UNI

T-I
I

SOFTWAREREQUI
REMENTS

Sessi
on14

Sof
twar
erequi
rement
sar
enecessar
y
 Toi
ntr
oducet
heconcept
sofuserandsy
stem r
equi
rement
s
 Todescr
ibef
unct
ional
andnon-
funct
ional
requi
rement
s
 Toex
plai
nhowsof
twar
erequi
rement
smaybeor
gani
zedi
nar
equi
rement
s
document

Whati
sar
equi
rement
?
 Ther
equi
rement
sfort
hesy
stem ar
ethedescr
ipt
ionoft
heser
vices
pr
ovi
dedbyt
hesy
stem andi
tsoper
ati
onal
const
rai
nts
 I
tmayr
angef
rom ahi
gh-
lev
elabst
ractst
atementofaser
viceorofasy
stem
const
rai
ntt
oadet
ail
edmat
hemat
ical
funct
ional
speci
fi
cat
ion.
 Thi
sisi
nev
itabl
easr
equi
rement
smayser
veadual
funct
ion
 Maybet
hebasi
sforabi
dforacont
ract-t
her
efor
emustbeopent
o
i
nter
pret
ati
on;
 Maybet
hebasi
sfort
hecont
racti
tsel
f-t
her
efor
emustbedef
inedi
n
det
ail
;Bot
hthesest
atement
smaybecal
l
edr
equi
rement
s

Requi
rement
sengi
neer
ing:
 The pr
ocess off
indi
ng out
,anal
ysi
ng document
ing and checki
ng t
hese
ser
vicesandconst
rai
ntsi
scal
l
edr
equi
rementengi
neer
ing.
 Thepr
ocessofest
abl
i
shi
ngt
heser
vicest
hatt
hecust
omerr
equi
resf
rom a
sy
stem andt
heconst
rai
ntsunderwhi
chi
toper
atesandi
sdev
eloped.
 Ther
equi
rement
sthemsel
vesar
ethedescr
ipt
ionsoft
hesy
stem ser
vicesand
const
rai
ntst
hatar
egener
ateddur
ingt
her
equi
rement
sengi
neer
ingpr
ocess.
Requi
rement
sabst
ract
ion(
Dav
is)
:

I
facompanywi
shest
oletacont
ractf
oral
argesof
twar
edev
elopmentpr
oject
,itmust
def
inei
tsneedsi
nasuf
fi
cient
lyabst
ractwayt
hatasol
uti
oni
snotpr
e-def
ined.The
r
equi
rement
smustbewr
it
tensot
hatsev
eralcont
ract
orscanbi
dfort
hecont
ract
,
of
fer
ing,per
haps,di
ff
erentway
sofmeet
ingt
hecl
i
entor
gani
zat
ion’
sneeds.Oncea
cont
racthasbeenawar
ded,
thecont
ract
ormustwr
it
easy
stem def
ini
ti
onf
ort
hecl
i
ent
i
nmor
edet
ail
sot
hatt
hecl
i
entunder
standsandcanv
ali
dat
ewhatt
hesof
twar
ewi
l
ldo.
Bot
hoft
hesedocument
smaybecal
l
edt
her
equi
rement
sdocumentf
ort
hesy
stem.
”
Ty
pesofr
equi
rement
:
 Userr
equi
rement
s
St
atement
sinnat
urall
anguagepl
usdi
agr
amsoft
heser
vicest
hesy
stem pr
ovi
desand
i
tsoper
ati
onal
const
rai
nts.Wr
it
tenf
orcust
omer
s.
 Sy
stem r
equi
rement
s
A st
ruct
ureddocumentset
ti
ngoutdet
ail
eddescr
ipt
ionsoft
hesy
stem’
sfunct
ions,
ser
vicesandoper
ati
onalconst
rai
nts.Def
ineswhatshoul
dbei
mpl
ement
edsomaybe
par
tofacont
ractbet
weencl
i
entandcont
ract
or.
Sy
stem Requi
rementspeci
fi
cat
ion:
 Theusershoul
dbepr
ovi
dedwi
thf
aci
l
iti
est
odef
inet
het
ypeofext
ernal
fil
es.
 Eachext
ernalf
il
ety
pemayhav
eanassoci
atedt
oolwhi
chmaybeappl
i
edt
othe
f
il
e.
 Eachex
ter
nal
fil
ety
pemayber
epr
esent
edasaspeci
fi
ciconont
heuser
’sdi
spl
ay.
 Faci
l
iti
esshoul
dbepr
ovi
dedf
ort
hei
conr
epr
esent
inganext
ernalf
il
ety
pet
o
bedef
inedby
theuser
.
 Whenanusersel
ect
sani
conr
epr
esent
inganext
ernalf
il
e,t
heef
fectoft
hat
sel
ect
ioni
stoappl
ythet
oolassoci
atedwi
tht
het
ypeoft
heext
ernalf
il
eto
t
hef
il
erepr
esent
edbyt
hesel
ect
edi
con.

Requi
rement
sreader
s:

Fi
gur
e2.
1:Sof
twar
eRequi
rement
s
 1. Func
2. t
ional
andnon-
funct
ional
requi
rement
s:

Funct
ionalr
equi
rement
s

• St
atement
sofser
vicest
hesy
stem shoul
dpr
ovi
dehowt
hesy
stem shoul
dreactt
o
par
ti
cul
ari
nput
sandhowt
hesy
stem shoul
dbehav
einpar
ti
cul
arsi
tuat
ions.
Non-
funct
ionalr
equi
rement
s
• Const
rai
ntsont
heser
vicesorf
unct
ionsof
fer
edbyt
hesy
stem suchast
imi
ng
const
rai
nts,
const
rai
ntsont
hedev
elopmentpr
ocess,
standar
ds,
etc.
Domai
nrequi
rement
s
• Requi
rement
sthatcomef
rom t
heappl
i
cat
iondomai
noft
hesy
stem andt
hatr
efl
ect
char
act
eri
sti
csoft
hatdomai
n.

FUNCTI
ONALREQUI
REMENTS:
 Descr
ibef
unct
ional
i
tyorsy
stem ser
vices.
 Dependont
het
ypeofsof
twar
e,expect
eduser
sandt
het
ypeofsy
stem wher
e
t
hesof
twar
eisused.
 Funct
ional
userr
equi
rement
smaybehi
gh-
lev
elst
atement
sofwhatt
hesy
stem
shoul
ddobutf
unct
ional
syst
em r
equi
rement
sshoul
ddescr
ibet
hesy
stem
ser
vicesi
ndet
ail
.
Thef
unct
ional
requi
rement
sforTheLI
BSYSsy
stem:

 Al
i
brar
ysy
stem t
hatpr
ovi
desasi
ngl
eint
erf
acet
oanumberofdat
abasesof
ar
ti
cl
esi
ndi
ff
erentl
i
brar
ies.
 User
scansear
chf
or,
downl
oadandpr
intt
hesear
ti
clesf
orper
sonal
study
.

Exampl
esoff
unct
ionalr
equi
rement
s
 Theusershal
lbeabl
etosear
chei
theral
loft
hei
nit
ial
setofdat
abasesorsel
ect
asubsetf
rom i
t.
 Thesy
stem shal
lpr
ovi
deappr
opr
iat
evi
ewer
sfort
heusert
oreaddocument
sin
t
hedocumentst
ore.
 Ever
yor
dershal
lbeal
l
ocat
edauni
quei
dent
if
ier(
ORDER_
ID)whi
cht
heusershal
l
beabl
etocopyt
otheaccount
’sper
manentst
oragear
ea.
Requi
rement
simpr
eci
sion
 Pr
obl
emsar
isewhenr
equi
rement
sar
enotpr
eci
sel
yst
ated.
 Ambi
guousr
equi
rement
smaybei
nter
pret
edi
ndi
ff
erentway
sbydev
eloper
sand
user
s.
 Consi
dert
het
erm‘
appr
opr
iat
evi
ewer
s’
o Useri
ntent
ion-speci
alpur
posev
iewerf
oreachdi
ff
erentdocumentt
ype;
o Devel
operi
nter
pret
ati
on-Pr
ovi
deat
extv
iewert
hatshowst
hecont
ent
soft
he
document
.

Requi
rement
scompl
etenessandconsi
stency
:
I
npr
inci
ple,
requi
rement
sshoul
dbebot
hcompl
eteandconsi
stent
.Compl
ete

 Theyshoul
dincl
udedescr
ipt
ionsofal
lfaci
l
iti
esr
equi
red.Consi
stent

 Ther
eshoul
dbenoconf
li
ctsorcont
radi
cti
onsi
nthedescr
ipt
ionsoft
hesy
stem
f
aci
l
iti
es.I
npr
act
ice,
iti
simpossi
blet
opr
oduceacompl
eteandconsi
stent
r
equi
rement
sdocument
.

Non-
Funct
ionalRequi
rement
s

 Thesedef
inesy
stem pr
oper
ti
esandconst
rai
ntse.
g.r
eli
abi
l
ity
,responset
imeand
st
orager
equi
rement
s.Const
rai
ntsar
eI/
Odev
icecapabi
l
ity
,sy
stem
r
epr
esent
ati
ons,
etc.
 Pr
ocessr
equi
rement
smayal
sobespeci
fi
edmandat
ingapar
ti
cul
arCASE
sy
stem,
progr
ammi
ngl
anguageordev
elopmentmet
hod.
 Non-
funct
ional
requi
rement
smaybemor
ecr
it
ical
thanf
unct
ional
requi
rement
s.
I
fthesear
enotmet
,thesy
stem i
susel
ess.
 Non-
funct
ionalr
equi
rementt
ypes:

Fi
gur
e2.
2:NonFunct
ional
Requi
rement
s

Non-
funct
ionalr
equi
rement
s:

Pr
oductr
equi
rement
s

•Requi
rement
swhi
chspeci
fyt
hatt
hedel
i
ver
edpr
oductmustbehav
einapar
ti
cul
arway
e.
g.execut
ionspeed,
rel
i
abi
l
ity
,et
c.
•Eg:
Theuseri
nter
facef
orLI
BSYS shal
lbei
mpl
ement
edassi
mpl
eHTMLwi
thout
f
rames orJav
aappl
ets.

Or
gani
zat
ionalr
equi
rement
s
 • Requi
rement
swhi
char
eaconsequenceofor
gani
sat
ionalpol
i
ciesandpr
ocedur
es
e.
g.pr
ocessst
andar
dsused,
impl
ement
ati
onr
equi
rement
s,et
c.
• Eg:Thesy
stem dev
elopmentpr
ocess anddel
i
ver
abl
edocument
sshal
lconf
orm
t
othepr
ocessanddel
i
ver
abl
esdef
inedi
nXYZCo-
SP-
STAN-
95.

er
nalr
equi
rement
s
• Requi
rement
swhi
char
isef
rom f
act
orswhi
char
eext
ernalt
othesy
stem andi
ts
dev
elopmentpr
ocesse.
g.i
nter
oper
abi
l
ityr
equi
rement
s,l
egi
slat
iver
equi
rement
s,et
c.
• Eg:Thesy
stem shal
lnotdi
scl
oseanyper
sonali
nfor
mat
ionaboutcust
omer
sapar
t
f
rom t
hei
rnameandr
efer
encenumbert
otheoper
ator
soft
hesy
stem.
Goal
sandr
equi
rement
s:
 Non-
funct
ionalr
equi
rement
smaybev
erydi
ff
icul
ttost
atepr
eci
sel
yandi
mpr
eci
se
r
equi
rement
smaybedi
ff
icul
ttov
eri
fy.
 Goal
- Agener
ali
ntent
ionoft
heusersuchaseaseofuse.
- Thesy
stem shoul
dbeeasyt
ousebyexper
iencedcont
rol
l
ersandshoul
dbe
or
gani
sedi
nsuchawayt
hatuserer
ror
sar
emi
nimi
sed.
 Ver
if
iabl
enon-
funct
ional
requi
rement
- Ast
atementusi
ngsomemeasur
ethatcanbeobj
ect
ivel
ytest
ed.
- Exper
iencedcont
rol
l
ersshal
lbeabl
etouseal
lthesy
stem f
unct
ionsaf
terat
otal
of
t
wo hour
str
aini
ng.Af
tert
hist
rai
ning,t
he av
erage numberofer
ror
s made by
exper
ienceduser
sshal
lnotexceedt
woperday
.
 Goal
sar
ehel
pful
todev
eloper
sast
heyconv
eyt
hei
ntent
ionsoft
hesy
stem user
s.

Tabl
e2.
1:Requi
rement
smeasur
es

Requi
rement
smeasur
es:

Proper
ty Measur e
Speed Pr ocessed
transacti
ons/second User
/Ev
ent
responset i
meScr eenr
efr
eshti
me
 Si
ze M Bytes
NumberofROM chi ps
Easeofuse Trai
ningt i
me
Numberofhel pframes
Rel
i
abi
l
ity Mean t ime tofail
ure Pr
obabi
l
ityof
unavailabi
li
ty Rat e of f ai
lur
e
occurrenceAvai
l
abili
ty

Robust
ness Ti
met orest
artaf
terfail
ure
Percentageofeventscausingf
ail
ure
Probabil
it
yofdatacor r
upti
ononfail
ure

Por
tabi
l
ity Per
cent
ageoftargetdependentst
atement
s
Numberoft
argetsystems

Requi
rement
sint
eract
ion:

 Conf
li
ctsbet
weendi
ff
erentnon-
funct
ionalr
equi
rement
sar
ecommoni
ncompl
ex
sy
stems.
 Spacecr
aftsy
stem
 Tomi
nimi
sewei
ght
,thenumberofsepar
atechi
psi
nthesy
stem shoul
dbemi
nimi
sed.
 Tomi
nimi
sepowerconsumpt
ion,
lowerpowerchi
psshoul
dbeused.
 Howev
er,usi
ngl
ow powerchi
psmaymeant
hatmor
echi
pshav
etobeused.
Whi
chi
sthemostcr
it
ical
requi
rement
?
Acommonpr
obl
em wi
thnon-
funct
ionalr
equi
rement
sist
hatt
heycanbedi
ff
icul
tto
v
eri
fy.User
sorcust
omer
sof
tenst
atet
heser
equi
rement
sasgener
algoal
ssuchas
easeofuse,t
heabi
l
ityoft
hesy
stem t
orecov
erf
rom f
ail
ureorr
api
duserr
esponse.
Thesev
aguegoal
scausepr
obl
emsf
orsy
stem dev
eloper
sast
heyl
eav
escopef
or
i
nter
pret
ati
onandsubsequentdi
sput
eoncet
hesy
stem i
sdel
i
ver
ed.

Domai
nRequi
rement
s
 Der
ivedf
rom t
heappl
i
cat
iondomai
nanddescr
ibesy
stem char
act
eri
sti
csand
f
eat
urest
hatr
efl
ectt
hedomai
n.
 Domai
nrequi
rement
sbenew f
unct
ionalr
equi
rement
s,const
rai
ntsonex
ist
ing
r
equi
rement
sordef
inespeci
fi
ccomput
ati
ons.
I
fdomai
nrequi
rement
sar
enotsat
isf
ied,
thesy
stem maybeunwor
kabl
e.
Li
brar
ysy
stem domai
nrequi
rement
s:
 Ther
eshal
lbeast
andar
duseri
nter
facet
oal
ldat
abaseswhi
chshal
lbebasedon
t
heZ39.
50st
andar
d.
 Becauseofcopy
rightr
est
ri
cti
ons,somedocument
smustbedel
etedi
mmedi
atel
y
onar
ri
val
.Dependi
ngont
heuser
’sr
equi
rement
s,t
hesedocument
swi
l
lei
therbe
pr
int
edl
ocal
l
yont
hesy
stem ser
verf
ormanual
l
yfor
war
dingt
otheuserorr
out
edt
o
anet
wor
kpr
int
er.

Domai
nrequi
rement
spr
obl
emsUnder
standabi
li
ty
Requi
rement
sar
eexpr
essedi
nthel
anguageoft
heappl
i
cat
iondomai
n;
Thi
sisof
tennotunder
stoodbysof
twar
eengi
neer
sdev
elopi
ngt
hesy
stem.
I
mpl
ici
tness
Domai
nspeci
ali
stsunder
standt
hear
easowel
lthatt
heydonott
hinkofmaki
ng
t
hedomai
nrequi
rement
sexpl
i
cit
.

Sessi
on15

2.
2. UserRequi
rement
s
 Shoul
ddescr
ibef
unct
ionalandnon-
funct
ionalr
equi
rement
sinsuchawayt
hat
t
hey ar
e under
standabl
e by sy
stem user
s who don’
t hav
e det
ail
ed
t
echni
cal
knowl
edge.
 Userr
equi
rement
sar
edef
inedusi
ngnat
urall
anguage,t
abl
esanddi
agr
amsas
t
hesecanbeunder
stoodbyal
luser
s.

Pr
obl
emswi
thnat
urall
anguage
Lackofcl
ari
ty
 Pr
eci
sioni
sdi
ff
icul
twi
thoutmaki
ngt
hedocumentdi
ff
icul
ttor
ead.
Requi
rement
sconf
usi
on

Funct
ionalandnon-
funct
ionalr
equi
rement
stendt
obemi
xed-
up.Requi
rement
s
amal
gamat
ion
Sev
eral
dif
fer
entr
equi
rement
smaybeexpr
essedt
oget
her
.

Requi
rementpr
obl
ems
Dat
abaser
equi
rement
sincl
udesbot
hconcept
ual
anddet
ail
edi
nfor
mat
ion
 Descr
ibest
heconceptofaf
inanci
alaccount
ingsy
stem t
hati
stobei
ncl
udedi
n
LI
BSYS;
 Howev
er,i
tal
soi
ncl
udest
hedet
ailt
hatmanager
scanconf
igur
ethi
ssy
stem -
t
hisi
sunnecessar
yatt
hisl
evel
.
 Gr
idr
equi
rementmi
xest
hreedi
ff
erentki
ndsofr
equi
rement
 Concept
ual
funct
ional
requi
rement(
theneedf
oragr
id)
;
 Non-
funct
ional
requi
rement(
gri
duni
ts)
;
 Non-
funct
ional
UIr
equi
rement(
gri
dswi
tchi
ng)
.
 St
ruct
uredpr
esent
ati
on
Gui
del
inesf
orwr
it
ingr
equi
rement
s
I
nventast
andar
dfor
matandusei
tforal
lrequi
rement
s.
 Usel
anguagei
naconsi
stentway
.Useshal
lformandat
oryr
equi
rement
s,shoul
d
f
ordesi
rabl
erequi
rement
s.
 Uset
exthi
ghl
i
ght
ingt
oident
if
ykeypar
tsoft
her
equi
rement
.
 Av
oidt
heuseofcomput
erj
argon.

Sessi
on16

2.
3. Sy
stem Requi
rement
s

 Mor
edet
ail
edspeci
fi
cat
ionsofsy
stem f
unct
ions,ser
vicesandconst
rai
ntst
han
userr
equi
rement
s.
 Theyar
eint
endedt
obeabasi
sfordesi
gni
ngt
hesy
stem.
 Theymaybei
ncor
por
atedi
ntot
hesy
stem cont
ract
.
 Sy
stem r
equi
rement
smaybedef
inedori
l
lust
rat
edusi
ngsy
stem model
s

Requi
rement
sanddesi
gn
I
npr
inci
ple,r
equi
rement
sshoul
dst
atewhatt
hesy
stem shoul
ddoandt
hedesi
gn
shoul
ddescr
ibehowi
tdoest
his.
I
npr
act
ice,
requi
rement
sanddesi
gnar
einsepar
abl
e
 Asy
stem ar
chi
tect
uremaybedesi
gnedt
ost
ruct
uret
her
equi
rement
s;
  The sy
stem may i
nter
-oper
ate wi
th ot
her sy
stems t
hat gener
ate desi
gn
r
equi
rement
s;
 Theuseofaspeci
fi
cdesi
gnmaybeadomai
nrequi
rement
.

Pr
obl
emswi
thNL(
nat
urall
anguage)speci
fi
cat
ion
Ambi
gui
ty
 Ther
eader
sandwr
it
ersoft
her
equi
rementmusti
nter
prett
hesamewor
dsi
nthe
sameway
.NLi
snat
ural
l
yambi
guoussot
hisi
sver
ydi
ff
icul
t.
 Ov
er-
fl
exi
bil
i
ty

Thesamet
hingmaybesai
dinanumberofdi
ff
erentway
sint
hespeci
fi
cat
ion.
Lackofmodul
ari
zat
ion
NLst
ruct
uresar
einadequat
etost
ruct
uresy
stem r
equi
rement
s.

Tabl
e2.
2:Al
ter
nat
ivest
oNLspeci
fi
cat
ion

Al
ter
nat
ivest
oNLspeci
fi
cat
ion:

Not
ati
on Descr
ipt
ion

St
ruct
ure Thi
sappr
oachdependsondef
ini
ngst
andar
dfor
msor
dnat
ural t
empl
atest
oex
presst
her
equi
rement
sspeci
fi
cat
ion.
l
anguage

Desi
gn Thi
sappr
oachusesal
anguagel
i
keapr
ogr
ammi
ngl
anguage
descr
ipt
io butwi
thmor
eabst
ractf
eat
urest
ospeci
fyt
her
equi
rement
sby
n def
ini
nganoper
ati
onalmodeloft
hesy
stem.Thi
sappr
oachi
s
l
anguage notnowwi
del
yusedal
thoughi
tcanbeusef
ulf
ori
nter
face
s speci
fi
cat
ions.

Gr
aphi
ca Agr
aphi
call
anguage,suppl
ement
edbyt
extannot
ati
onsi
s
l usedt
odef
inet
hef
unct
ionalr
equi
rement
sfort
hesy
stem.
not
ati
on Anear
lyexampl
eofsuchagr
aphi
call
anguagewasSADT.
s Now,use-
case descr
ipt
ions and sequence di
agr
ams ar
e
 commonl
yused.

Mat
hemat
ic Thesear
enot
ati
onsbasedonmat
hemat
icalconcept
ssuch
al as f
ini
te-st
ate machi
nes orset
s.These unambi
guous
speci
fi
cat
io speci
fi
cat
ionsr
educet
hear
gument
sbet
weencust
omerand
ns cont
ract
or about sy
stem f
unct
ional
i
ty. Howev
er,most
cust
omer
sdon’
tunder
standf
ormalspeci
fi
cat
ionsandar
e
r
eluct
antt
oaccepti
tasasy
stem cont
ract
.

St
ruct
uredl
anguagespeci
fi
cat
ions
Thef
reedom oft
her
equi
rement
swr
it
eri
sli
mit
edbyapr
edef
inedt
empl
atef
or

r
equi
rement
s.
Al
lrequi
rement
sar
ewr
it
teni
nast
andar
dway
.
Thet
ermi
nol
ogyusedi
nthedescr
ipt
ionmaybel
i
mit
ed.
Theadv
ant
agei
sthatt
hemostoft
heexpr
essi
venessofnat
ural
languagei
s
mai
ntai
nedbutadegr
eeofuni
for
mit
yisi
mposedont
hespeci
fi
cat
ion.

For
m-basedspeci
fi
cat
ions
Def
ini
ti
onoft
hef
unct
ionorent
it
y.
Descr
ipt
ionofi
nput
sandwher
etheycomef
rom.
Descr
ipt
ionofout
put
sandwher
etheygot
o.
I
ndi
cat
ionofot
herent
it
iesr
equi
red.
Pr
eandpostcondi
ti
ons(
ifappr
opr
iat
e).
Thesi
deef
fect
s(i
fany
)oft
hef
unct
ion.

Tabul
arspeci
fi
cat
ion
 Usedt
osuppl
ementnat
ural
language.
 Par
ti
cul
arl
yusef
ulwheny
ouhav
etodef
ineanumberofpossi
bleal
ter
nat
ive
cour
sesofact
ion.
Gr
aphi
calmodel
s
Gr
aphi
cal
model
sar
emostusef
ulwheny
ouneedt
oshowhowst
atechangesor
wher
eyouneedt
odescr
ibeasequenceofact
ions.

Sequencedi
agr
ams
Theseshowt
hesequenceofev
ent
sthatt
akepl
acedur
ingsomeuseri
nter
act
ion
wi
thasy
stem.
Your
eadt
hem f
rom t
opt
obot
tom t
oseet
heor
deroft
heact
ionst
hatt
akepl
ace.
Cashwi
thdr
awal
from anATM
Val
i
dat
ecar
d;
Handl
erequest
;
Compl
etet
ransact
ion.

Sequencedi
agr
am ofATM wi
thdr
awal

Fi
gur
e2.
3:ATM SequenceDi
agr
am

Sy
stem r
equi
rementspeci
fi
cat
ionusi
ngast
andar
dfor
m:
 Funct
ion
Descr
ipt
ion
I
nput
s
Sour
ce
Out
put
s
Dest
inat
ion
Act
ion
Requi
res
Pr
e-condi
ti
on
Post
-condi
ti
on
Si
de-
eff
ect
s
Whenast
andar
dfor
misusedf
orspeci
fyi
ngf
unct
ional
requi
rement
s,t
hef
oll
owi
ng
i
nfor
mat
ionshoul
dbei
ncl
uded:
Descr
ipt
ionoft
hef
unct
ionorent
it
ybei
ngspeci
fi
ed
Descr
ipt
ionofi
tsi
nput
sandwher
ethesecomef
rom
Descr
ipt
ionofi
tsout
put
sandwher
ethesegot
o
I
ndi
cat
ionofwhatot
herent
it
iesar
eused
Descr
ipt
ionoft
heact
iont
obet
aken
I
faf
unct
ionalappr
oachi
sused,apr
e-condi
ti
onset
ti
ngoutwhatmustbet
rue
bef
oret
hef
unct
ioni
scal
l
edandapost
-condi
ti
onspeci
fyi
ngwhati
str
ueaf
tert
he
f
unct
ioni
scal
l
edDescr
ipt
ionoft
hesi
deef
fect
soft
heoper
ati
on.

Sessi
on17-
18

4. I
2. nter
faceSpeci
fi
cat
ion
 Mostsy
stemsmustoper
atewi
thot
hersy
stemsandt
heoper
ati
ngi
nter
faces
mustbespeci
fi
edaspar
toft
her
equi
rement
s.
Thr
eet
ypesofi
nter
facemayhav
etobedef
ined
 Pr
ocedur
ali
nter
faceswher
eexi
sti
ngpr
ogr
amsorsub-
syst
emsof
ferar
ange
ofser
vicest
hatar
eaccessedbycal
l
ingi
nter
facepr
ocedur
es.Thesei
nter
facesar
e
somet
imescal
l
edAppl
i
cat
inPr
ogr
ammi
ngI
nter
faces(
API
s)
 Dat
ast
ruct
urest
hatar
eexchangedt
hatar
epassedf
rom onesub-
syst
em t
o
anot
her
.Gr
aphi
cal
dat
amodel
sar
ethebestnot
ati
onsf
ort
hist
ypeofdescr
ipt
ion
 Dat
arepr
esent
ati
onst
hathav
ebeenest
abl
i
shedf
oranexi
sti
ngsub-
syst
em
 For
mal
not
ati
onsar
eanef
fect
ivet
echni
quef
ori
nter
facespeci
fi
cat
ion.

5. Thes
2. of
twar
erequi
rement
sdocument
:
 Ther
equi
rement
sdocumenti
stheof
fi
cial
stat
ementofwhati
srequi
redoft
he
sy
stem dev
eloper
s.
 Shoul
dincl
udebot
hadef
ini
ti
onofuserr
equi
rement
sandaspeci
fi
cat
ionoft
he
sy
stem r
equi
rement
s.
I
tisNOTadesi
gndocument
.Asf
araspossi
ble,
itshoul
dsetofWHATt
he
sy
stem shoul
ddor
athert
hanHOW i
tshoul
ddoi
t

User
sofar
equi
rement
sdocument
:

Fi
gur
e2.
4:Sof
twar
eRequi
rementDocument

I
EEEr
equi
rement
sst
andar
ddef
inesagener
icst
ruct
uref
orar
equi
rement
sdocument
t
hatmustbei
nst
ant
iat
edf
oreachspeci
fi
csy
stem.

 I
ntr
oduct
ion.
o Pur
poseoft
her
equi
rement
sdocument
o Scopeoft
hepr
oject
o Def
ini
ti
ons,
acr
ony
msandabbr
evi
ati
ons
o Ref
erences
 o Ov
erv
iewoft
her
emai
nderoft
hedocument
 Gener
aldescr
ipt
ion.
o Pr
oductper
spect
ive
o Pr
oductf
unct
ions
o Userchar
act
eri
sti
cs
o Gener
alconst
rai
nts
o Assumpt
ionsanddependenci
es
 Speci
fi
c r
equi
rement
s cov
er f
unct
ional
, non-
funct
ional and i
nter
face
r
equi
rement
s.Ther
equi
rement
smaydocumentext
ernali
nter
faces,descr
ibe
sy
stem f
unct
ional
i
tyandper
for
mance,speci
fyl
ogi
caldat
abaser
equi
rement
s,
desi
gnconst
rai
nts,
emer
gentsy
stem pr
oper
ti
esandqual
i
tychar
act
eri
sti
cs.
 Appendi
ces.
 I
ndex.

6. Requi
2. rement
sEngi
neer
ingPr
ocesses
Thegoalofr
equi
rement
sengi
neer
ingpr
ocessi
stocr
eat
eandmai
ntai
nasy
stem
r
equi
rement
sdocument
.Theov
eral
lpr
ocessi
ncl
udesf
ourhi
gh-
lev
elr
equi
rement
engi
neer
ingsub-
processes.Thesear
econcer
nedwi
th
 Assessi
ngwhet
hert
hesy
stem i
susef
ult
othebusi
ness(
feasi
bil
i
tyst
udy
)
 Di
scov
eri
ngr
equi
rement
s(el
i
cit
ati
onandanal
ysi
s)
 Conv
ert
ingt
heser
equi
rement
sint
osomest
andar
dfor
m(speci
fi
cat
ion)
 Checki
ngt
hatt
her
equi
rement
sact
ual
l
ydef
inet
hesy
stem t
hatt
hecust
omer
want
s(v
ali
dat
ion)Thepr
ocessofmanagi
ngt
hechangesi
nther
equi
rement
sis
cal
l
edRequi
rementmanagement
.
Ther
equi
rement
sengi
neer
ingpr
ocess

Fi
gur
e2.
5:Requi
rement
sEngi
neer
ingPr
ocess

Requi
rement
sengi
neer
ing:

Theal
ter
nat
iveper
spect
iveont
her
equi
rement
sengi
neer
ingpr
ocesspr
esent
s
t
hepr
ocessasat
hree-
stageact
ivi
tywher
etheact
ivi
ti
esar
eor
gani
zedasani
ter
ati
vepr
ocess
ar
oundaspi
ral
.Theamountoft
imeandef
for
tdev
otedt
oeachact
ivi
tyi
nit
erat
iondependson
t
hest
ageoft
heov
eral
lpr
ocessandt
het
ypeofsy
stem bei
ngdev
eloped.Ear
lyi
nthepr
ocess,
mostef
for
twi
l
lbespentonunder
standi
nghi
gh-
lev
elbusi
nessandnon-
funct
ionalr
equi
rement
s
andt
heuserr
equi
rement
s.Lat
eri
nthepr
ocess,
int
heout
err
ingsoft
hespi
ral
,mor
eef
for
twi
l
l
bedev
otedt
osy
stem r
equi
rement
sengi
neer
ingandsy
stemmodel
i
ng.

Thi
s spi
ral model accommodat
es appr
oaches t
o dev
elopment i
n whi
ch t
he
r
equi
rement
sar
edev
elopedt
odi
ff
erentl
evel
sofdet
ail
.Thenumberofi
ter
ati
ons
ar
oundt
hespi
ralcanv
ary
,sot
hespi
ralcanbeexi
tedaf
tersomeoral
loft
heuser
r
equi
rement
shav
ebeenel
i
cit
ed.

Some peopl
e consi
derr
equi
rement
s engi
neer
ing t
o be t
he pr
ocessofappl
yi
ng a
st
ruct
uredanal
ysi
smet
hodsuchasobj
ect
-or
ient
edanal
ysi
s.Thi
sinv
olv
esanal
yzi
ng
t
hesy
stem anddev
elopi
ngasetofgr
aphi
calsy
stem model
s,suchasuse-
casemodel
s,
t
hatt
henser
veasasy
stem speci
fi
cat
ion.
Thesetofmodel
sdescr
ibest
hebehav
ioroft
hesy
stem andar
eannot
atedwi
th
addi
ti
onali
nfor
mat
ion descr
ibi
ng,f
orexampl
e,i
tsr
equi
red per
for
mance or
r
eli
abi
l
ity
.

Spi
ralmodelofr
equi
rement
sengi
neer
ingpr
ocesses

Fi
gur
e2.
6:Spi
ral
model
ofr
equi
rement
sengi
neer
ingpr
ocesses

Sessi
on19-
20

2.
6.1. Feasi
bil
it
ySt
udi
es

Af
easi
bil
it
yst
udydeci
deswhet
herornott
hepr
oposedsy
stem i
swor
thwhi
le.The
i
nputt
othef
easi
bil
i
tyst
udyi
sasetofpr
eli
minar
ybusi
nessr
equi
rement
s,anout
li
ne
descr
ipt
ionoft
hesy
stem andhowt
hesy
stem i
sint
endedt
osuppor
tbusi
ness
pr
ocesses.Ther
esul
tsoft
he

f
easi
bil
i
tyst
udyshoul
dbear
epor
tthatr
ecommendswhet
herornoti
twor
th
car
ryi
ngonwi
tht
her
equi
rement
sengi
neer
ingandsy
stem dev
elopmentpr
ocess.
 Ashor
tfocusedst
udyt
hatchecks
 I
fthesy
stem cont
ri
but
est
oor
gani
zat
ional
obj
ect
ives;
 I
fthesy
stem canbeengi
neer
edusi
ngcur
rentt
echnol
ogyandwi
thi
nbudget
;
 I
fthesy
stem canbei
ntegr
atedwi
thot
hersy
stemst
hatar
eused.

Feasi
bil
it
yst
udyi
mpl
ement
ati
on:
 Af
easi
bil
i
tyst
udyi
nvol
vesi
nfor
mat
ionassessment
,inf
ormat
ioncol
l
ect
ionand
r
epor
twr
it
ing.
 Quest
ionsf
orpeopl
eint
heor
gani
zat
ion
 Whati
fthesy
stem wasn’
timpl
ement
ed?
 Whatar
ecur
rentpr
ocesspr
obl
ems?
 Howwi
l
lthepr
oposedsy
stem hel
p?
 Whatwi
l
lbet
hei
ntegr
ati
onpr
obl
ems?
 I
snewt
echnol
ogyneeded?Whatski
l
ls?
 Whatf
aci
l
iti
esmustbesuppor
tedbyt
hepr
oposedsy
stem?

I
naf
easi
bil
i
tyst
udy
,youmayconsul
tinf
ormat
ionsour
cessuchast
hemanager
sof
t
he depar
tment
swher
ethesy
stem wi
l
lbe used,sof
twar
e engi
neer
swho ar
e
f
ami
l
iarwi
tht
het
ypeofsy
stem t
hati
spr
oposed,
technol
ogyexper
tsandend-
user
s
oft
hesy
stem.Theyshoul
dtr
ytocompl
eteaf
easi
bil
i
tyst
udyi
ntwoort
hreeweeks.
Oncey
ouhav
ethei
nfor
mat
ion,y
ouwr
it
ethef
easi
bil
i
tyst
udyr
epor
t.Youshoul
d
makear
ecommendat
ionaboutwhet
herornott
hesy
stem dev
elopmentshoul
d
cont
inue.I
nther
epor
t,y
oumaypr
oposechangest
othescope,
budgetandschedul
e
oft
hesy
stem andsuggestf
urt
herhi
gh-
lev
elr
equi
rement
sfort
hesy
stem.

2.
7. Requi
rementEl
ici
tat
ionAndAnal
ysi
s:

Ther
equi
rementengi
neer
ingpr
ocessi
srequi
rement
sel
i
cit
ati
onandanal
ysi
s.
 Somet
imescal
l
edr
equi
rement
sel
i
cit
ati
onorr
equi
rement
sdi
scov
ery
.

 I
nvol
vest
echni
calst
affwor
kingwi
thcust
omer
stof
indoutaboutt
heappl
i
cat
ion
domai
n,t
heser
vicest
hatt
hesy
stem shoul
dpr
ovi
deandt
hesy
stem’
soper
ati
onal
const
rai
nts.
 Mayi
nvol
veend-
user
s,manager
s,engi
neer
sinv
olv
edi
nmai
ntenance,domai
n
exper
ts,
tradeuni
ons,
etc.Thesear edst
ecal
l akehol
der
s.

Pr
obl
emsofr
equi
rement
sanal
ysi
s
 St
akehol
der
sdon’
tknowwhatt
heyr
eal
l
ywant
.
 St
akehol
der
sexpr
essr
equi
rement
sint
hei
rownt
erms.
 Di
ff
erentst
akehol
der
smayhav
econf
li
cti
ngr
equi
rement
s.
 Or
gani
sat
ional
andpol
i
tical
fact
orsmayi
nfl
uencet
hesy
stem r
equi
rement
s.
 Ther
equi
rement
schangedur
ingt
heanal
ysi
spr
ocess.Newst
akehol
der
smay
emer
geandt
hebusi
nessenv
ironmentchange.

Ther
equi
rement
sspi
ral

Fi
gur
e2.
7:Requi
rementSpi
ral
Pr
ocessact
ivi
ti
es

 Requi
rement
sdi
scov
ery
o I
nter
act
ingwi
thst
akehol
der
stodi
scov
ert
hei
rrequi
rement
s.Domai
n
r
equi
rement
sar
eal
sodi
scov
eredatt
hisst
age.
 Requi
rement
scl
assi
fi
cat
ionandor
gani
sat
ion
o Gr
oupsr
elat
edr
equi
rement
sandor
gani
sest
hem i
ntocoher
entcl
ust
ers.
 Pr
ior
it
izat
ionandnegot
iat
ion
o Pr
ior
it
isi
ngr
equi
rement
sandr
esol
vi
ngr
equi
rement
sconf
li
cts.
 Requi
rement
sdocument
ati
on
o Requi
rement
sar
edocument
edandi
nputi
ntot
henextr
oundoft
hespi
ral
.
o
Thepr
ocesscy
clest
art
swi
thr
equi
rement
sdi
scov
eryandendswi
thr
equi
rement
s
document
ati
on.Theanal
yst
’sunder
standi
ngoft
her
equi
rement
simpr
oveswi
theach
r
oundoft
hecy
cle.
Requi
rement
s cl
assi
fi
cat
ion and or
gani
zat
ion i
s pr
imar
il
y concer
ned wi
thi
dent
if
ying
ov
erl
appi
ngr
equi
rement
sfr
om di
ff
erentst
akehol
der
sandgr
oupi
ngr
elat
edr
equi
rement
s.
The mostcommon wayofgr
oupi
ng r
equi
rement
sist
o use a modeloft
he sy
stem
ar
chi
tect
uret
oident
if
ysubsy
stemsandt
oassoci
ater
equi
rement
swi
theachsub-
syst
em.
I
nev
itabl
y,st
akehol
der
shav
edi
ff
erentv
iewsont
hei
mpor
tanceandpr
ior
it
yofr
equi
rement
s,
and somet
imes t
hese v
iew conf
li
ct.Dur
ing t
he pr
ocess,y
ou shoul
d or
gani
ze r
egul
ar
st
akehol
dernegot
iat
ionssot
hatcompr
omi
sescanber
eached.
I
nthe r
equi
rementdocument
ing st
age,t
he r
equi
rement
sthathav
e been el
i
cit
ed ar
e
document
edi
nsuchawayt
hatt
heycanbeusedt
ohel
pwi
thf
urt
herr
equi
rement
sdi
scov
ery
.

Requi
rement
sdi
scov
ery
:
 Requi
rementdi
scov
eryi
sthe pr
ocess ofgat
her
ing i
nfor
mat
ion aboutt
he
pr
oposedandex
ist
ingsy
stemsanddi
sti
l
li
ngt
heuserandsy
stem r
equi
rement
s
f
rom t
hisi
nfor
mat
ion.

 Sour
cesofi
nfor
mat
ioni
ncl
udedocument
ati
on,sy
stem st
akehol
der
sandt
he
speci
fi
cat
ionsofsi
mil
arsy
stems.
 Theyi
nter
actwi
thst
akehol
der
sthr
oughi
nter
viewandobser
vat
ionandmayuse
scenar
iosandpr
otot
ypest
ohel
pwi
tht
her
equi
rement
sdi
scov
ery
.
 St
akehol
der
srange f
rom sy
stem end-
user
sthr
ough manager
s and ext
ernal
 st
akehol
der
ssuchasr
egul
ator
swhocer
ti
fyt
heaccept
abi
l
ityoft
hesy
stem.
Forexampl
e,sy
stem st
akehol
derf
orabankATM i
ncl
ude
1. Bankcust
omer
s
2. Repr
esent
ati
vesofot
herbanks
3. Bankmanager
s
4. Count
erst
aff
5. Dat
abaseadmi
nist
rat
ors
6. Secur
it
ymanager
s
7. Mar
ket
ingdepar
tment
8. Har
dwar
eandsof
twar
emai
ntenanceengi
neer
s
9. Banki
ngr
egul
ator
s
Requi
rement
ssour
ces(st
akehol
der
s,domai
n,sy
stems)canal
lber
epr
esent
edassy
stem
v
iewpoi
nts,wher
eeachv
iewpoi
nts,wher
eeachv
iewpoi
ntpr
esent
sasub-
setoft
he
r
equi
rement
sfort
hesy
stem.

Vi
ewpoi
nts:
 Vi
ewpoi
nts ar
e a way of st
ruct
uri
ng t
he r
equi
rement
stor
epr
esent t
he
per
spect
ivesofdi
ff
erentst
akehol
der
s.St
akehol
der
smaybecl
assi
fi
edunder
di
ff
erentv
iewpoi
nts.
 Thi
smul
ti
-per
spect
iveanal
ysi
sisi
mpor
tantast
her
eisnosi
ngl
ecor
rectwayt
o
anal
ysesy
stem r
equi
rement
s.

Ty
pesofv
iewpoi
nt:

I
nter
act
orv
iewpoi
nts
o Peopl
eorot
hersy
stemst
hati
nter
actdi
rect
lywi
tht
hesy
stem.These
v
iewpoi
ntspr
ovi
dedet
ail
ed sy
stem r
equi
rement
scov
eri
ng t
hesy
stem
f
eat
uresand i
nter
faces.I
n an ATM,t
he cust
omer
’sand t
he account
dat
abasear
eint
eract
orVPs.
I
ndi
rectv
iewpoi
nts
o St
akehol
der
swhodonotuset
hesy
stem t
hemsel
vesbutwhoi
nfl
uence
t
her
equi
rement
s.Thesev
iewpoi
ntsar
emor
eli
kel
ytopr
ovi
dehi
gher
-l
evel
or
gani
sat
ionr
equi
rement
sandconst
rai
nts.I
nanATM,managementand
secur
it
yst
affar
eindi
rect
viewpoi
nts.
  Domai
nvi
ewpoi
nts
o Domai
nchar
act
eri
sti
csandconst
rai
ntst
hati
nfl
uencet
her
equi
rement
s.
Thesev
iewpoi
ntsnor
mal
l
ypr
ovi
dedomai
nconst
rai
ntst
hatappl
ytot
he
sy
stem.I
n an ATM,an exampl
e woul
d be st
andar
ds f
ori
nter
-bank
communi
cat
ions.
 Ty
pical
l
y,t
hesev
iewpoi
ntspr
ovi
dedi
ff
erentt
ypesofr
equi
rement
s.

Vi
ewpoi
nti
dent
if
icat
ion:
 I
dent
if
yvi
ewpoi
ntsusi
ng
 Pr
ovi
der
sandr
ecei
ver
sofsy
stem ser
vices;
 Sy
stemst
hati
nter
actdi
rect
lywi
tht
hesy
stem bei
ngspeci
fi
ed;
 Regul
ati
onsandst
andar
ds;

 Sourcesofbusi
nessandnon-funct
ional
requir
ements.
 Engi
neerswhohav et
odev el
opandmai ntai
nthesystem;
 Marketi
ngandotherbusi
nessv i
ewpoint
s.

LI
BSYSv
iewpoi
nthi
erar
chy

Fi
gur
e2.
8:Vi
ewpoi
ntHi
erar
chy

I
nter
viewi
ng

I
nfor
malori
nfor
mali
nter
viewi
ng,
theREt
eam put
squest
ionst
ost
akehol
der
sabout
t
hesy
stem t
hatt
heyuseandt
hesy
stem t
obedev
eloped.
Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofi
nter
view
 Cl
osedi
nter
viewswher
eapr
e-def
inedsetofquest
ionsar
eanswer
ed.
 Openi
nter
viewswher
ether
eisnopr
e-def
inedagendaandar
angeofi
ssuesar
e
expl
oredwi
thst
akehol
der
s.

I
nter
viewsi
npr
act
ice:
 Nor
mal
l
yami
xofcl
osedandopen-
endedi
nter
viewi
ng.
 I
nter
viewsar
egoodf
orget
ti
nganov
eral
lunder
standi
ngofwhatst
akehol
der
s
doandhowt
heymi
ghti
nter
actwi
tht
hesy
stem.
 I
nter
viewsar
enotgoodf
orunder
standi
ngdomai
nrequi
rement
s
 Requi
rement
sengi
neer
scannotunder
standspeci
fi
cdomai
nter
minol
ogy
;
 Somedomai
nknowl
edgei
ssof
ami
l
iart
hatpeopl
efi
ndi
thar
dtoar
ti
cul
ateor
t
hinkt
hati
tisn’
twor
thar
ti
cul
ati
ng.

Ef
fect
ivei
nter
viewer
s:
 I
nter
viewer
s shoul
d be open-
minded,wi
l
li
ng t
oli
sten t
o st
akehol
der
s and
shoul
dnothav
epr
e-concei
vedi
deasaboutt
her
equi
rement
s.
 Theyshoul
dpr
omptt
hei
nter
vieweewi
thaquest
ionorapr
oposalandshoul
d
notsi
mpl
yexpectt
hem t
orespondt
oaquest
ionsuchas‘
whatdoy
ouwant
’.
Scenar
ios:
 Scenar
iosar
ereal
-l
if
eexampl
esofhowasy
stem canbeused.
 Theyshoul
dincl
ude
 Adescr
ipt
ionoft
hest
art
ingsi
tuat
ion;
 Adescr
ipt
ionoft
henor
mal
flowofev
ent
s;
 Adescr
ipt
ionofwhatcangowr
ong;
 I
nfor
mat
ionaboutot
herconcur
rentact
ivi
ti
es;
 Adescr
ipt
ionoft
hest
atewhent
hescenar
iof
ini
shes.

Usecases
 Use-
casesar
eascenar
iobasedt
echni
quei
ntheUMLwhi
chi
dent
if
ytheact
orsi
n
ani
nter
act
ionandwhi
chdescr
ibet
hei
nter
act
ioni
tsel
f.
 Asetofusecasesshoul
ddescr
ibeal
lpossi
blei
nter
act
ionswi
tht
hesy
stem.
  Sequencedi
agr
amsmaybeusedt
oadddet
ailt
ouse-
casesbyshowi
ngt
he
sequenceofev
entpr
ocessi
ngi
nthesy
stem.

Ar
ti
clepr
int
ingsequence:

Fi
gur
e.2.
9:Ar
ti
clePr
int
ing
Soci
alandor
gani
zat
ionalf
act
ors

 Sof
twar
esy
stemsar
eusedi
nasoci
alandor
gani
zat
ionalcont
ext
.Thi
scan
i
nfl
uenceorev
endomi
nat
ethesy
stem r
equi
rement
s.
 Soci
alandor
gani
zat
ionalf
act
orsar
enotasi
ngl
evi
ewpoi
ntbutar
einf
luenceson
al
lvi
ewpoi
nts.
 Goodanal
yst
smustbesensi
ti
vet
othesef
act
orsbutcur
rent
lynosy
stemat
ic
wayt
otackl
ethei
ranal
ysi
s.

Et
hnogr
aphy
:
 A soci
alsci
ent
ist
sspendsaconsi
der
abl
eti
meobser
vingandanal
ysi
nghow
peopl
eact
ual
l
ywor
k.
 Peopl
edonothav
etoexpl
ainorar
ti
cul
atet
hei
rwor
k.
 Soci
alandor
gani
sat
ional
fact
orsofi
mpor
tancemaybeobser
ved.
 Et
hnogr
aphi
cst
udi
eshav
eshownt
hatwor
kisusual
l
yri
cherandmor
ecompl
ex
t
hansuggest
edbysi
mpl
esy
stem model
s.

Focusedet
hnogr
aphy
:
 Dev
elopedi
napr
ojectst
udy
ingt
heai
rtr
aff
iccont
rol
process
 Combi
neset
hnogr
aphywi
thpr
otot
ypi
ng
 Pr
otot
ype dev
elopmentr
esul
tsi
n unanswer
ed quest
ions whi
ch f
ocus t
he
et
hnogr
aphi
canal
ysi
s.
 Thepr
obl
em wi
thet
hnogr
aphyi
sthati
tst
udi
esexi
sti
ngpr
act
iceswhi
chmay
hav
esomehi
stor
ical
basi
swhi
chi
snol
ongerr
elev
ant
.
Et
hnogr
aphyandpr
otot
ypi
ng

Fi
gur
e2.
10:
Ethnogr
aphyandPr
otot
ypi
ng

Scopeofet
hnogr
aphy
:

 Requi
rement
sthatar
eder
ivedf
rom t
hewayt
hatpeopl
eact
ual
l
ywor
krat
hert
hant
he
wayi
nwhi
chpr
ocessdef
ini
ti
onssuggestt
hatt
heyoughtt
owor
k.
 Requi
rement
sthatar
eder
ivedf
rom cooper
ati
onandawar
enessofot
herpeopl
e’
s
act
ivi
ti
es.
Sessi
on 21
2.
8.Requi
rement
s
Val
idat
ion
 Concer
nedwi
thdemonst
rat
ingt
hatt
her
equi
rement
sdef
inet
hesy
stem t
hatt
he
cust
omerr
eal
l
ywant
s.
 Requi
rement
ser
rorcost
sar
ehi
ghsov
ali
dat
ioni
sver
yimpor
tant
 Fi
xi
ngar
equi
rement
ser
roraf
terdel
i
ver
ymaycostupt
o100t
imest
hecostof
f
ixi
ngani
mpl
ement
ati
oner
ror
.

Requi
rement
schecki
ng:

 Val
idi
ty:Doest
hesy
stem pr
ovi
det
hef
unct
ionswhi
chbestsuppor
tthecust
omer
’s
needs?
 Consi
stency
:Ar
ether
eanyr
equi
rement
sconf
li
cts?
 Compl
eteness:Ar
eal
lfunct
ionsr
equi
redbyt
hecust
omeri
ncl
uded?
 Real
ism:Cant
her
equi
rement
sbei
mpl
ement
edgi
venav
ail
abl
ebudgetandt
echnol
ogy
 Ver
if
iabi
li
ty:
Cant
her
equi
rement
sbechecked?

Requi
rement
sval
idat
iont
echni
ques
 Requi
rement
srev
iews
 Sy
stemat
icmanual
anal
ysi
soft
her
equi
rement
s.
 Pr
otot
ypi
ng
 Usi
nganexecut
abl
emodel
oft
hesy
stem t
ocheckr
equi
rement
s.
 Test
-casegener
ati
on
 Dev
elopi
ngt
est
sforr
equi
rement
stocheckt
est
abi
l
ity
.

Requi
rement
srev
iews:

 Regul
arr
evi
ewsshoul
dbehel
dwhi
l
ether
equi
rement
sdef
ini
ti
oni
sbei
ngf
ormul
ated.
 Bot
hcl
i
entandcont
ract
orst
affshoul
dbei
nvol
vedi
nrev
iews.
 Rev
iews may be f
ormal(
wit
h compl
eted document
s) or i
nfor
mal
.Good
communi
cat
ions bet
ween dev
eloper
s,cust
omer
s and user
s can r
esol
ve
pr
obl
emsatanear
lyst
age.

Rev
iewchecks:
 Ver
if
iabi
l
ity
:Ist
her
equi
rementr
eal
i
sti
cal
l
ytest
abl
e?
 Compr
ehensi
bil
it
y:I
sther
equi
rementpr
oper
lyunder
stood?
 Tr
aceabi
li
ty:I
stheor
igi
noft
her
equi
rementcl
ear
lyst
ated?
 Adapt
abi
li
ty:Cant
her
equi
rementbechangedwi
thoutal
argei
mpactonot
her
r
equi
rement
s?

Sessi
on 22
2.
9.Requi
rement
s
Management
 Requi
rement
s management i
s t
he pr
ocess of managi
ng changi
ng
r
equi
rement
s dur
ing t
he r
equi
rement
s engi
neer
ing pr
ocess and sy
stem
dev
elopment
.
 Requi
rement
sar
einev
itabl
yincompl
eteandi
nconsi
stent
 New r
equi
rement
semer
gedur
ingt
hepr
ocessasbusi
nessneedschangeanda
bet
ter
 under
standi
ngoft
hesy
stem i
sdev
eloped;
 Di
ff
erentv
iewpoi
ntshav
edi
ff
erentr
equi
rement
sandt
hesear
eof
tencont
radi
ctor
y.

Requi
rement
schange
 The pr
ior
it
y ofr
equi
rement
sfr
om di
ff
erentv
iewpoi
nts changes dur
ing t
he
dev
elopmentpr
ocess.
 Sy
stem cust
omer
smayspeci
fyr
equi
rement
sfr
om abusi
nessper
spect
ivet
hat
conf
li
ctwi
thend-
userr
equi
rement
s.
 The busi
ness and t
echni
calenv
ironmentoft
he sy
stem changes dur
ing i
ts
dev
elopment
.

Requi
rement
sev
olut
ion:

Endur
ingandv
olat
il
erequi
rement
s:
 Endur
ingr
equi
rement
s:St
abl
erequi
rement
sder
ivedf
rom t
hecor
eact
ivi
tyoft
he
cust
omeror
gani
sat
ion.E.
g.ahospi
talwi
l
lal
way
shav
edoct
ors,nur
ses,et
c.Maybe
der
ivedf
rom domai
nmodel
s
 Vol
ati
ler
equi
rement
s:Requi
rement
swhi
chchangedur
ingdev
elopmentorwhent
he
sy
stem i
sinuse.I
nahospi
tal
,requi
rement
sder
ivedf
rom heal
th-
car
epol
i
cy
Requi
rement
scl
assi
fi
cat
ion:

Tabl
e:2.
3:Requi
rement
scl
assi
fi
cat
ion

Requi
rement Descr
ipt
io
Ty
pe n
Mut
abl
e Requi
rement
s t
hat change because of changes t
o t
he
r
equi
remen env
ironmenti
nwhi
cht
he
t
s or
gani
zat
ioni
soper
ati
ng.Forexampl
e,i
nhospi
talsy
stems,t
he
f
undi
ngofpat
ientcar
emaychangeandt
husr
equi
redi
ff
erent
t
reat
menti
nfor
mat
iont
obecol
l
ect
ed.
Emer
gent Requi
rement
sthatemer
geast
hecust
omer
'sunder
standi
ngof
r
equi
remen t
hesy
stem dev
elops
t
s dur
ingt
hesy
stem dev
elopment
.Thedesi
gnpr
ocessmayr
eveal
newemer
gentr
equi
rement
s.
 Consequent
iRequi
rement
sthatr
esul
tfr
om t
hei
ntr
oduct
ionoft
hecomput
er
al sy
stem.
r
equi
rementI
ntr
oduci
ng
s t
hecomput
ersy
stem maychanget
heor
gani
zat
ionspr
ocesses
andopen
up new way
s of wor
king whi
ch gener
ate new sy
stem
r
equi
rement
s
Compat
ibi
l
it equi
rement
sthatdependont
hepar
ti
cul
arsy
stemsorbusi
ness
y pr
ocesses wi
thi
n an or
gani
zat
ion.As t
hese change,t
he
r
equi
remen compat
ibi
l
ityr
equi
rement
sont
hecommi
ssi
onedordel
i
ver
ed
t
s sy
stem mayal
sohav
e
t
oev
olv
e.

Requi
rement
smanagementpl
anni
ng:
Dur
ingt
her
equi
rement
sengi
neer
ingpr
ocess,
youhav
etopl
an:
 Requi
rement
sident
if
icat
ion
oHowr
equi
rement
sar
eindi
vi
dual
l
yident
if
ied;
 Achangemanagementpr
ocess
oThepr
ocessf
oll
owedwhenanal
yzi
ngar
equi
rement
schange;

 Tr
aceabi
l
itypol
i
cies
o Theamountofi
nfor
mat
ionaboutr
equi
rement
srel
ati
onshi
pst
hati
s
mai
ntai
ned;
 CASEt
ool
suppor
t
o Thet
ool
suppor
trequi
redt
ohel
pmanager
equi
rement
schange;

Tr
aceabi
l
ity
:

Tr
aceabi
l
ityi
sconcer
nedwi
tht
her
elat
ionshi
psbet
weenr
equi
rement
s,t
hei
rsour
ces
andt
hesy
stem desi
gn
• Sour
cet
raceabi
l
ity
– Li
nksf
rom r
equi
rement
stost
akehol
der
swhopr
oposedt
hese
r
equi
rement
s;
 • Requi
rement
str
aceabi
l
ity
– Li
nksbet
weendependentr
equi
rement
s;
• Desi
gnt
raceabi
l
ity-Li
nksf
rom t
her
equi
rement
stot
hedesi
gn;

CASEt
ool
suppor
t:
 Requi
rement
sst
orage
 Requi
rement
sshoul
dbemanagedi
nasecur
e,manageddat
ast
ore.
 Changemanagement
 Thepr
ocessofchangemanagementi
sawor
kfl
owpr
ocesswhose
st
agescanbedef
inedandi
nfor
mat
ionf
lowbet
weent
hesest
agespar
ti
all
y
aut
omat
ed.
 Tr
aceabi
l
itymanagement
– Aut
omat
edr
etr
iev
aloft
hel
i
nksbet
weenr
equi
rement
s.

Requi
rement
schangemanagement
:
 Shoul
dappl
ytoal
lpr
oposedchangest
other
equi
rement
s.
 Pr
inci
pal
stages
 Pr
obl
em anal
ysi
s.Di
scussr
equi
rement
spr
obl
em andpr
oposechange;
 Changeanal
ysi
sandcost
ing.Assessef
fect
sofchangeonot
herr
equi
rement
s;
 Changei
mpl
ement
ati
on.Modi
fyr
equi
rement
sdocumentandot
her
document
stor
efl
ectchange.

Changemanagement
:

Fi
gur
e2.
11:
ChangeManagement

Sessi
on23

2.
10.Sy
stem Model
ing
  Sy
stem model
l
inghel
pst
heanal
ystt
ounder
standt
hef
unct
ional
i
tyoft
hesy
stem
andmodel
sar
eusedt
ocommuni
cat
ewi
thcust
omer
s.
 Di
ff
erentmodel
spr
esentt
hesy
stem f
rom di
ff
erentper
spect
ives
 Behav
iour
alper
spect
iveshowi
ngt
hebehav
iouroft
hesy
stem;
 St
ruct
ural
per
spect
iveshowi
ngt
hesy
stem ordat
aar
chi
tect
ure.
Modelt
ypes
 Dat
apr
ocessi
ngmodel
showi
nghowt
hedat
aispr
ocessedatdi
ff
erentst
ages.
 Composi
ti
onmodel
showi
nghowent
it
iesar
ecomposedofot
herent
it
ies.
 Ar
chi
tect
ural
model
showi
ngpr
inci
pal
sub-
syst
ems.
 Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionmodel
showi
nghowent
it
ieshav
ecommonchar
act
eri
sti
cs.
 St
imul
us/
responsemodel
showi
ngt
hesy
stem’
sreact
iont
oev
ent
s.

 Cont
extModel
s:
o Cont
extmodel
sar
eusedt
oil
l
ust
rat
etheoper
ati
onalcont
extofasy
stem -t
hey
showwhatl
i
esout
sidet
hesy
stem boundar
ies.
o Soci
alandor
gani
sat
ionalconcer
nsmayaf
fectt
hedeci
siononwher
etoposi
ti
on
sy
stem boundar
ies.
o Ar
chi
tect
ural
model
sshowt
hesy
stem andi
tsr
elat
ionshi
pwi
thot
hersy
stems.

Thecont
extofanATM sy
stem:

 Pr
ocess
model
s:
Fi
gur
e2.
12:
Cont
ext
Model
 o Pr
ocessmodel
sshowt
heov
eral
lpr
ocessandt
hepr
ocessest
hatar
e
suppor
tedbyt
hesy
stem.
o Dat
afl
owmodel
smaybeusedt
oshowt
hepr
ocessesandt
hef
lowof
i
nfor
mat
ionf
rom onepr
ocesst
oanot
her
.

Sessi
on24
2.
11.
Behav
iour
al
Model
s:
o Behav
iour
almodel
sar
eusedt
odescr
ibet
heov
eral
lbehav
iourofasy
stem.
o Twot
ypesofbehav
iour
almodel
are:
 Dat
apr
ocessi
ngmodel
sthatshowhowdat
aispr
ocessedasi
t
mov
est
hrought
hesy
stem;

 St
atemachi
nemodel
sthatshowt
hesy
stemsr
esponset
oev
ent
s.
o Thesemodel
sshowdi
ff
erentper
spect
ivessobot
hoft
hem ar
erequi
redt
o
descr
ibet
hesy
stem’
sbehav
iour
.

2.
12Dat
a-pr
ocessi
ngmodel
s:
 Dat
afl
owdi
agr
ams(
DFDs)maybeusedt
omodel
thesy
stem’
sdat
a
pr
ocessi
ng.
 Theseshowt
hepr
ocessi
ngst
epsasdat
afl
owst
hroughasy
stem.
 DFDsar
eani
ntr
insi
cpar
tofmanyanal
ysi
smet
hods.
 Si
mpl
eandi
ntui
ti
venot
ati
ont
hatcust
omer
scanunder
stand.
 Showend-
to-
endpr
ocessi
ngofdat
a.
Or
derpr
ocessi
ngDFD:

Fi
gur
e2.
13:
Dat
aFl
owDi
agr
am
Dat
afl
owdi
agr
ams:

 DFDsmodel
thesy
stem f
rom af
unct
ional
per
spect
ive.
 Tr
acki
nganddocument
inghowt
hedat
aassoci
atedwi
thapr
ocessi
shel
pfult
o
dev
elopanov
eral
lunder
standi
ngoft
hesy
stem.
 Dat
afl
owdi
agr
amsmayal
sobeusedi
nshowi
ngt
hedat
aexchangebet
weena
sy
stem andot
hersy
stemsi
nit
senv
ironment
.

St
atemachi
nemodel
s:
 Thesemodel
thebehav
iouroft
hesy
stem i
nresponset
oext
ernal
andi
nter
nal
event
s.
 Theyshowt
hesy
stem’
sresponsest
ost
imul
isoar
eof
tenusedf
ormodel
l
ingr
eal
-
ti
mesy
stems.
 St
atemachi
nemodel
sshowsy
stem st
atesasnodesandev
ent
sasar
csbet
ween
t
hesenodes.Whenanev
entoccur
s,t
hesy
stem mov
esf
rom onest
atet
oanot
her
.
 St
atechar
tsar
eani
ntegr
alpar
toft
heUMLandar
eusedt
orepr
esentst
ate
machi
nemodel
s.

St
atechar
ts:
 Al
l
owt
hedecomposi
ti
onofamodel
int
osub-
model
s(seef
oll
owi
ngsl
i
de)
.
 Abr
iefdescr
ipt
ionoft
heact
ionsi
sincl
udedf
oll
owi
ngt
he‘
do’
ineachst
ate.
 Canbecompl
ement
edbyt
abl
esdescr
ibi
ngt
hest
atesandt
hest
imul
i
.

Mi
crowav
eov
enst
atedescr
ipt
ion:

St
ate Descr
ipt
io
n
Wai
ti
ng Theov
eni
swai
ti
ngf
ori
nput
.Thedi
spl
ayshowst
hecur
rentt
ime.
Hal
f Theov
enpoweri
ssett
o300wat
ts.Thedi
spl
ayshows‘
Hal
fpower
’.
power
 Ful
lpowerTheov
enpoweri
ssett
o600wat
ts.Thedi
spl
ayshows‘
Ful
lpower
’.
Sett
ime Thecooki
ngt
imei
ssett
otheuser
’si
nputv
alue.Thedi
spl
ayshowst
he
cooki
ngt
imesel
ect
edandi
supdat
edast
het
imei
sset
.
Di
sabl
ed Ov
enoper
ati
oni
sdi
sabl
edf
orsaf
ety
.Int
eri
orov
enl
i
ghti
son.Di
spl
ay
shows‘
Notr
eady
’.
Enabl
ed Ov
enoper
ati
oni
senabl
ed.I
nter
iorov
enl
i
ghti
sof
f.Di
spl
ayshows
‘
Readyt
ocook’
.

Mi
crowav
eov
enmodel
:

Fi
gur
e2.
14:St
ateChar
tDi
agr
am ForMi
crowaveoven

Mi
crowav
eov
enst
imul
i:

St
imul
us Descri
pti
o
n
Hal
fpower Theuserhaspr
essedt
hehalfpowerbut
ton
Ful
lpower Theuserhaspr
essedt
hef
ull
powerbut
ton
Ti
mer Theuserhaspr
essedoneoft
het
imerbut
tons
Number Theuserhaspr
essedanumer
ickey
 Dooropen Theov
endoorswi
tchi
snotcl
osed
Door Theov
endoorswi
tchi
scl
osed
cl
osed
St
art Theuserhaspr
essedt
hest
artbut
ton
Cancel Theuserhaspr
essedt
hecancel
but
ton

Semant
icdat
amodel
s:

 Usedt
odescr
ibet
hel
ogi
cal
str
uct
ureofdat
apr
ocessedbyt
hesy
stem.
 An ent
it
y-r
elat
ion-
att
ri
but
e modelset
s outt
he ent
it
ies i
nthe sy
stem,t
he
r
elat
ionshi
psbet
weent
heseent
it
iesandt
heent
it
yat
tri
but
es
 Wi
del
y used i
n dat
abase desi
gn.Can r
eadi
l
y be i
mpl
ement
ed usi
ng r
elat
ional
dat
abases.
 Nospeci
fi
cnot
ati
onpr
ovi
dedi
ntheUMLbutobj
ect
sandassoci
ati
onscanbeused.

Dat
aDi
cti
onar
ies

o Dat
adi
cti
onar
iesar
eli
stsofal
loft
henamesusedi
nthesy
stem model
s.
Descr
ipt
ionsoft
heent
it
ies,
rel
ati
onshi
psandat
tri
but
esar
eal
soi
ncl
uded.
o Adv
ant
ages
 Suppor
tnamemanagementandav
oiddupl
i
cat
ion;
 St
ore of or
gani
sat
ionalknowl
edge l
i
nki
ng anal
ysi
s,desi
gn
andi
mpl
ement
ati
on;
o ManyCASEwor
kbenchessuppor
tdat
adi
cti
onar
ies.

Sessi
on25

2.
13. Obj
ectmodel
s:

o Obj
ectmodel
sdescr
ibet
he sy
stem i
nter
msofobj
ectcl
assesand t
hei
r
associ
ati
ons.
o Anobj
ectcl
assi
sanabst
ract
ionov
erasetofobj
ect
swi
thcommon
at
tri
but
esandt
heser
vices(
oper
ati
ons)pr
ovi
dedbyeachobj
ect
.
o Var
iousobj
ectmodel
smaybepr
oduced
 I
nher
it
ancemodel
s;
  Aggr
egat
ionmodel
s;
 I
nter
act
ionmodel
s.
o Nat
ural
way
sofr
efl
ect
ingt
her
eal
-wor
ldent
it
iesmani
pul
atedbyt
hesy
stem
o Mor
eabst
ractent
it
iesar
emor
edi
ff
icul
ttomodel
usi
ngt
hisappr
oach
o Obj
ectcl
assi
dent
if
icat
ioni
srecogni
sedasadi
ff
icul
tpr
ocessr
equi
ri
nga
deepunder
standi
ngoft
heappl
i
cat
iondomai
n
o Obj
ectcl
assesr
efl
ect
ingdomai
nent
it
iesar
ereusabl
eacr
osssy
stems

I
nher
it
ancemodel
s:

 Or
gani
set
hedomai
nobj
ectcl
assesi
ntoahi
erar
chy
.
 Cl
assesatt
het
opoft
hehi
erar
chyr
efl
ectt
hecommonf
eat
uresofal
lcl
asses.
 Obj
ectcl
assesi
nher
itt
hei
rat
tri
but
esandser
vicesf
rom oneormor
esuper
-
cl
asses.t
hesemayt
henbespeci
ali
sedasnecessar
y.
 Cl
asshi
erar
chydesi
gn can bea di
ff
icul
tpr
ocessi
fdupl
i
cat
ion i
n di
ff
erent
br
anchesi
stobeav
oided.

Obj
ectmodel
sandt
heUML:

 TheUMLi
sast
andar
drepr
esent
ati
ondev
isedbyt
hedev
eloper
sofwi
del
yused
obj
ect
-or
ient
edanal
ysi
sanddesi
gnmet
hods.
 I
thasbecomeanef
fect
ivest
andar
dforobj
ect
-or
ient
edmodel
l
ing.
 Not
ati
on
 Obj
ectcl
assesar
erect
angl
eswi
tht
henameatt
het
op,at
tri
but
esi
nthemi
ddl
e
sect
ionandoper
ati
onsi
nthebot
tom sect
ion;
 Rel
ati
onshi
psbet
weenobj
ectcl
asses(
knownasassoci
ati
ons)ar
eshownas
l
i
nesl
i
nki
ngobj
ect
s;
 I
nher
it
ancei
sref
err
edt
oasgener
ali
sat
ionandi
sshown‘
upwar
ds’r
athert
han
‘
downwar
ds’
inahi
erar
chy
.
Fi
gur
e2.
15:
Libr
arycl
asshi
erar
chy
:

Fi
gur
e2.
16:
Usercl
asshi
erar
chy
:
Mul
ti
plei
nher
it
ance:
 Rat
hert
hani
nher
it
ingt
heat
tri
but
esandser
vicesf
rom asi
ngl
epar
entcl
ass,a
sy
stem whi
chsuppor
tsmul
ti
plei
nher
it
anceal
l
owsobj
ectcl
assest
oinher
itf
rom
sev
eral
super
-cl
asses.
 Thi
scanl
eadt
osemant
icconf
li
ctswher
eat
tri
but
es/
ser
viceswi
tht
hesame
namei
ndi
ff
erentsuper
-cl
asseshav
edi
ff
erentsemant
ics.
 Mul
ti
plei
nher
it
ancemakescl
asshi
erar
chyr
eor
gani
sat
ionmor
ecompl
ex.

Mul
ti
plei
nher
it
ance

Fi
gur
e2.
17:
Mul
ti
pleI
nher
it
ance

Obj
ectAggr
egat
ion:
  Anaggr
egat
ionmodelshowshowcl
assest
hatar
ecol
l
ect
ionsar
ecomposed
ofot
hercl
asses.
 Aggr
egat
ion model
sar
esi
mil
art
othepar
t-
ofr
elat
ionshi
pin semant
icdat
a
model
s.

Obj
ectAggr
egat
ion:

Fi
gur
e2.
18:
obj
ectaggr
egat
ion

Obj
ectbehav
iormodel
ing:

 Abehav
ior
almodel
showst
hei
nter
act
ionsbet
weenobj
ect
stopr
oducesome
par
ti
cul
arsy
stem behav
iort
hati
sspeci
fi
edasause-
case.
 Sequencedi
agr
ams(
orcol
l
abor
ati
ondi
agr
ams)i
ntheUMLar
eusedt
omodel
i
nter
act
ionbet
weenobj
ect
s.

2.
14. St
ruct
uredmet
hods:
  St
ruct
uredmet
hodsi
ncor
por
atesy
stem model
l
ingasani
nher
entpar
toft
he
met
hod.
 Met
hodsdef
ineasetofmodel
s,apr
ocessf
order
ivi
ngt
hesemodel
sandr
ules
andgui
del
i
nest
hatshoul
dappl
ytot
hemodel
s.
 CASEt
ool
ssuppor
tsy
stem model
l
ingaspar
tofast
ruct
uredmet
hod.

Met
hodweaknesses:
o Theydonotmodel
non-
funct
ional
syst
em r
equi
rement
s.
o Theydonotusual
l
yincl
udei
nfor
mat
ionaboutwhet
heramet
hodi
s
appr
opr
iat
eforagi
venpr
obl
em.
o Themaypr
oducet
oomuchdocument
ati
on.
o Thesy
stem model
sar
esomet
imest
oodet
ail
edanddi
ff
icul
tforuser
sto
under
stand.

CASEwor
kbenches:
 Acoher
entsetoft
ool
sthati
sdesi
gnedt
osuppor
trel
atedsof
twar
epr
ocess
act
ivi
ti
essuchasanal
ysi
s,desi
gnort
est
ing.
 Anal
ysi
sanddesi
gnwor
kbenchessuppor
tsy
stem model
l
ingdur
ingbot
h
r
equi
rement
sengi
neer
ingandsy
stem desi
gn.
 Thesewor
kbenchesmaysuppor
taspeci
fi
cdesi
gnmet
hodormaypr
ovi
de
suppor
tforacr
eat
ingsev
eral
dif
fer
entt
ypesofsy
stem model
.
 44

Ananal
ysi
sanddesi
gnwor
kbench

Fi
gur
e2.
19:Anal
ysi
sandDesi
gnWor
kbench

Anal
ysi
swor
kbenchcomponent
s:

 Di
agr
am edi
tor
s
 Model
anal
ysi
sandchecki
ngt
ool
s
 Reposi
tor
yandassoci
atedquer
ylanguage
 Dat
adi
cti
onar
y
 Repor
tdef
ini
ti
onandgener
ati
ont
ool
s
 For
msdef
ini
ti
ont
ool
s
 I
mpor
t/expor
ttr
ansl
ator
s
 Codegener
ati
ont
ool
s