining as in the
explanation.
The air pressure is higher (in the mountains) rather than down in the valley. BP11
Scientific knowledge predominantly means knowledge that is encompassed by the present-
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day physical sciences (Reif & Larkin, 1991, p. 787) which is evident in the following student´s
description.
The gravitation law is also valid in Space. BP4
In this study, the students´ explanations do not exactly correspond with the definition of
scientific knowledge in the way that Reif and Larkin (1991) have defined it, as being the knowledge
predominantly encompassed by the present-day-physical sciences. In addition, the explanations
do not correspond with the scientific knowledge of Leach and Scott (2000) as a more formalized
way of talking and thinking. The explanations in this study represent some knowledge between
scientific and everyday knowledge which could be seen to be school science knowledge (see Claxton,
1991). In the student´s explanation,
The light beam refracts when it hits the water, in the direction of the normal to the surface. EP16
Correct scientific concepts are used, the statement is quite right, but it does not answer the
question. This corresponds better with school rather than scientific knowledge.
In reading the explanations it became evident that the everyday and scientific /school
knowledge were insufficient to account for the variations in students´ discourses. Some of the
explanations resembled everyday knowledge even though they had been expressed by using
scientific knowledge. Some of the explanations sounded like scientific knowledge, but the
knowledge, which was used, was, however, everyday knowledge. The framework of the
explanations was thus expanded to four different categories according to the arguments: physical
argument; physical sounding arguments constructed with everyday concepts; everyday arguments
with physical concepts and everyday arguments. For example, when ´fall motion‘ and ´velocity‘
are the concepts which are needed to explain the phenomena, instead, the students used ´pressure‘
and ´floating‘ in their everyday explanations. When the students used the concept ´force‘, the
explanation sounded like a physical argument, but the concept more resembled everyday thinking.
In the compass question, the students used several correct concepts in their scientific explanations.
In the everyday explanations they used only the magnetic field, and it was not connected to the
electric field. In the heat questions the students used more different concepts than in the other
questions and most of them were everyday words or concepts such as “comes colder air”, “more
warm air”, “flows cold air”, or energy and power in different meanings. The four categories of
the explanations are then named to be: scientific knowledge; scientific sounding knowledge
expressed by using everyday knowledge; everyday knowledge expressed by using scientific concepts;
and everyday knowledge.
Types of knowledge in different topics of physics
This study also investigated whether the students´ explanations differed in variation of physics
topics. The first three physics questions concerned mechanics, the next two thermodynamics. These
were followed by two questions which dealt with light or waves, and finally there were two questions
about electricity. The frequencies of different types of explanations are shown in table 3.
Table 3. Numbers of explanations in different kinds of knowledge (at the beginning/end of

the course).
Subject Everyday Everyday knowledge Scientific sounding Scientific Quantity

knowledge expressed by using knowledge knowledge
scientific concepts expressed by using
everyday knowledge
astronaut/gravity 2 (1/1) 16 (8/8) 2 (1/1) 2 (1/1) 22

mountain/gravity 12 (5/7) 0 0 12 (7/5) 24
car/velocity 13 (5/8) 0 1 (1/0) 4 (2/2) 18
refrigerator/heat transfer 18 (11/7) 2 (0/2) 2 (1/1) 1 (1/0) 23
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Subject Everyday Everyday knowledge Scientific sounding Scientific Quantity

knowledge expressed by using knowledge knowledge
scientific concepts expressed by using
everyday knowledge
boiling/heat transfer 18 (11/7) 2 (0/2) 0 0 20

mirror/refraction 16 (8/8) 1 (1/0) 0 2 (0/2) 19
snow/scatter 9 (4/5) 5 (4/1) 0 3 (0/3) 17
antenna/charge density 13 (5/8) 0 0 0 13
compass/electric field,
magnetic field 4 (3/1) 2 (2/0) 0 11 (4/7) 17
quantity 105 28 5 35 173
By comparing the explanations of the phenomena, it is noticed that the questions concerning
mechanics (astronaut and mountain) were explained by using more scientific or scientific sounding
rather than everyday knowledge, and the questions concerning thermodynamics (refrigerator
and boiling) were explained by using more everyday rather than scientific knowledge.
Connections between the categories
By comparing two categorizations, the everyday-scientific knowledge categories (Table 3)

and the explained- irrational categories (table 2) it was noticed that when the largest group of
answers in the astronaut questions was everyday knowledge expressed by using scientific concepts,
on the other side it was the explained category in the other categorization. Though the question
about the mountain was explained mostly using everyday or scientific knowledge it was however,
explained. Both everyday knowledge and irrational explanations were used in the question about
velocity, as was also the case in one of the questions about heat transfer. The other question about
heat transfer was answered using everyday knowledge and tautological explanations. The
questions concerning light connected everyday knowledge with tautological explanations. Irrational
questions and everyday knowledge are connected in the question about antenna and tautological
explanations with scientific knowledge in the question about compass. The relations between the
two categories are shown in Table 4. Not all of the everyday-scientific explanations could be
analyzed as belonging to the explained/irrational categories, and vice versa.
Table 4. Numbers of the explanations in two categorizations in comparison with each other.
Categories Everyday Everyday knowledge Scientific sounding Scientific Quantity

knowledge expressed by using knowledge expressed knowledge
scientific concepts by using everyday
knowledge
tautological phrases 49 7 0 7 63
explained 8 14 5 20 47
irrational 27 1 0 1 29
real concepts 6 3 0 2 11
quantity 90 25 5 30 150
When the explanations were categorized as being scientific ones, thus using scientific concepts,
they mainly (20 cases) explained the phenomena. When the explanations were everyday knowledge,
they were mainly tautological (49 cases) or irrational statements (27 cases). Thus, by using everyday
knowledge, the students could seldom explain the phenomena. It was done only in eight cases.
Knowledge about scientific concepts and their use was necessary to explain the phenomena. Also
in some cases a mixed knowledge (14 and 5 cases) has lead to explanations.
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Knowledge in other tasks
In addition to the questionnaire discussed above, the students had an exam and homework
in which they had to explain everyday physics phenomena. These explanations showed how
they used scientific concepts and could make causal connections, thus constructing explanations
suitable for everyday use and fitting in with the physical explanation. They also got good
marks in the exam.
Discussion
The explanations, typically one sentence, were maybe too short to show any causal claims.
According to Sandoval (2003), longer explanations are not necessarily more or less coherent
than shorter ones. Thus, the demands for longer explanations could not guarantee the causality.
The students´ answers also did not necessarily explain the phenomena and this was especially
the case in more familiar subjects in daily life. Even though everyday knowledge is sometimes
enough to explain physics phenomena, the students could more often explain the phenomena
through scientific knowledge. Thus, acquiring scientific knowledge seems to be necessary for
primary school would-be teachers to manage with their science explanations.
According to the exam, subject knowledge of primary school would-be teachers was good
enough. However, the above discussed explanations gave another impression of their
understanding as also Greenwood and Scribner (1997) have found. The explanations made at
home more comparable with the study of Sandoval (2003) also showed causal coherence
which was not found in the explanations of the questionnaire.
Gravitation belongs to the subjects that have already been discussed in grades 5 and 6 of
comprehensive school and also appears in the school course books. Gravitation seems to be
understood during school instruction because the explanations at the beginning of the course
on physics were at the same level as at the end of the course. Primary school would-be teachers’
everyday ideas in general seem to be strongly held, agreeing with previous science education
research (Warren et al., 2001). The students´ explanations were not valid or invalid but
rather regarded (cf. Voss, 1989, p. 220) as relatively sound (scientific and scientific sounding
knowledge expressed by using everyday knowledge) or unsound (everyday knowledge and
everyday knowledge expressed by using scientific concepts). The criterion for the validity
(Voss, 1989, p. 220), as to whether the reason is relevant to the conclusion, is not fulfilled by
the students´ explanations in this study. Irrelevant reasons leading to the conclusion were
also presented. The second criterion, whether or not the reason supports the conclusion,
became somewhat clear but the third criterion, whether all reasons are taken into account
that could support the contradiction of the conclusion, remained unclear.
The students could not specify the concepts explicitly and thus were unable to identify
them properly in this situation, which is in accordance with the observations of Reif and Larkin
(1991, p. 747.) The students used concepts very broadly. Everyday concepts were used in
scientific explanations, and scientific concepts were used in everyday explanations. In the
categories between them, the concepts were used more like everyday concepts even though,
as words, they were scientific concepts. In everyday life, the connections between concepts
and their references are not usually specified with great precision and concepts need not
necessarily be related to observable phenomena. The concepts used by the students in
everyday explanations were mainly related to the phenomenon, but they were not always
the most essential ones. The students have partly learned the right way of thinking and
understanding (cf. exam and home work), but haven´t learnt how to use the correct scientific
concepts in new situations, which Aho et al. (1993) have noticed with younger students.
The answers differed according to the physics topics. The phenomena of water boiling
represents a topic where past experiences and local knowledge in specific contexts are generally
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quite adequate for commonly required predictions and explanations. During Science and
Technology Education, formulas are not used. Mainly the subjects which are significant for the
primary school level are discussed. The topics in mechanics, present in this study, have been
discussed more thoroughly during the course on physics than the topics of thermodynamics.
Thus, the students have adopted more precise knowledge of mechanics. This may be one of
the reasons for the better conceptual knowledge in mechanics. The topics of thermodynamics
and discussion about them are closer to people in everyday life. These phenomena have been
explained through experience. Mechanics is not discussed to the same extent in everyday life
and the topic is also not as concrete as thermodynamics. Because the pre-existing conceptions
are not so strong in mechanics, those concepts which have been learnt in the course on physics
are used in the explanations. However, the students have not learnt to connect these concepts
correctly. In the optics domain (mirror and shadow) the students used everyday knowledge,
but in the electricity domain (antenna and compass) both everyday and scientific knowledge.
Light is normally very close to everyday life and is therefore easily explained by commonsense
knowledge. The students answered the question about electricity (compass) discussed quite
well during the course on physics using scientific concepts. Scientific knowledge was used even
though this question concerned everyday phenomena familiar to the students. The second
question about electricity (antenna), not included in the course, was answered using everyday
knowledge. These findings support the findings of Gómez Crespo and Pozo (2004) concerning
matter, and extend the knowledge about explanations to other physics topics.
The students´ understanding can be seen to be fragmented, because causal coherence is
absent. Palmer (1999) names the fragments as p-prims (phenomenological primitives, in
accordance with DiSessa), and says that they can be understood as simple abstractions from
common experiences. A particular problem context activates a particular p-prim and that
determines the type of explanation the student gives. The context of the task influences the
inference pattern one employs. Wiser and Amin (2001) agree on the view that learning
physics involves reorganizing p-prims in a manner consistent with the scientific view. According
to Palmer (1999), the knowledge system is weakly organized so that the students´ justifications
typically lack depth and their responses can often appear to be ad hoc in nature. Students
possess pieces of knowledge, facets, which are closely related to a particular context of a
problem. In this study, the students could not consider the phenomena as a whole. The students
developed their reasoning by using superficial knowledge. For the most part, the students did
not notice the most essential aspect related to the task. They liked to reason the tasks by
means of words, which were almost correct, but not precisely. It may also be that the
formulation of the questions activated fragmented rather than coherent knowledge (cf.
Solomon et al., 1996).
The students typically draw upon more than one form of reasoning when responding to
questions (Leach et al. 2000). This might be predicted from the situated perspectives on
learning. The students also select at least some of the fixed response statements at random,
with almost no critical judgement (cf. Leach et al., 2000), which has also been stated by some
students in the explanations of this study. The students´ explanations, before and after the
instruction period did not differ. They used scientific and everyday knowledge in both cases.
Sometimes the student constructed the answer for the same phenomena through scientific
knowledge in the pre-questionnaire and everyday knowledge in the post-questionnaire.
Changes between the four categories occurred in the explanations.
Conclusions
This study gives detailed information about primary school would-be teachers’ ways of
explaining physics phenomena. The would-be teachers explained physics phenomena using
different types of knowledge including everyday knowledge, everyday knowledge with
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scientific concepts, scientific sounding knowledge with everyday concepts and scientific
knowledge. Scientific knowledge seems to be necessary in order the would-be teacher succeed
in explaining everyday phenomena. The explanations in everyday topics also gave a different
picture of the students´ knowledge, from what the exam had given. The analysis of the
explanations can thus give other information on the results of learning. No difference was
observed in the nature of the explanations given by different students. If a primary school
would-be teacher did explain one question well, s/he did not necessarily do well in other
questions. No specific coherence between the students and their responses was found. The
would-be teachers possibly have different experiences of everyday life and also due to school
science and different mental images of different topics.
This study has lead to some thoughts about the ratio between pedagogical knowledge
and subject knowledge in education. For establishing the learning environment the students´
multidimensional development in which is promoted, the purposes and starting points of
teaching need to be clarified. Based on these two aspects of teaching, the teacher needs to
use pedagogical and scientific knowledge. In addition, both of these knowledge areas must
be in harmony with knowledge of students´ understanding. The primary school teacher’s
achievements in scientific knowledge and its adaptation for pedagogical situations have an
essential role in primary science as well as at higher education levels. Thus, depending on how
well the ´language´ about scientific phenomena is understood between the teacher and
students, the students´ science understanding process can be supported and guided. This kind
of awareness should be a core issue in teacher training. Rice (2005) suggests that we should
take a closer look at pre-service elementary school teachers´ knowledge of the science content
they will be expected to teach. Even though the need to essentially increase the subject
knowledge courses in Science and Technology Education has not been supported, there still
seems to be a need to focus subject instruction more towards the feature of explanation. In
focusing on explanations, care must be taken to ensure that scientific knowledge is used to
support the ways the students explain the phenomena scientifically. Because science instruction
depends on the development of hypothetico-deductive reasoning ability (Kwon and Lawson
2000) possessed even by children (Carvalho, 2004) thinking about explanations should be
more effectively practiced in teacher education.
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Ïðîâåäåíî èññëåäîâàíèå â îáëàñòè ïîäãîòîâêè ó÷èòåëåé, êîòîðûå èçó÷èëè åñòåñòâîçíàíèå â

àñïåêòå îòíîøåíèé òåõíîëîãèé è îáùåñòâà. Èçó÷àëîñü ðàçíîîáðàçèå îáúÿñíåíèé ôèçè÷åñêèõ
ÿâëåíèé ñòóäåíòàìè – áóäóùèìè ó÷èòåëÿìè îñíîâíîé øêîëû. Îáúÿñíåíèÿ îáñóæäàëèñü íà îñíîâå
ñîîáðàííûõ äàííûõ. Áûë âûÿñíåí ÿçûê ñòóäåíòîâ íà êîòîðîì âåëèñü ýòè îáúÿñíåíèÿ. Ïåðåä è
ïîñëå ðàññìîòðåíèÿ âîïðîñîâ ôèçèêè, íà êà÷åñòâåííîì óðîâíå îáñóæäàëèñü ñîîòâåòñòâóøùèå
âèäû ìûøëåíèÿ, ïðîõîäÿùèå íà áàçå ïîëó÷åííûõ ýêñïåðèìåíòàëüíûõ äàííûõ è ïðåäèäóùèõ
èññëåäîâàíèé. Íåñìîòðÿ íà ðÿä ñëó÷àåâ, êîãäà îáúÿñíåíèÿ áûëè âåñüìà îãðàíè÷åííûìè, áûëè
âûÿñíåíû âèäû çíàíèé, êîòîðûìè ïîëüçîâàëèñü ñòóäåíòû äëÿ ñîîòâåòñòâóþùèõ îáúÿñíåíèé.
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(P. 78–91)
Èññëåäîâàíèå äàëî äåòàëüíóþ èíôîðìàöèþ î ïóòÿõ îáúÿñíåíèÿ ñòóäåíòàìè ôèçè÷åñêèõ

ÿâëåíèé íà îñíîâå ðàçíûõ âèäîâ çíàíèÿ: ïîâñåäíåâíîå çíàíèå, ïîâñåäíåâíîå çíàíèå ñ íàó÷íûìè
ïîíÿòèÿìè, ïñåâäîíàó÷íîå èëè íàó÷íîïîäîáíîå çíàíèå ñ ïîâñåäíåâíûì çíàíèåì, íàó÷íûå çíàíèÿ.
Äëÿ îáúÿñíåíèÿ ïîâñåäíåâíûõ ÿâëåíèé äëÿ ñòóäåíòîâ íåîáõîäèìû íàó÷íûå çíàíèÿ, êîòîðûìè
îíè âëàäåëè â ðàçëè÷íîé ñòåïåíè. Àíàëèç îáúÿñíåíèé ïðåäîñòàâëÿåò öåííóþ èíôîðìàöèþ î
ðåçóëüòàòàõ îáó÷åíèÿ ñòóäåíòîâ. Íåîáíàðóæåíà ðàçíèöà â õàðàêòåðå îáúÿñíåíèé ðàçíûìè
ñòóäåíòàìè. Êàæäûé ñòóäåíò îäíè ÿâëåíèÿ îáúÿñíÿåò ëó÷øå, äðóãèå õóæå. Ñòóäåíòû èìåþò ðàçíûé
îïèò ïîñåäíåâíîé æèçíè è, áëàãîäàðÿ èõ øêîüíîé íàóêå, ðàçíûå ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ î ðàçíûõ
ÿâëåíèÿõ.
Êëþ÷åâûå ñëîâà
ñëîâà: îáðàçîâàíèå ó÷èòåëåé, îáó÷åíèå ôèçèêè, îáúÿñíåíèÿ, àðãóìåíòû.
Received 02 February 2007; accepted 23 March 2007
Tuula Keinonen
Ph.D., Senior Assistant at University of Joensuu, Faculty
of Education
Department of Applied Education.
P.O.Box 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland
E-mail: Tuula.Keinonen@joensuu.fi
91
INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS ISSN 1648–3898
INFORMATION
FOR CONTRIBUTORS EDITORIAL POLICY
Journal of Baltic Science Education (JBSE) publishes original scientific research articles in the field of Natural Science
Education and related areas for all educational levels in the Baltic countries. It is possible to publish special (thematic) issues
of JBSE. The papers should be submitted and will be published in English. JBSE will promote to establish contacts between
researchers and practical educators both in the Baltic countries and countries around.
The authors of the manuscripts are responsible for the scientific content and novelty of the research materials. Articles,
published before in other international journals or papers’ collections will not be accepted for publication in JBSE.
As a publication that represents a variety of cross-disciplinary interests, both theoretical and practical, the JBSE invites
manuscripts on a wide range of topics, especially in the following areas:
• Didactics of natural sciences. • Philosophical, political, economical and social aspects
• Theory and practice in natural science teacher education. of natural science education.
• Integrated natural science education. • The supplementary natural science education.
• Natural science and technological literacy. • ICT in natural science education.
• General and professional natural science education. • The standardisation of natural science education etc.
MANUSCRIPTS GUIDELINES
The structure of the research paper presented to the Journal of Baltic Science Education should be as follows: abstract
- short report of the investigation; introduction inc. aim and subject of the research; research methodologies and methods;
results of the research incl. discussion; conclusions; list of references; summary - in Russian.
The papers should be submitted in English (summary in Russian). The preliminary text of the article can be sent as a.doc
file in the attachment by e-mail: mail.jbse@gmail.com
The text must be elaborated in Word for Windows, using 12 point Times New Roman letters. An article should not exceed
7-10 A4 pages, included figures, tables and bibliography. Publishing of longer articles should be negotiated separately. Texts
margins: top and bottom 20 mm, left - 25 mm, right - 20mm. The title: capital letters, 14 pt, bold; space between the title and
the author’s name is one line interval. Author’s name and surname: small letters, 12 pt, bold. Under the name, institution:
11 pt, italics; space between the title and the text: 1 line interval. Abstract – about 90-110 words - precedes the text. The text:
12 pt Single or Auto spacing, in one column. Key words: no more than five words. The language must be clear and accurate. The
authors have to present the results, propositions and conclusions in a form that can suit scientists from different countries.
Titles of the tables and figures: 11 pt, small letters. Space between figures or tables and the text: 1 line interval.
Introduction, titles of chapters and subchapters: 12 pt, bold, small letters. Numbers: Arabic, subchapters numbered by two
figures (1.1, 1.2, etc.). Figures, tables and captions should be inserted within the manuscript at their appropriate locations.
References in the text should be presented in brackets (Knox, 1988; Martin, 1995). If necessary, the page can be indicated:
(Martin, 1995, p.48). The list of references should be presented after the text (APA style). The Words List of References: 11pt,
bold, small letters. The references should be listed in full at the end of the paper in the following standard form:
For books: Saxe, G.B. (1991). Cultural and Cognitive Development: Studies in Mathematical Understanding. Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum.
For articles: Bekerian, D.A. (1993). In Search of the Typical Eyewitness. American Psychologist, 48, 574-576.
For chapters within books: Bjork, R.A. (1989). Retrieval Inhibition as an Adaptive Mechanism in Human Memory. In: H.L.
Roediger III & F.I.M. Craik (Eds.), Varieties of Memory & Consciousness (pp. 309-330). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Each article is followed by summary in Russian about half A4 page. The title of summary repeats title of the article:
capital letters, 12pt, bold; the author’s name and surname: small letters, 11pt, bold. The text: small letters, 11pt, space
between the name and text: 1 line interval. The authors, who do not know the Russian language, present summary in the English
language for the translation.
On a separate page, author - related data should be presented in English: name, surname, degree and academic title,
institution, full correspondence address in the clearest and most complete form /ordinary post and e-mail addresses /, position
(to ensure anonymity in the review process). The author (authors) should confirm in writing, that the manuscript has not been
published in other journal or handed over (transferred) to other journal for publication.
EDITORIAL AND REVIEW PROCEDURES
Manuscripts will be sent anonymously to reviewers with expertise in the appropriate area. All manuscripts will be
rewieved by two experts before JBSE’s accept them for publication. This process usually takes about two months. The journal
co-editors will make minor editorial changes; major changes will be made by the author(s) prior to publication if necessary.
JBSE’s redaction will sent to author(s) only one correcture which must be sent back within 2 weeks.
Manuscripts submitted to the JBSE cannot be returned to authors. Authors should be sure to keep a copy for
themselves. Authors’ signatures should be at the end of the paper and its second checked proofs.
Manuscripts, editorial correspondence (and other correspondence for subscription and exchange), and any questions
should be sent to editor-in-chief or to regional redactors:
Mailing Addresses
Prof., dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas, editor-in-chief, Dr. Naglis Ðvickus, co-editor, Lithuania
Siauliai University SMC ”Scientia Educologica”
P. Vishinskio Str. 25; LT-76351 Siauliai, Lithuania Kretingos Str. 55-10; LT-92300 Klaipëda, Lithuania
E-mail: vincentas@osf.su.lt E-mail: naglis.svickus@nbgroup.lt
Phone: + 370 687 95668 Phone: +370 687 89985
Prof., dr. Janis Gedrovics, co-editor, Latvia

Riga Teacher Training and Prof., Dr. habil. Aarne Tõldsepp, co-editor, Estonia
Educational Management Academy Tungla 7,
Imantas 7 linija No 1; Riga, LV-1083, Latvia Tartu, EE-51006, Estonia
E-mail: janis.gedrovics@rpiva.lv E-mail: toots@tdl.ee
Phone: +371 29162147 Phone: + 372 7 422241
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Improving Quality of Science
Teacher Training in European
Cooperation
IQST
Number of the contract: 128747-CP-1-2006-1-CZ-Comenius-C21

Project duration: 3 years
The overall aim of the project as well as its specific objectives.
The overall aim is to:
• contribute to the improvement of the quality of initial science teacher training in the participat-
ing countries;
• analyze and compare teacher training program’s, review and develop training modules;
• provide insights into the strategic aspects of teacher training; allow for interchange of ideas
amongst practicing sciences teachers and teacher trainers in an international setting;
• provide a framework for individual to extend and develop relevant elements of his/her own
competence;
• enhance the participants’ knowledge of aspects of European dimension and the principles of
constructivist theory in science teacher training;
The specific objectives are the following:

• To explore and develop new ways of initial training for science teachers based on European
cooperation;
• To establish cooperation and partnership between participating departments;
• To design 5 new modules for science teacher training: Teaching Science for Understanding - a
human constructivist view; Assessing Science for Understanding - a constructivist approach;
European Dimension in Integrated Science Education; Using the Laboratory to Enhance
Student Learning and Scientific Inquiry; Student Learning and the Science Curriculum;
• To implement European dimension in the newly designed modules;
• To introduce new pedagogical methods based on constructivist approach in science teacher
training;
• To design teaching and learning materials for science teaching at initial teacher training;
• To make students training to be teachers and their tutors aware of new pedagogical methods
based on the constructivist approach;
• To present these materials on web site of the project;
• To disseminate the project knowledge and experience on educational conferences and in edu-
cational journals;
• To implement and develop portfolio assessment of prospective science teachers;
• To disseminate successful outcomes by means of designed modules and a collection of training
materials with the best European practice.
All partners will contribute, design to the production of the outputs. Each partner will be respon-
sible for preparation and design of 1 module. Modules will be available in e-learning version and on web
site. Partners will produce modules and training materials which will support learning activities of
students. Production will be distributed among partners. These will be edited as a group at a meeting and
published and disseminated. These modules will be implemented in the teacher training in each institu-
tion. New partnership and learning community will be established under this project between cooperat-
ing institutions. Partners will share experience in using modules and training materials in their initial
science teacher training.
Project coordinator: Project partners:

Palacky University, Czech Republic • Palacky University,
• Siauliai University, NSERC,
Lithuania
Websites: • University of Cyprus, Cyprus
http://www.iqst.upol.cz/part-inst/part-inst-5.html • Plovdiv ‘Paisii Hilendarski’ Uni-
http://www.gutc.su.lt/comenius/comenius_gutc_en.htm versity, Bulgaria
• Ataturk University, Turkey
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SPECIFIC TARGETED RESEARCH OR INNOVATION PROJECT
Augmented
Reality
In
School
Environments
General Information
Project acronym: ARiSE
Project duration: 01.01.2006-31.12.2008
Project Partners:
Fraunhofer IAIS - Competence Center Virtual Environment /Germany/ http://www.iais.fraunhofer.de
National Institute for R&D in Informatics - ICI /Romania/ http://www.ici.ro/
Czech Technical University in Prague /Czechia/ http://www.cvut.cz/Home_en?set_language=en
Siauliai University, Natural Science Education Research Centre /Lithuania/ http://www.gutc.su.lt
AcrossLimits Limited /Malta/ http://www.acrosslimits.com/
Juventa Basic School /Lithuania/ http://siauliai.mok.lt/juventa/
Rabanus-Maurus Gymnasium /Germany/ http://www.rmg-mainz.de
PROJECT WEB-SITE : http://www.arise-project.org/

This project is co-founded by the European Union through the IST programme under FP6 with the
contract number IST-027039.
New teaching platform – “Spinstube”

ARiSE will develop a new technology, the Augmented Reality Teaching Platform (ARTP) by adapting
existing augmented reality (AR) technology for museums to the needs of students in primary and secondary
school classes.
Figure 1. An idea of
Teaching Platform (AR)
prototype
Figure 2. First prototype of

Teaching Platform (AR)
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JBSE
The aim is to create an innovative teaching aid, enabling teachers to develop, with a moderate effort,
new teaching practices for teaching scientific and cultural content to school classes in an easy to comprehend
way. Using 3D presentations and user-friendly interaction techniques will lead to a better understanding
of scientific and cultural content coupled with high student motivation. The students will have the
possibility to interact together with the virtual objects in a virtual shared space provided by an AR display
system and thereby perform learning by doing instead of learning by reading or listening.
Furthermore, the new technology will promote team work, collaboration between classes in the
same school or even remote collaboration between schools in different countries in a learner-centered
approach.
WORK PACKAGES FOR SIAULIAI UNIVERSITY

WP4; Task 4.1: Preparation of design of representative lessons.
WP4; Task 4.2: Conceptual reasoning for didactic of ARiSE.
WP5; Task 5.3: Pedagogical evaluation of the created technology .
WP6; Task 6.2: Analysis of the current teaching situation.
WP7; Task 7.1: Dissemination.
RESULTS OF THE FIRST YEAR

Research was conducted from 8 to 12 November 2006 in AcrossLimits Limited, Malta which is a
dynamic Maltese commercial entity with its roots firmly derived from the new technology and media
sector. The organization went into partnership with project ARiSE and was under obligation to organize
the first summer school. Following the research plan, the learners were surveyed in the summer camp in
Malta. To conduct research, testing, questioning and monitoring were applied.
Figure 3. Learners from Lithuania in the summer camp in Malta
ANNOUNCEMENTS
• International S c i e n t i f i c - C o n f e r e n c e
USING INFORMATION & COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE PROCESS OF SCIENCE
EDUCATION, 5-7 December 2007, Siauliai, Lithuania.
• International S c i e n t i f i c - C o n f e r e n c e
USING INFORMATION & COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE PROCESS OF SCIENCE
EDUCATION, 30/November 03/ December 2008, Siauliai, Lithuania
All necessary information you will find on the Internet site: http://www.iktgu.projektas.lt/indexen.htm
Prepared by Ramunë Navickaitë
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YOU CAN ADD YOUR SUPPORT to the effort of the Editorial Board of JOURNAL OF
BALTIC SCIENCE EDUCATION to transform the journal into a forum for sharing and
discussing ideas and news about science education and presenting experimental and
theoretical aspects of natural science education. We welcome contributions that treat
these subjects in their scientific, historical, cultural, political and social context.
The Journal of Baltic Science Education publishes original scientific research articles
in the field of natural science education and related areas for all educational levels in
the Baltic countries and countries around.
This peer reviewed Journal is indexed and abstracted in: British Education Index,
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Amount of donation
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Associates donate 100 or more ($ or EUR).
Payment Method:
[ ] Check enclosed, payable to SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania; or

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Sudarytojas / Compiled by: Vincentas Lamanauskas

Redaktoriai / Linguistic Editors: Gintaras Vaidogas,
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Dailininkë / Cover design by: Jurgina Jankauskienë
Maketuotojas / Layout design by : Linas Janonis
Kontaktinis asmuo / Contact person: Rytis Vilkonis
2007-03-30. 5,5 leidyb. apsk. l. Tiraþas 300 egz. Reg. Nr. 11-385
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El. paðtas info@lucilijus.lt, tel./faksas 8~41 59 55 18.
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K.J. Vasiliauskas printing-house Lucilijus, http://www.lucilijus.lt
Lyros Str. 14-25, LT-78288 Siauliai, Lithuania.
E-mail: info@lucilijus.lt, tel./fax +370 41 59 55 18.
Printed in Lithuania. Edition - 300 copies.
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Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 6, No.

Published since 2002

Address: Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”

ISSN 1648–3898 © Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“

DEAR READERS AND WRITERS!

PUPILS’ MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT MAMMALS

TRENDS IN WESTERN SCIENCE CURRICULA AND

TURKISH UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS’

A HANDS-ON ACTIVITY TO PROMOTE CONCEPTUAL

DEVELOPING PROSPECTIVE PHYSICS TEACHERS’ SKILLS

EARLY SCIENCE TEACHING IN THE NEW PRIMARY SCHOOL IN SLOVENIA

THE INFLUENCES OF ELEMENTARY SCIENCE TEACHING METHOD COURSES

EXPLANATIONS FOR PHYSICS PHENOMENA GIVEN BY

INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS .............................................................................................. 92

INTERNATIONAL PROJECT “IQST”: HOW TO IMPROVE SCIENCE TEACHERS` TRAINING? .......... 93

INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH PROJECT “ARiSE” ............................................................................ 94

Dear Readers and Writers!

Modern science education as investment to the future

With kind regards!

Prof.dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas

Milan Kubiatko, Pavol Prokop Abstract. A misconception about

Table 1. Basic statistic of questionnaire categories.

Animal classification and phylogeny 7 468 4.2 1.51

Table 2. χ2) between age and answers success.

Category Pearson chi - square p

Animal classification and phylogeny 68.2* 0.00066

Animal classification and phylogeny

Senses, morphology and anatomy

Discussion and conclusion

Animal search: is it a mammal? (2006). Available on the Internet at: http://

ÍÅÏÐÀÂÈËÜÍÛÅ ÏÐÅÄÑÒÀÂËÅÍÈß Ó×ÀÙÈÕÑß Â

Ìèëàí Êóáÿòêî, Ïàâîë Ïðîêîï

Ñòàòüÿ ïîñâÿùåíà âûÿñíåíèþ îòíîøåíèé øêîëüíèêîâ ê ìëåêîïèòàþùèì â ïðîöåññå èçó÷åíèÿ

Received 23 October 2006; accepted 05 February 2007

Onno De Jong Abstract. The present article starts

In the last 50 years, several waves of science education

Trends in Theories that Shaped Science Curricula and Courses

Table 1. Science education reform and influential psychological theories.

Wave of reform Influential theory that shapes Issue of growing interest

• 1960s • Descriptive behaviourism • Programmed instruction

• 1980s • Guided discovery learning • Lab work for school students

• 2000s • Social constructivism • Students’ ways of reasoning

Trends in Topics of Science Education Research

• Students’ conceptions (e.g. about science topics and nature of science)

Trends in Methods of Science Education Research

Trends in Setting and Design of Research

data were used.

Trends in Instruments for Research

Trends in Science Teacher Education

ÎÁÇÎÐ ÒÅÍÄÅÍÖÈÉ ÐÀÇÂÛÒÈß ÎÁÐÀÇÎÂÀÒÅËÜÍÛÕ

Received 12 December 2006; accepted 12 February 2007

Supervisor/Consultant for research in Chemistry

Tacettin Pinarbasi Abstract. This study is aimed at

Table 1. Students’ misconceptions identified through students’ written responses.

pH of pure water (distilled or de-ionised) is always equal to 7 65

pH of a neutral solution is always 7 63

A solution of 10 M HCI has a pH of 8

Neutralization of acid and base always gives a neutral product 35

without referring to the temperature effect on pH values.

R: Could you please define neutral solution?

S: …according to pH=-Log [H+], pH will be 8.

A quotation from another student’s interview is similar:

S: all neutralization reactions result in neutral solution.

R: for a salt, is it possible to be acidic or basic?

“…this is neutralization, and it is clear that this causes neutral products.”

S: …hydrolysis is a compound to be separated of into its ions by water.

S: … if ionization takes place in water, this is called hydrolysis.