EXPERIMENT 1

AIM: To find the vaBue of v for different values of u tn case of a concave mirror and to find the
focal length.
APPARATUS
An optical bench with three uprights (zero end upright fixed, two outer uprights with lateral
movement), concave mirror, a mirror holder, two optical needles (one thin, one thick), a knitting neede
and a half metre scale.

THEORY
From mirror formula,
Uu

We have, f UU
u+U
where, f= focal length of concave mirror.
u = distance of object needle from pole of the mirror.

U = distance of image needle from pole of the mirror.

Note. According to sign-convention, u and v have negative values. Hence, fcomes negative.
RAY DIAGRAM

Image M

Object Needle
Image (thin)
Needle
(thick)
Fig. Focal length of a concave mirror
FocalLength of Spherical Mirrors 129

PROCEDURE
To
determine rough focal length
Mount the concave mirror in mirror holder.
Go out in the
open and face the mirror towards distant tree or
building,
Obtain the image of the tree or the building
on a white
painted wall (screen) and move the
mirror forward and backward
get a sharp image on the wall.
to

4. Measure distance between the mirror and the wall (screen). This will be
the
equal to the rough
focal length of the mirror.
[Note. Similar procedure is adopted for determining rough focal length of a convex lens.]

To set the mirror

5. Place fixed upright near zero end of the optical bench and the two other
movement) near the other end. uprights (with lateral
Clamp the holder with mirror in the fixed upright keeping mirror face towards other end of the
bench and surface perpendicular to its
length.
Make mirror surface vertical using
levelling screws of the
the principal axis of the mirror must be horizontal and
optical bench. (In final adjustment,
parallel to the optical bench).
8. Note the position of the index mark on
the base of mirror upright.
To set the object needle
9. Take the thin optical needle
object needle (0). Mount it in second upright.
as
10. Move the
object needle upright and clamp it at a distance (in full cm) nearly 1.5 times the
obtained rough focal length of the mirror.
11. Adjust height of the object neede to make its tip lie on horizontal line through the pole of the
mirror.
12. With left eye closed, see with the right open eye from the other end of the
inverted and enlarged image optical bench. An
of the mirror (If
of the needle willbe seen 'Tip of the
image must lie in the middle
image is not seen, move object needle upright away from the mirror).
13. Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object needle upright.
To set the image needle
14. Mount the thick optical needle (image needle) in third
other end of the optical bench.
upright and move the upright near the
15. Adjust the height of the image needle so that its tip is seen in line with the of the
when seen with right open eye. tip image
16, Move the eye towards right. The tips will get separated. The image tip and the image needle
tip have parallax.
17. Remove the parallax as described |Section 7.08 (6)]. The
parallax gets removed
tip-to-tip.
18. Note the position of the index mark on the base of the image needle upricht.
19. Record all the positions of the index marks in the table
against observation 2.
30
cal Physics-
Comprehenatue Practical Physice.

To determine index correction

between pole of mirror
and tip or ooect neede and alsee
the ofor
20. Find index correction for distance
the needle as described. |Section 7.10 (
of image
ance
between pole of mirror and tip observation 2 and1.
1. Repeat
of 1 cm to get
towards mirror in steps
21. Move object needle upright
the experiment. of observation 2) in steps of1
L2. Move object needle uprightaway from mirror
(from position f1cm
the experiment.
to get observations 4, 5 and 6. Repeat

23. Record all the observations as given ahead. di.

that object always lies between
Note. Orderof observations, is kept, 3,2, 1, 4,5
and 6 to ensure
istance
focal length may be
too rough.]
fand 2f, even when found rough

OBSERVATIONS

mirror
Rough focal length of the given
concave

Actual length of the knitting needle, X= e

Observed distance between the mirror and object needle when

knitting needle is placed in between them,
Observed distance between the mirror and image needle when

kniting needle is placed in between them,

Index correction for the object distance u, X-y.
Index correction for the image distance v, X-Z

Table foru, v and 1

V

Serial Position of Observed distance Corrected distance

No. of
Focal
Obs. Concave Object Image PO=u PI U length
mirror needle needle
P f
U+
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
(1) (2a) (Cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
(2b) (2c) (3a) (3b) (4a)
1.
(4h) (5) (6)
2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

CALCULATIONS
Calculations of focal length by
(i) u-v
Graph. Select a suitable but the
graphical methods
Y-axis. same scale to along

various
According to sign conventions, in this caserepresent along *-axis a u
Plot the
points for different sets of and v both are
u
values of u and v from the negative.
The graph
comes out to be observation
a
rectangular hyperbola as shown in figure.
ine
table.
 ofSpherical Mirrors 131
aalLength
Foca

Draw a line OA:

OA making an angle of 45° with either axis (i.e., bisecting Y'OX) and meeting the
Drawa line
point A.
A. Draw AB and AD perpendicular on X- and Y-axes respectively. The values ot u and
at point
curve
l be same for point A. So the coordinates of point A must be (2f, 2 because for a concave mirror
and v.are equal only when the object is placed at the centre of curvature.

Hence, u =
U =R 2f
=

Bxplanation

From mirror formula applied to point A

As
u orand f
Hence, half the values of either coordinate of A (ie, distance OD or OB) gives the focal length
of the concave mirror.

GRAPH BETWEEN u AND V

Scale
X-axis: 1 cm = . . cm of u
Y-axis: 1 cm = . cm of v

u (cm)

X -20
45>
2
A-2,-27D v(cm)

Fig. Graph between u and u. It is a rectangular hyperbola.

OB
Also f-

Mean value of f-..

 132 Compnehenstue Practical Physics-X
1
()and Graph. Select a suitable but the same scale to represent along
ong X-axis
X-axis and
along Y-axis. By sign conventions and both are negative. Plot the various points
1
values of , and from the observation table in
for different sets
of quadrant third. The
he
graph comes out to be a straight line as shown in figure.

GRAPH BETWEEN AND

Scale

X-axis:1 cm=.cm of
Y-axis: 1cm=cm of
Y

om
O

om

Fig. Graph betweenand.Itis a straight line.

The straight line cuts the two axes-X and Y at an angle of 45 at points Aand B, respectivelyal
making equal intercepts of the axes. Measure the distance OA and OB.

Then focal length, f- OA OB

Cm.

Explanation
From mirror formula, 11
f
then
(a) If= 0, U
Focal Length ofSpherical Mirrors 133

Thus, intercept OB 1.1

) 0 ,then
Thus, intercept OA

(ii) Another u-v Graph. Select a suitable but the same scale to represent u along X-axis
and v along Y-axis. Markthe points at distances u, , . ete. along the OX-axis and
the corresponding points at distances U,. U U . etc. along the OY-axis for different
sets of observations from the table.
Draw straight lines joiningu, with u, 4, with v, 4, with v, etc. These lines willintersect at a point
Kas shown in figure below. Draw KL and KM perpendiculars onX- and Y-axes respectively.
Then -f= OL = OM

f- .CIn.

Scale
X-axis :1 cm
Y-axis:1 cm=

u (cm)
X
--4L

M
H-1)R

V2

-V
Y

Fig. Graph between u and u.

Explanation
The mirror formula, is satisfied by certain sets of (u, v) values. This formula is also

$atisfiedby extreme sets (f, ) and (,f) of u and v values. The straight lines corresponding to extreme
sets intersect at a point (K) having co-ordinates (f. f). If set (4,, v,), (4 ) s a t i s y the mirror formula
n straight lines corresponding to these sets will also pass through the point K G. f).
134 Comprehenaine Practical Physics-

Hence, co-ordinates of the point Kobtained from the observed sets of u and u values give value ni
off
For line LK, u =f , v = o

For line MK, U = f, u = o,

Note. It will bebetter to choose any four suitable sets of (u, v) values from the observation table.
Al h.
the
six sets of observations may complicate the graph.

RESULT
The focal length of the given concave mirror as determined from:

uv
)focal length calculated from f= -U+u . cn

() (u-v) graph . Cm

-graph
u
. CIll

(tv) (u- v) graph cm.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Principal axis of the mirror should be horizontal and parallel to the central line of the optical
bench.
2. The uprights should bevertical.
3. Tip to tip parallax should be removed between the needle I and image of the needle0.
4. To locate the position of the image the eye should be at least 30 cm away from the needle.
.Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as that of pole of the concave
mirror.
6. Index correction for u and v should be applied.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The uprights may not be the vertical.
2. Parallax removal may not be
perfect.
Ffocal Length of spherical Lenses
149

EXPERIMENT 3
AIM: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v
and
or between

APPARATUS

An optical bench with three uprights (central upright fixed, two outer uprights with lateral
ovement), a convex lens with lens holder, two optical needles, (one thin, one thick) a knitting needle
and a half metre scale.

THEORY
The relation betweenu, v and ffor a convex lens is,
uv

f f u- v

where, f-focal length of convex lens

u= distance of object needle from optical centre of the lens
v- distance of image neede from optical centre of the lens.
Note. Acording to sign-comvention, u has negative value and v has positive value. Hence, fcomes positive.

RAY DIAGRAM

2F
2F
Object Image
Needle Needle
B
D
V

Fig. Focal length of convex lens.

PROCEDURE
To determine
rough focal length
1. Mount the concave mirror in mirror holder.
2. Go out in the open and face the mirror towards distant tree or building.
3. Obtain the image of the tree or the building on a white painted wall (screen) and move the
mirror forward and backward to get a sharp image on the wall.
 Comprehensive Practical Physice
150
between the mirror and
the wall (screen). This will be al
eaqiusl
to the
.

4. Measure the distance

mirror
rough
focal length of the

To set the lens

with lens in a upright and keep the upright at 50 cm mark
hxed
Clamp the holder
Adjust the lens such that its surface is vertical and perpendicular to the length of the o
optical
bench.
Keep the upright fixed in this position throughout.
To set the object needle
s. Take the thin optical needle as object needle (O). Mount it in outer laterally moveable uprihr
near zero end.
Move the object needle upright and clamp it at a distance (in full cm) nearly 1.5 times the
e
obtained rough focal length of the lens.
10. Adjust height of the object needle to make its tip lie on horizontal line through the optical
centre of the lens.
11. Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object needle upright.
To set the image needle
12. With left eye cdosed, see with the right open eye from the other end of the optical bench. An
inverted and enlarged image of the object needle will be seen. Tip of the image must lie in the
middle of the lens.
13 Mount thethick optical needle (image needle) in the fourth upright near the other end ofthe
optical bench.
14 Adjust the height of the image needle so that its tip is seen in line with the tip of the image
when seen with right open
eye.
Move the eye towards right. The tips will get separated. The image tip and the image needletip
have parallax.
16. Remove the parallax tip to tip.
17. Note the position
of the index mark on base of the image needle upright.
16. Record the position of the index marks on the base ofupright of the lens, the object neede and
the image needle in the table against observation 2.
To determine index correction
19. Find the index correction for distance between optical centre of lens and tip of the object needle

of the image needle as described.

SLance between optical centre of lens and tip
To get more observations
20. Move object needle upright towards mirror in steps of 1 cm to get observation 2 and 1. Repeat

the experiment.
21. Move object needle upright away from mirror (from position of observation 2) in steps of 1 cm

T
get observations 4, 5 and 6. Repeat the experime nt.
22. Record all the
observatjons as given ahead.
 Lenses
Spherical 151
FocalLength of
O B S E R V A T I O N S

Rough focal length of the given convex lens . Cm

of the knitting needle X = . . . Cm

Actual length
between the object needle and the lens
Observed distance
needle is placed between them y . . . Cm
when knitting
observed distance between the image needle and the
needle is placed between them
lens when knitting
Z . cm

the object distance u,

Index correction for X-y ...... CInl

for the image distance u,

Index correction X-2 =..... CILl
1 1
Table for u, v; and

Position of Observed distance Corrected distance

Serial
Object Lens Image OA u OC U
No.cof needle
meedle
Obs.
A

(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) Cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)

(1) (2a) (2b) (2c) (3a) (3b) (4a) (4b) (5) (6)
1

5.

CALCULATIONS
Calculations of focal length by graphical methods.
- v Graph. Select a suitable but the scale to represent u
same
along X-axis andv along Y-axis.
Acording to sign conventions, in this case, u is negative and vis positive. Plot the various points
tOr different
sets of values of u and u from observation table second
quadrant. The graph comes
out to be a rectangular hyperbola as shown in graph between u and u.

raw a line OA making an angle of 45' with either axis (ie., bisecting 4Yox) and meeting the

a t point A. Draw AB and AC perpendicular on X'- and Y-axes, respectively.

alues of u and v will be same for point A. So, the coordinates of point A must be (2f, 2f),
Decause for a convex lens, when u2f. =
2f, v=

Hence, AB AC 2f or OC OB = 2f

f OB and f
2
Meanvalue of f=. . CIn
152 Comprehemsive Practical Physics

GRAPH BETWEENu AND v

Scale
X-axis: 1 cm =... cm of u AY
Y-axis:1 cm=. cm of v

c V(cm)

45
B
-u (cm)

Fig. Graph between u and v. It is a rectangular hyperbola.

1
i) and 1 Graph. Select asuitablebutthe same scale to representalongX-axis and along
Y-axis. By sign conventionsis negative and is positive. Plot the various pointsfor
different
sets of values ofand from the observation table. The
graph comes out to be a straight line
as shownin graphbetweenand
The straight line cuts the two axes OX and OY at an angle of 45" at points P and Q,
and making equal intercepts on the axes. Measure the distance OP and OQ respectively
Then focal length, 1
 al LengthofSpherical
Lenses 153

GRAPH BETWEENAND
Scale
Y
X-axis 1 cm . . cm-1 of
Q
Y-axis:1 cm cm-1 of

cm

X O

Fig. Graph between andIt is a straight line.

Explanation
Same as for concave mirror.
(ti) Another u-v Graph. Select a suitable but the same
scale to represent u along X'-axis
and u along Y-axis.
Mark the points at distances
u,, u, u,. . .
etc.
along the OX-axis and
the corresponding points at distances v,, v,, v,
observations from the table.
. .
etc. along OY-axis for different sets of

a sraight lines joining u, with u,; u, with

v,; u, with v . . etc. These lines will intersect
point K as shown in the following graph. at

Draw KL and KM perpendiculars on X- and Y-axes,

respectively.
154 Comprehenotue Practical Physicg
ysics-A
GRAPH BETWEEN u AND v
Scale
X-axis: 1 cm=.. cm of u
Y-axis: 1 cm . . cm of v

N3
VA
K(f,1) M
45
45
ug 2u L
u (cm)

Fig. Graph between u and v.

Then, f OL = OM = ..... cm.

Explanation
Same as for concave mirror.
Note. It will be better to choose any four suitable sets of (u, v) from the observation table. All the six setso
observations may complicate the graph.

RESULT
The focal length of the given convex lens as determined from:
1. focal length,f-
2. (u u) graph =. cm

8raph= cm
and 4. (u-) graph cm.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Tips of the object and
image needles should lie at the same
2. Parallax should be removed height as the centre of the lens-
from tip to
30 cm
away from the needle. tip by keeping eye at a distance a t
c
3. The object needle
should be placed at such a
formed. distance that only real, inverted image ot it 13
4. Index correction for u
andv should be
applied.
 Lenses
Facal Lengthof Spherical

SOURCES OF ERROR

1 The uprights may not be the vertical.

2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
 Material, Glass Slab and Transparent Liquid 165
sefactive
hdex
e Index of Prism

EXPERIMENT 5
s.termine angle of mindmum deviation for a gtven prism by plotting a gaph between
and the angle of deviation.
gle oftncidence
AIM

APPARATUUs

Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half-metre scale, office pins,
protractor
and a
aper
graphj

THEORY

The refractive index (n) of the material of the prism is given by,

n =
sin (A:D
sin 2
where, Dis angle of minimum deviation
m

the prism.
and A is angle of

DIAGRAM

Ni N2 Na

35 40°
P2 45
B N A B A
X
X B
Fi Fa
S
C O2 C
P

Pa K
T Ta T
Fig. Refraction through prism at different angles.

PROCEDURE
a white sheet
sh of paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing pins or tape.
Draw as
straight line XX' parallel to the length of the paper nearly in the middle of the paper.
166
Comprebensdue Practical Physir
the straight line XX' at suitable distances Physic
3

Mark points Q,, Q, Q. on distances ofof ahrs

about 5 cm.
Draw normals N,Q, N,Q, N,Q. On points Q Q , , . as shown in diagram
Draw straight lines R,Q,, R,Q, R,Q, .. making angles of 35", 40",..60
60" (write value of th
the paper) respectively with the normals.
angles on

Mark one corner of the prism as A and take it as the edge of the prism for
all the
Put prism with its refracting face AB in the line XX and point observ
a
Q, in the middle of AB
Mark the boundary of the prism.
Fix two or more office pin P, and P, vertically on the line R,Q. The distance
should be 10 mm or more. between the pins
10. Look the images of point P, and P, through face AC.
11. Close your left eye and bring open right eye in line with the two images.
12. Fix two office pins P, and P, vertically, and 10 cm apart such that the open
P and P, and images of P, and P, in one straight line.
right eye sees pins
ins
13. Remove pins P, and P, and encircle their pricks on the paper.
14.Repeat steps 7 to 13 with points Q, Q. fori= 40, .., 60.
To measure D in different cases

15. Draw straight lines through points P, andP, (pin pricks) to obtain emergent
rays S,T, S,T,
16. Produce T,S, T,S,. T,S,..
inward in the boundary of the prism to meet produced incident rays
R,Q RQ R,Q. at points F, F, F .
17. Measure angles KFS, KE,S, KE,S,... These give angle of deviation D, D, D, .
18. Write values of these
angles on the paper.
To measure A
19. Measure angle BAC in the boundary of the
prism. This gives angle A
20. Record your observations.

OBSERVATIONS
Angle of prism A =

Serial No. of Obs. Angle of incidence Zi Angle ofdeviation 2D

1.
35
2. 40
3. 45
4. 50
5. 55
6. 60
 of Prism Material, Glass Slab and
of Pris 167
tive
Index
,.v
Transparent Liquid
{CULATIONS

between
graph be angle of incidence Zi and angle of deviation ZD by taking 2i along X-axis
v.Axis.
1
From this graph, find the value of angle of minimumdeviation D. corresponding
along

nd
the
D

hl o w e s t
point
of the
graph.

PROBABLE GRAPH BETWEEN z AND D

Scale
X-axis 1 2
Divisions
Y-axis 1 = 4Divisions

75

70

65

60

55

50
Pm
45°

40°

35

30
O30-35° 40° 45° 50°55°60° 65°70
Angle of incidence ()

incidence and angle of deviation.

Fig. Graph between angle of
Let the value of angle of minimum deviation, D . .

Then, n
sin2
sinA
RESULT
deviation (D) first
) the angle of incidence (i) increases, the angle of
Dgraph indicates that as
tor further increase in angle
and then starts increasing
Creases, attains a minimum value (D)
of incidence.

Angle of minimum deviation, D.=.

i1) Refrac
eractive index of the material of the prism,
n =,
168 Comprehenaiue Practical Ph
PRECAUTIONS
1. The angle of incidence should lie between 35°-60°.
2. The pins should be fixed vertical.
3. The distance between the two pins should not be less than 10 mm.
4
represent the incident and emergent rays.
Arrow heads should be marked to
5. The same angle of prism should be used for all the observations.

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. Pin pricks may be thick.

2. Measurement of angles may be wrong.
 EXPERIMENT 8
AIM: Todraw the I-V characteristic curve
of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias.
APPARATUS
Ap-n junction (semi-conductor) diode, a 3 volt battery, a 50 volt
rheostat, one 0-3 volt voltmeter, one 0-50 volt battery, a high resistance
0-100 A ammeter, one way
voltmeter, one 0-100 mA ammeter, one
key, connecting wires and pieces of sand paper.
THEORY
Forward-bias characteristics. When the
terminal of a battery and n-section is connected to p-section
of the diode is
connected to positive
said to be forward biased. With increase in negative terminal of the battery then junction is
bias voltage, the forward current
beginning and then rapidly. At about 0.7 V for Si diode (0.2 V for Ge), the increases slovwly in the
The value of forward bias current increases suddenly.
voltage, at which the forward current increases rapidly, is called
or threshold voltage. cut in voltage

Reverse-bias characteristics. When

of high voltage thep-section of the diode 1s
connected to negative
terminal
battery and n-section of the diode is connected to positive terminal of the
then junction is said to be reverse biased. same batterv,
When reverse bias voltage increases,
remains almost constant with bias. But when
initially there is a very small
reverse current
flow, which
reverse bias voltage increases to
the reverse current
suddenly increases to a large value. This voltage at wnlcn sutfhiciently high value
diode occurs (suddenly breakdown of junction
large current flow) is called zener breakdown voltage or inverse
breakdown voltage may starts from one volt to voltage. The
several hundred volts, depenaing upon dopant
and the depletion density
layer.
 185
and Transistors
Semiconductor Diodes

DIAGRAM

Potential
Divider

mA

3V

Fig.p-n junction diode -forward biased.

n
Potential
Divider

50 V

Fig.p-n junction diode -reverse biased.

PROCEDURE
For forward-bias
1. Make circuit diagram as shown in diagram.

2. Make all connections neat, clean and tight.

Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mA).
3
4 Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near negative end and insert the key
K. Voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mA) will give zero reading.
forward-bias voltage (V) of
5. Move the contact a little towards positive end to apply a

0.1 V. Current remains zero.

remains zero. (It is due
6. Increase the forward-bias voltage upto 0.3 V for Ge diode. Current
to junction potential barrier of 0.3 V).
7. Increase V, to 0.4 V. Milli-ammeter records a small current.
current. Current increases fhrst
8. Increase V, in steps of 0.2 V and note the corresponding
slowly and then rapidly, till , becomes 0.7 V.
stage.
9 Make V, 0.72V. The current increases suddenly. This represents "forward breakdown"
=

the forward current does not change

10. Ifthe V, increases beyond "forward breakdown" stage,
much. Now take out the key at once
11. Record your observations as given ahead.
 ComprehenetuePractical Physics-XI
186
For reverse-bias

circuit diagram as shown in diagram.

12. Make
clean and tight.
13. Make all connections neat, micro-ammeter (LA).
Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and
14. near positive end and insert the b
15. Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) key
Voltmeter (V) and micro-ammeter (uA) will give zero reading
reverse-bias voltage (V of0.5 V, a feebl
16. Move the contact towards negative end
to apply a
reverse current starts flowing.
and then rapidly till V, becomes
17. Increase V, in steps of 0.2 V. Current increases first slowly
20 V. Note the current.

18. Make V = 25 V. The suddenly. This represents "reverse breakdown

current increases
out the key at once.
stage. Note the current and take
19. Record your observations as given ahead.

OBSERVATIONS
For forward-bias
Range of voltmeter V
Least count of voltmeter .. V
Zero error of voltmeter . V

Range of milli-ammeter mA

Least count of milli-ammeter .. mA

Zero error of milli-ammeter . mA

1. Table for forward-bias voltage and forward current

Serial No. ofObs. Forward-bias Voltage V, (V) Forward currentI, (mA)

(1) (2) (3)
L. 0 0
2. 0.1
3. 0.2
4. 0.3
5. 0.4 0.5
6. 0.6 1
1. 0.8

1.0 3
9.
1.2
10.
1.4 7.5
11.
1.6 10
12.
1.8 15
13.
2.0 20
14.
2.2 25
15.
2.4 30
(Note. The readings are given as a sample.)
 and Transistors
emiconductor Diodes 187

For reverse-bias

Range of voltmeter .V

Least count of voltmeter V

Zero error of voltmeter VV

Range of micro-ammeter LA
Least count of micro-ammeter LA

Zero error of micro-ammeter

2. Table for reverse-bias voltage and reverse current

Serial No.of Obs. Reverse-bias Voltage V, (V)Reverse currentI, (uA)

(1) (2)

1. 0

2. 5.0

3. 7.0 2

4. 9.0 3

11.0

6. 13.0 5

1. 15.0

. 17.0

9. 19.0 11

10. 21.0 13

11. 23.0 15

12 25.0
25
Note. The
readings are
given as a sample.)
CALCULATIONS
For forward-bias
Plot a
graph between forward-bias voltage V, (column 2) and forward current , (column 3)
taking V, along X-axis and I, along Y-axis.
 8
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Reverse-bias current (() in um
.