See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/241096914

Heart Rate Variability in Horses Engaged in Equine-Assisted Activities

Article  in  Journal of Equine Veterinary Science · February 2011

DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2010.12.007

CITATIONS READS

29 911

3 authors, including:

Ann Baldwin Patric M Schiltz

The University of Arizona National University (California)
124 PUBLICATIONS   1,965 CITATIONS    64 PUBLICATIONS   840 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Dissertation Research View project

Physiology of Horse-Human Interactions View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Ann Baldwin on 12 December 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached
copy is furnished to the author for internal non-commercial research
and education use, including for instruction at the authors institution
and sharing with colleagues.
Other uses, including reproduction and distribution, or selling or
licensing copies, or posting to personal, institutional or third party
websites are prohibited.
In most cases authors are permitted to post their version of the
article (e.g. in Word or Tex form) to their personal website or
institutional repository. Authors requiring further information
regarding Elsevier’s archiving and manuscript policies are
encouraged to visit:
http://www.elsevier.com/copyright
 Author's personal copy

Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 31 (2011) 78-84

Journal of Equine Veterinary Science

journal homepage: www.j-evs.com

Original Research

Heart Rate Variability in Horses Engaged in Equine-Assisted Activities

Ellen Kaye Gehrke PhD a, Ann Baldwin PhD b, Patric M. Schiltz PhD c
a
Department of Community Health, National University, San Diego, CA
b
Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
c
Department of Health Sciences, National University, San Diego, CA

a b s t r a c t
Keywords: Although there has been a recent surge in using horses to treat mental and emotional
Autonomic nervous system human health issues, the consequences of horse-assisted interventions on the stress
Diurnal rhythm
response of horses have not been well documented. Assessment of the autonomic
Heart rate variability
Equine
nervous system and its regulation of cardiovascular function has been used as an indi-
Horse cator of acute and chronic stress in human beings and horses. Heart rate variability (HRV)
Sympathetic/parasympathetic balance is a noninvasive measurement that has been used to assess autonomic nervous system
Equine-assisted therapy regulation of cardiovascular function. There is evidence to suggest that several factors
including the genotype, behavior, environment, temperament, and nutritional status of
the horse play a key role in the large inter-individual variations in basal HRV. The present
study determined whether 24-hour HRV recordings in horses currently working in
equine-assisted therapy (EAT) differ from those previously shown in Thoroughbred
horses. Findings from the present study found that in contrast to previous studies in
Thoroughbred horses, diurnal and nocturnal low frequency and high frequency powers
were not significantly different in horses that are currently engaged in EAT. Future
studies are needed to determine the short- and long-term consequences of horses
participating in EAT programs. Findings from this study will provide the basis for the
development of a physiological/behavioral assessment criteria to determine the conse-
quences of EAT on the well-being of horses as well as to help EAT Centers to improve the
beneficial effects of EAT in human beings.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction among employees in a variety of corporations [5]. Although

Animal-assisted interventions have been shown to
improve cognitive, psychological, and social functioning,
while reducing blood pressure, heart rate (HR), and levels
of anxiety [1]. There has been a recent surge in using horses
to treat mental and emotional human health issues. For
instance, therapeutic horseback riding and equine-assisted
therapies (EAT) have been successfully used in individuals
with disorders of the central nervous system [2-4]. More-
over, horses have also played a co-coaching role in leader-
ship, teambuilding, and personal development programs
Correspondence author at: Ellen Kaye Gehrke, PhD, Department of
Community Health, School of Health and Human Services, National
University, 3678 Aero Court, San Diego, CA.
E-mail address: www.ekayegehrke@nu.edu (E.K. Gehrke).
horse-assisted interventions have increased in popularity,
there are also considerable efforts to strengthen the care
and welfare of horses used in these interventions [6].
However, the consequences of horse-assisted interventions
on the stress response of horses have not been well
documented.
Assessment of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and
its regulation of cardiovascular function have been used as
an indicator of acute and chronic stress in human beings [7]
and horses [8-10]. The ANS consists of two major branches,
the sympathetic system and the parasympathetic system.
When changes in the normal balance of these two systems
occur because of environmental challenges, the organism
becomes vulnerable to pathology [11]. Heart rate variability
(HRV) is a noninvasive measurement that has been used to
assess ANS regulation of cardiovascular function [7,12]. HRV

0737-0806/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jevs.2010.12.007
 Author's personal copy

E.K. Gehrke et al. / Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 31 (2011) 78-84 79

has been defined as the complex beat-to-beat variation in Table 1

HR produced by the interaction between sympathetic and Description of equine subjects

parasympathetic (vagal) neural activity at the sinus node of Equine Age Gelding Mare Experience
the heart [10-12]. HRV analysis has also been used as in EAT
a research tool in farm and companion animal species to (Years)

assess changes in sympathovagal balance associated to Mule (SeeMore) 35 X 3

stress, pathology, behavioral dysfunction, training regi- Peruvian Paso (Cassie) 20 X 3
Peruvian Paso (Vida) 21 X 3
mens, and emotional states [9,10,13-17] and to determine
Andalusian (Storm) 8 X 3
how differences between sympathetic and para- Andalusian (Tessie) 9 X (9 months 2
sympathetic contributions to HRV relate to disease, stress, pregnant)
and coping strategies [10]. Quarter horse (Rusty) 14 X 3
Quarter horse (Roanie) 25 X 3
HRV analyses in human beings and animals are mainly
Mustang (Tonopah) 14 X 2
based on time and frequency domain analyses [10,12,18]. Mustang (Shiloh) 7 X 3
Parameters of HRV in time domain analyses include inter-
EAT ¼ equine-assisted therapy, X indicates whether the Equine is
beats interval (IBI), which reflects the average time
a Gelding or a Mare.
interval between the R peaks of the QRS complex (R-R
interval). HRV parameters in time domain analyses also
between autonomic function and stress in horses, the use
include the standard deviation of all normal to normal
of HRV as a tool to assess the stress response in horses
(SDNN) IBIs and the root mean square of successive
working in EAT has not been well characterized. Improving
differences between adjacent normal R-R intervals
the way to scientifically assess the stress response in horses
(RMSSD) [10,12]. Although SDNN has been shown to be an
involved in EAT to assist people with physical and/or
accurate predictor of overall variability, RMSSD is an esti-
psychological conditions [28] is essential to determine how
mate of high frequency beat-to-beat variations associated
the horses are coping with their association with human
with parasympathetic vagal activity [10]. By contrast, Fast
beings. Because of the close interaction of horses used in
Fourier transformation is used to transform IBI time series
EAT with human beings diagnosed with a wide variety of
data into different frequency bands [10]. Studies in human
physical and/or psychological conditions [29], character-
beings have shown that the power in the high frequency
izing the relationship between HRV and behavior in this
(HF) band (0.15-0.4 Hz) is an index of parasympathetic
horse population could improve current understanding on
vagal tone [19,20]. Power in the very low frequency (VLF)
how horses are coping during EAT.
band (<0.04 Hz) and low frequency (LF) band (0.04-0.15
This report is part of a larger study assessing autonomic
Hz) have been associated with sympathetic and/or para-
function of horses actively working in EAT. The long-term
sympathetic activity [21]. However, the functional signifi-
objective of this study is to determine whether HRV could
cance of these measurements continues to be a subject of
be used as a measure to evaluate the suitability of a given
debate [20,22].
horseehuman pair for partnership in EAT. To accomplish
HRV has been used to assess stress reactions in horses in
this, the present study first determined whether 24-hour
response to aggressive handling, inappropriate stabling,
HRV recordings in horses currently working in EAT and co-
feeding, or long-distance traveling as well as stress from
coaching leadership training differ from those previously
pain or illness [8,9]. Although previous studies have
shown in Thoroughbred horses [16]. In this study, we
provided evidence to suggest that HRV in horses shows
report 24-hour, time and frequency domain analysis of HRV
good stability across age and a high degree of repeatability
in horses with 2-3 years of experience working in EAT and/
when tested over subsequent days [9,17], large inter-
or co-coaching leadership training. Findings from this
individual variations in the basal values of HRV in horses
study will provide the basis for the development of
have been also documented [10]. It has been proposed that
a physiological and/or behavioral assessment criteria to
several factors including the genotype, behavior, environ-
determine the consequences of EAT on the well-being of
ment, temperament, and nutritional status of the horse
horses as well as to help EAT Centers to improve the
play a key role in the large inter-individual variations in
beneficial effects of EAT in human beings.
basal HRV [10]. Most of the previous research on HRV in
horses has been performed in young Thoroughbred horses
during stall rest or during treadmill activity and no 2. Materials and Methods
evidence of previous or current EAT experience [23-27].
Horses used for EAT are usually semi-retired working 2.1. Subjects
horses of a wide range of breeds and ages, and are typically
standing or moving at a slow walk during their interactions Three mares and six gelding horses (n ¼ 9) with an
with clients. Moreover, horses engaged in EAT have a diet average age of 15.9  7.7 years (mean  standard deviation)
appropriate to their nutritional needs, which is often and most weighing between 900 and 1,100 pounds, and
different than high-performance diets used to feed Thor- a mule weighing 1,500 pounds participated in the present
oughbred horses. Whether these differences in the nutri- study. The research subjects were located in the San Diego,
tional status, physical activities, environment, and California area. Weather temperatures ranged from 45 F
interactions with human beings have an effect in basal HRV (night) to 80 F (day) during the 24-hour period of data
levels is presently unknown. collection from late March through early June. All horses
Although HRV studies in Thoroughbred horses have were treated in a humane manner in accordance with the
greatly improved our understanding of the relationship International Guiding Principles for Biomedical Research
 Author's personal copy
80 E.K. Gehrke et al. / Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 31 (2011) 78-84
Fig. 1. Photograph showing placement of two electrodes on one side of withers and on chest.
Involving Animals. The age, gender, and breed of the horses
are listed in Table 1. The HeartMath Research Institute
(Boulder Creek, California) analyzed the electrocardio-
graphic recordings of 12 horses. However, three horses
were found to show arrhythmias and were eliminated from
the study. All remaining horses (n ¼ 9) were healthy and
free of arrhythmia.
2.2. Experimental Protocol
The horses were allowed to walk freely in a two-acre
pasture. The researchers did not interact with the horses
in any way other than by attaching the electrodes and
feeding the animals during their normal morning, after-
noon, and evening feeding times of 6:30-7:00 AM and
6:30-7:00 PM. Two horses at a time were attached to
Holter monitors and 24-hour recordings were made.
Horses were fed alfalfa in the morning, bermuda grass at
noon, and a mix of bermuda and alfalfa in the evening. The
researchers recorded their observations of the equine
horses from a distance and findings were carefully docu-
mented with entries on an almost hourly basis during
the 24-hour period. The primary concern was that the
electrodes stay attached and that any deviations from the
horses’ “normal” day were noted. The horses were
observed walking their two acre pasture, drinking quietly,
conducting horse play during the day with their other herd
mate, lying down or dozing, standing up, eating, and
behaving during the 24-hour cycles in their normal daily
patterns. Otherwise, their environment was stable and
quiet during the data collection for all nine horses, as
confirmed by the observations. The only difference in their
daily patterns was that the owner did not groom, ride, or
have the horses do any EAT on the data collection day. The
horses were located near a secondary road and once a day
a garbage truck collected waste from the health center
across the road. The horses were accustomed to the noise
and no corresponding spikes on the HRV recordings were
noted. There were no disturbances apart from normal day-
to-day interactions with their other herd mate. Nighttime
observations were made on 1-2-hour intervals by walking
the outside of the pasture and noting the behavior of the
horses. They were always standing quietly at rest or lying
next to a herd mate standing next to them.
2.3. Recordings
Electrocardiographic recordings were done at various
times between late March and early June of 2006 using 24-
hour Holter monitors in nine horses. Four electrodes from
the monitors were attached to each equine animal to
surround the heart cavity. One electrode was placed on
either side of the withers, one in the center of the chest and
one at the cranial ventral abdomen. Initially, a veterinarian
was on-site for the electrode placement to ensure that the
major lead lines were centered along the heart meridians.
The Holter monitor was attached to the horse through an
adaptation of a neck and shoulder Lycra slinky sheet with
a pocket attached to protect the monitor. Four small
squares were shaved with horse clippers, and then a razor
was used to remove any additional hair from the skin. The
four electrode attachment sites were no bigger than 5 cm 
5 cm. The electrode attachment sites were on both sides of
the withers, the chest, and the underbelly. Iodine was used
to clean the area before attaching electrodes to the subjects.
In addition to conductive gel, superglue was used to attach
the electrodes. The horses stood quietly relaxed during hair
shaving and electrode attachment, demonstrating minimal,
if any, stress related to monitor hook-up stage. The glue and
the electrodes shed from their skin within a few days after
the data collection was complete and the hair quickly grew
back on each horse. There was no harm or discomfort noted
for any of the horses during the data collection process. A
photograph of electrode placement is shown in Figure 1.
Holter monitors (Del Mar Avionics) were used which
incorporate a time-lock control circuit to ensure that an
accurate tape speed is maintained throughout the 24-hour
electrocardiogram (ECG) recording period. The 24-hour
readings started at approximately 8:00 AM with readings
captured until 8:00 AM the following day. Nighttime read-
ings were defined as those readings obtained from dark
until 0800 the following day. Twenty-four-hour readings
 Author's personal copy
E.K. Gehrke et al. / Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 31 (2011) 78-84
(nighttime and daytime values) were obtained indepen-
dently (ie., the 24-hour readings were not the average of the
day-time and night-time values). There were slight changes
in temperature or hours of daylight during the 3-month data
collection phase. The researchers were careful to select days
that were mild with cool evenings and their daily rituals of
feeding and being with the herd were unaltered. The slinky
holding the monitor could get warm and thus cool days were
selected for the study. For this reason, and also because the
researchers had to monitor the horses on a 24-hour obser-
vation period while maintaining full-time jobs, it took almost
3 months to obtain data from nine horses.
2.4. Data Analysis
The data files obtained from the 24-hour readings were
sent to the HeartMath Research Institute, Boulder Creek,
California, for time and frequency domain analysis. The
Holter Monitoring software used (HeartMath, Impresario)
is produced by Delmar-Reynolds/Spacelabs, located in
Los Angeles, California. Algorithms within the software
program provide interactive interpretation of waveforms
for the raw ECG collected. Any abnormal beats were
removed from the data by a trained human operator. Arti-
facts and calibration pulses were also eliminated from the
data. Then a text file was generated for HRV analysis. The
program used to obtain the frequency domain from the HRV
data was DADiSP(r) (Newton, MA). Further details of the
methods and software used for the analysis are described in
McCraty and Atkinson [30]. HRV was measured using both
time and frequency domain analyses for 24 continuous
hours, with breakdown of the values obtained at night
compared with those observed during the day.
2.4.1. Time Domain Analysis
Time domain data were averaged over nine horses for
the 24-hour HR readings as a function of mean HR and
mean IBI. Time domain analysis is expressed as beats per
minute (bpm) or as IBIs in milliseconds (ms). Time domain
data were used to evaluate HRV in terms of three variables
all expressed in milliseconds: (i) the standard deviation of
all the normal RR intervals in a 24-hour ECG recording
(SDNN), (ii) the mean of the standard deviation of all RR
intervals for each 5-minute segment of the 24-hour
recording (SDNN index), and (iii) the root mean square of
successive differences between normal heart beats
(RMSSD). The SDNN reflects the ebb and flow of all the
factors that contribute to the HRV during a 24-hour
recording, including the slow oscillations that are believed
to reflect the intrinsic ability of the heart to respond to
hormonal influences [10,12,30]. Although the meaning of
this measure with respect to horses has not been evaluated,
in human beings, low SDNN is predictive of increased risk
of sudden cardiac death and ventricular tachycardia inde-
pendent of other established risk factors. The SDNN Index
provides an estimate of the variability because of the
factors only affecting HRV within a 5-minute epoch and is
calculated by first dividing the 24-hour recording into 288
5-minute segments and calculating the standard deviation
of all RR intervals during each segment. The SDNN Index is
the average of these 288 numbers. The index is believed to
be a measure primarily of autonomic influence on HRV
81
[30]. The RMSSD value is obtained by first calculating each
successive time difference between the QRS complexes in
milliseconds. Each of the values is squared and the result is
averaged before the square root of the total is obtained. The
RMSSD reflects the short-term variance in HR and is the
primary time domain measure used to estimate the HF
(fast) beat-to-beat variations in HRV that provides an
estimate of the parasympathetic regulation of the heart in
human beings.
2.4.2. Frequency Domain Analysis
The measurement of power within each of the frequency
bands is reported in absolute values of power (ms2). The
frequency bands and their corresponding wavelengths
selected for investigation were the same as those used for
human beings [30]: ultra-low frequency (ULF) ¼ <0.0033
Hz; VLF ¼ 0.0033-0.04 Hz; LF ¼ 0.04-0.15 Hz; and HF ¼
0.15-0.4 Hz. In human beings, the HF range correlates to
parasympathetic activity related to HR, which is largely
mediated by the vagus nerve [10]. The LF range can reflect
both parasympathetic and sympathetic activity in human
beings. However, in most cases, LF provides an approxima-
tion of sympathetic activity [10,30]. The VLF range is not as
well defined as HF and LF and while this frequency range
may be influenced by sympathetic activity, other factors may
also modulate its power [30,31]. The ULF frequency is highly
correlated to the SDNN and low values have been shown to
be predictive of mortality in postmyocardial infarction
patients. The 24-hour readings are necessary to capture
these data [30]. Normalized HF (HF NORM) and normalized
LF (LF NORM) were used to minimize the effects of the VLF
changes on the HF and LF values. This type of analysis
emphasizes the balance between the parasympathetic (HF)
and the sympathetic (LF) branches of the ANS [12,30]. LF
NORM and HF NORM components were calculated by
dividing the power of the LF and HF components by the total
power ([TP], from which the VLF power has been sub-
tracted), and multiplying by 100. The 5-minute TP is the
average of the TP (power in the band, <0.40 Hz) of each 5-
minute segment, which includes the ULF, VLF, LF, and HF
power spectrum bands. This measure provides an indicator
of overall autonomic activity, with sympathetic activity
being the primary contributing factor [10]. The 24-hour TP
analysis is a spectral analysis of the entire 24-hour record as
a whole (ie., it is not divided into 5-minute segments before
analysis). This allows for the ULF to be assessed.
2.4.3. Statistical Analysis
All data were subjected to statistical analysis using
a paired two-tailed Student’s t-test to determine whether
there was a significant difference between day and night
values for each parameter. A probability of less than .05 was
considered significant.
3. Results
3.1. Time Domain Analysis
3.1.1. Heart Rate
Results from the present study found an overall mean
HR of 43  8 bpm with a significant decrease (P < .001) at
 Author's personal copy

82 E.K. Gehrke et al. / Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 31 (2011) 78-84

Table 2 in the present study are likely because of the small sample
Frequency domain analysis of heart rate values size, different ages, breeds, and genders [10]. Horses
Frequency 24 Hour Day Night participating in the present study were recruited from
Domain a cross-section of hot-blooded and cold-blooded breeds, as
Measures well as a blend of age and gender. This sample represents
HF 1,359  1,179 1,125  757 1,981  2,899 horses commonly used in EAT centers.
LF 4,283  3,415 4,639  4,150 3,966  2,591 The results of this study showed that HRV oscillations in
VLF 15,221  12,661 15,640  12,774 15,885  12,141
horses engaged in EAT occur within the same frequency
5 minute TP 20,864  15,187 21,495  16,335 21,833  13,302
LF NORM 74.1  11.6 76.5  10.8a 69.7  14.5 ranges as for human beings. Previous studies measured
HF NORM 25.9  11.6 23.5  10.8a 30.3  14.5 HRV in horses using frequency ranges (LF: 0.01-0.07 Hz;
TP ¼ total power; HF ¼ high frequency; LF ¼ low frequency; VLF ¼ very
HF: 0.07-0.5 Hz) that were slightly different from those
low frequency; NORM ¼ normalized. typically used for human beings [16,23-25,27]. For instance,
Power values (TP) are expressed in ms2. Kuwahara et al. [27] defined LF (0.01-0.07 Hz) for sympa-
a
P < .05 between day and night values. thetic and/or parasympathetic activity and HF (0.07-0.6 Hz)
for parasympathetic activity using intravenous atropine
(0.04 mg/kg) and propranolol (0.2 mg/kg) to block auto-
night (39  8 bpm) compared with day (46  9 bpm). The
nomic nervous activity in horses. In those investigations, LF
horses assessed in the present study had an overall mean
and HF powers obtained from measurements on horses
IBI of 1,484  318 ms. Consistent with the HR data, night
during stall rest were quite similar to those reported in the
values (1,634  360 ms) were found to be significantly
present study. Interestingly, the HRV LF and HF frequency
increased (P < .0001), compared with day values (1,413 
ranges used in the present study were based on the ranges
313 ms).
used in human beings. These frequency ranges are slightly
different from those defined for horses by Kuwahara et al.
3.1.2. Heart Rate Variability
[27]. The present findings are consistent with the LF and HF
The SDNN index during night (205  84 ms) and day
power values obtained by Kato et al. [25], which used the
(207  91 ms) was not significantly different. Consistent
frequency ranges defined by Kuwahara et al. [27]. These
with the SDNN findings, a 24-hour SDNN index was 153 
results have important practical implications because it
57 ms with night (150  58 ms) and day (155  65 ms),
supports the use of measurement equipment using human
values not being significantly different. In contrast, the
frequency ranges in horses. For instance, these findings
horses demonstrated an average RMSSD of 123  69 ms
suggest that Polar Equine monitors, which use human
with a significantly (P < .05) lower value during daytime
frequency ranges and are used to monitor horse HRV
readings (115  68 ms) compared with nighttime values
during endurance events, can be used to obtain accurate
(152  86 ms).
HRV data in horses. Most importantly, validation of the use
of human-based HRV frequencies in horses means that
3.2. Frequency Domain Analysis direct comparisons can be made between human and
horse HRV patterns, providing a quantitative method of
Table 2 documents the values for the HF, LF, and VLF measuring interactive responses between the two species.
ranges measured in horses. Although there was no signif- These findings also suggest that the contributions to TP
icant difference between the nighttime and daytime HF between horses and human beings are similar.
values, the nighttime values showed a trend to be higher Findings from the present study demonstrated that
than those obtained during the day. There was no differ- the power values for the ULF band ranged from 11,109 to
ence between the values obtained for nighttime or daytime 67,269 ms2. Moreover, values for the TP obtained for the
readings in the VLF range. 24-hour period of recording ranged from 33,261 to 133,151
Table 2 also shows the values obtained for 5-minute TP, ms2 and the average value was 54,132  35,874 ms2. For
LF NORM, and HF NORM averaged over all nine horses for human beings, HF and LF power components account for
day and night periods. There was no significant difference 5% of TP and VLF and ULF account for the remaining 95%
between the 5-minute TP values during daytime compared [12]; thus, our findings regarding the spectral frequency
with nighttime. However, daytime values for LF NORM distributions of HRV in horses are consistent with findings
were significantly greater than at night (P < .05). Moreover, in human beings. However, the physiological correlates for
daytime values for HF NORM were significantly smaller the ULF contribution to HRV are unknown.
than at night (P < .05). Power values for the ULF band Findings from the present study reported statistically
ranged from 11,109 to 67,269 ms2. Values for the TP significant differences between day and night averages for
obtained for the 24-hour period of recording ranged from both time and frequency domain parameters. In particular,
33,261 to 133,151 ms2 and the average value was 54,132  LF NORM significantly decreased and HF NORM signifi-
35,874 ms2. cantly increased at night when the horses showed larger
periods of sleep. Considering that horses are less active and
4. Discussion spend more time sleeping at night than during daytime, the
observed reduction in HR at night and the concomitant
This study reports 24-hour recordings of HRV per- increase in IBI were expected. The increased RMSSD
formed on nine horses that were actively engaged in EAT nighttime value shown by the horses in the present study
and were allowed to move freely in turnout pasture. The was also anticipated because parasympathetic activity is
high standard deviations in HF, LF, and VLF readings found expected to be increased at night when horses spend more
 Author's personal copy
E.K. Gehrke et al. / Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 31 (2011) 78-84
time sleeping, compared with daytime. Moreover, LF values
showed a trend (not statistically significant) of an increase
during the day, compared with nighttime values. These
findings are expected because sympathetic function has
been correlated with LF activity. Consistent with the
present findings, results from previous studies in human
beings have shown that LF activity predominates during
waking hours and HF activity predominates during sleep
[32]. Moreover, the LF range in human beings has been
reported to be influenced by sympathetic activity, whereas
the HF range is an index of parasympathetic activity [12].
There is evidence to suggest that both LF and HF powers
tended to be higher at night than during the day when HRV
is recorded over a 24-hour period during stall rest [16].
These findings are in contrast to our results showing that
the non-normalized LF and HF powers showed no signifi-
cant difference between day and night in horses that were
allowed freedom of movement. It is possible that these
contradicting findings are because of differences in the age
and breed of the horses (2-year-old Thoroughbred horses
were used in the study by Kuwahara et al. [16] or previous
experiences (eg., Active physical training and nutrition of
Thoroughbred horses vs. EAT). In addition, although horses
in the study by Kuwahara et al. [16] were at stall rest, horses
in the present study were assessed in a more natural
environment. Moreover, previous studies on other species
have shown that environment can influence HRV diurnal
rhythm. For example, when miniature swine were housed
together in pairs instead of in isolation, the HRV diurnal
rhythm disappeared [33]. A recent study found that when
rodents were provided with enrichment items in their
cages, such as tunnels, the HRV diurnal rhythm also
disappeared [34]. However, whether the genetic or envi-
ronmental factors play a role in these differences [10] is
presently unclear. Future work is needed to determine the
short- and long-term consequences of participation of EAT
programs in horses. The baseline data obtained from this
study are critical in understanding the significance of
changes that take place in HRV dynamics by participating
in EAT programs.
Studies in human beings have found that HRV analyses
are useful for evaluating diseases, in particular cardiovas-
cular, psychiatric, and psychological disorders [35-38]. In
human beings, the dynamics of HRV and the correlation of
HRV to emotional states are well documented; different
types of emotions being readily distinguished by changes in
heart rhythm patterns that are independent of HR [39,40].
In addition, there is theoretical and empirical evidence for
the emergence of HRV as an important marker of emotional
regulatory ability [41]. The use of HRV analysis in animal
research to determine the role of the ANS to disease, stress,
and coping strategies [10] is of great relevance for animals
such as horses that participate in programs to assist people
with physical and/or psychological conditions [28]. Moni-
toring how horses are coping with their close association
with human beings will not only benefit the well-being of
the horses, but will provide important information that
could improve the efficacy of EAT programs and their
benefit to human beings. There are already several studies
that have used HRV to investigate the physiological basis
for the behavior and temperament of horses [9,17,42].
Therefore, HRV seems to be an appropriate variable to be
83
used in future studies evaluating the suitability of a given
horseehuman pair for partnership in EAT.
4.1. Limitations of the Data Collection
The HRV data may have been affected by the responses
of the horses to momentary environmental incidents that
could have occurred outside of the observation periods.
However, the purpose of the study was not to limit the data
collection only to periods of nonarousal, but to obtain
a record of a normal day in the life of the horse. To some
investigators, measuring HRV in animals that are not con-
strained but are free to roam, poses a problem. In fact, the
Task Force on HRV [12] states that in general, spectral
methodology should be applied only to relatively
stationary conditions. As stated by Grossman [43], one
assumption of the frequency domain procedures is that the
time series (variation in IBI over the recording period) has
a constant mean and autovariance for the entire epoch. In
practice, this assumption is violated when there is a slow
drift in the signal (a change in mean), over the recording
period. However, it is important to note that there is no
consensus on the stationary issue. In addition, according to
Grossman [43] large violations of the stationary assump-
tion have little effect on most HRV estimations. In the
present study, although the horses could move freely, our
observations indicated that most of their activities had low
effect, and that they rarely moved faster than a walk.
Reitmann et al. [9] showed that frequency domain HRV
parameters measured in the same horses at rest and at
a forward walk showed no significant difference between
the two conditions. For these reasons, it is unlikely that the
24-hour HRV recordings obtained from freely moving
horses were significantly affected by the nonstationary
issue. Finally, while the present study and most of the HRV
studies in horses have used Holter-type recordings, it is
important to point out that an increasing number of studies
are also using the Polar Vantage and Polar R-R system [10].
5. Conclusion
The heart and its regulation, in terms of neural control,
are similar in human beings and in horses [44]. Therefore, it
was not surprising that HRV analysis of horses demon-
strated measurable power values for all the frequency
ranges used in the analysis of human data, including ULF,
VLF, LF, and HF. This finding indicates that HRV analysis of
horses should be very similar to human beings, although it
is not known whether the values attributed to heart-related
disease in human beings are the same in horses. The values
obtained from this study are baseline values for horses
actively participating in an EAT program and could be used
in future studies determining whether the emotional state
of the horse is being influenced by external stimulation
such as humanehorse interactions. Most importantly,
these results indicate that the types of monitors commonly
used in horse facilities, which measure HRV in horses using
the same frequency ranges as for human beings, are
capable of providing valid data for both horses and human
beings. In future work, the aim will be to use HRV to
improve the consequences of EAT on the well-being of
horses and to help EAT Centers to improve the beneficial
 Author's personal copy
84 E.K. Gehrke et al. / Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 31 (2011) 78-84
effects of EAT in human beings. Findings from this report
are the basis of future studies determining whether HRV
could be used as a measure to evaluate the suitability of
a given horseehuman pair for partnership in EAT.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the Institute of HeartMath
Research Division, Boulder Creek, CA, particularly Rollin
McCraty, Ph.D. (Director), Mike Atkinson, PhD., and Jackie
Waterman (Medical Technician), for data analysis support
and consultative advice.
References
[1] Morrison M. Health benefits of animal-assisted interventions.
Complement Health Pract Rev 2007;12:51-62.
[2] All AC, Loving GL, Crane LL. Animals, horseback riding, and impli-
cations for rehabilitation therapy. J Rehabil 1999;65:49-57.
[3] Bass MM, Duchowny CA, Llabre MM. The effect of therapeutic
horseback riding on social functioning in children with autism. J
Autism Dev Disord 2009;39:1261-7.
[4] Sterba JA. Does horseback riding therapy or therapist-directed hip-
potherapy rehabilitate children with cerebral palsy? Dev Med Child
Neurol 2007;49:68-73.
[5] Gehrke EK. Developing coherent leadership in partnership with
horsesda new approach to leadership training. J Res Innovat Teach
2009;2:222-33.
[6] NARHA. Learn about equine welfare. Denver, CO: NARHA; 2010.
[7] Porges SW. The polyvagal perspective. Biol Psychol 2007;74:116-43.
[8] Rietmann T, Stauffacher M, Bernasconi P, Auer J, Weishaupt M. The
association between heart rate, heart rate variability, endocrine and
behavioural pain measures in horses suffering from laminitis. J Vet
Med A Physiol Pathol Clin Med 2004;51:218-25.
[9] Rietmann T, Stuart A, Bernasconi P, Stauffacher M. Assessment of
mental stress in warmblood horses: heart rate variability in
comparison to heart rate and selected behavioural parameters. Appl
Anim Behav Sci 2004;88:121-36.
[10] Von Borel E, Langbein J, Despres G, Hansen S, Leterrier C, Marchant-
Forde J, et al. Heart rate variability as a measure of autonomic
regulation of cardiac activity for assessing stress and walfare in farm
animalsda review. Physiol Behav 2007;92:293-316.
[11] Thayer J, Sternberg E. Beyond heart rate variability. Vagal regulation
of allostatic systems. Ann NY Acad Sci 2006;1088:361-72.
[12] Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North
American Society of Pacing Electrophysiology. Heart rate variability:
standards of measurement, physiological interpretation, and clinical
use. Circulation 1996;93:1043-65.
[13] Pomfrett CJD, Glover DG, Bollen BG, Pollard BJ. Perturbation of heart
rate variability in cattle fed BSE-infected material. Vet Rec
2004;154:687-91.
[14] Bachmann I, Bernasconi P, Hermann R, Weishaupt M, Stauffacher M.
Behavioural and physiological responses to an acute stressor in
cribbiting and control horses. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2003;82:297-311.
[15] Thayer JF, Hahn AW, Pearson MA, Sollers 3rd JJ, Johnson PJ, Loch WE.
Heart rate variability during exercise in the horse. Biomed Sci Ins-
trum 1997;34:246-51.
[16] Kuwahara M, Hiraga A, Kai M, Tsubone H, Sugano S. Influence of
training on autonomic nervous function in horses: evaluation by
power spectral analysis of heart rate variability. Equine Vet J Suppl
1999;30:178-80.
[17] Visser E, van Reenen C, van der Werf J, Schilder M, Knaap J,
Barnveld A, et al. Heart rate and heart rate variability during a novel
object test and a handling test in young horses. Physiol Behav
2002;76:289-96.
[18] Litvack D, Oberlander T, Carney L, Saul J. Time and frequency domain
methods for heart rate variability analysis: a methodological
comparison. Psychophysiology 1995;32:492-504.
[19] Akselrod S. Components of heart rate variability. In: Malik M,
Camm A, editors. Heart rate variability. Armonk, NY: Futura
Publishing Company; 1995. p. 147-63.
View publication stats
[20] Malliani A, Lombardi F, Pagani M, Cerutti S. Power spectral analysis
of cardiovascular variability in patients at risk for sudden cardiac
death. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1994;5:274-86.
[21] Cerutti S. Spectral analysis of the heart rate variability signal. In:
Malik M, Camm AJ, editors. Heart rate variability. Armonk, NY:
Futura Publishing Company, Inc; 1995. p. 63-74.
[22] Houle MS, Billman GE. Low-frequency component of the heart rate
spectrum: a poor marker of sympathetic activity. Am J Physiol Heart
Circ Physiol 1999;276:215-23.
[23] Physick-Sheard P, Marlin D, Thornhill R, Schroter R. Frequency
domain analysis of heart rate variability in horses at rest and during
exercise. Equine Vet J 2000;32:253-62.
[24] Ohmura H, Hiraga A, Aida H, Kuwahara M, Tsubone H. Effects of
initial handling and training on autonomic nervous function in
young Thoroughbreds. Am J Vet Res 2002;63:1488-91.
[25] Kato T, Ohmura H, Hiraga A, Wada S, Kuwahara M, Tsubone H.
Changes in heart rate variability in horses during immersion in
warm springwater. Am J Vet Res 2003;64:1482-5.
[26] Norman S, Eager R, Waran N, Jefferey L, Schroter R, Marlin D.
Recording of ECG signals on a portable MiniDisc recorder for time
and frequency domain heart rate variability analysis. Physiol Behav
2005;83:729-38.
[27] Kuwahara M, Hashimoto S, Ishii K, Yagi Y, Hada T, Hiraga A, et al.
Assessment of autonomic nervous function by power spectral
analysis of heart rate variability in the horse. J Auton Nerv Syst
1996;60:43-8.
[28] Klontz B, Bivens S, Leinart D, Klontz T. The effectiveness of equine-
assisted experiential therapy: results of an open clinical trial. Soc
Anim 2007;15:257-67.
[29] NARHA. Who is served. Denver, CO: NARHA; 2010.
[30] McCraty R, Atkinson M. Autonomic assessment report. A compre-
hensive heart rate variability analysis. Boulder Creek, CA: HeartMath
Research Center, Institute of Heart Math Research Center, Institute
of HeartMath; 1996.
[31] Ori Z, Monir G, Weiss J, Sayhouni X, Singer D. Heart rate variability.
Frequency domain analysis. Cardiol Clin 1992;10:499-537.
[32] Low P. Clinical autonomic disorders. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA:
Lippincott-Raven; 1997.
[33] Kuwahara M, Tsujino Y, Tsubone H, Kumagai E, Tsutsumi H,
Tanigawa M. Effects of pair housing on diurnal rhythms of heart rate
and heart rate variability in miniature swine. Exp Anim
2004;53:303-9.
[34] Brauner A, Kurjiaka D, Ibragimov A, Baldwin A. Impact of cage size
and enrichment (tube and shelf) on heart rate variability in rats.
Scand J Lab Anim Sci (in press).
[35] Eryonucu B, Bilge M, Guler N, Uygan I. The effect of autonomic
nervous system activity on exaggerated blood pressure response to
exercise: evaluation by heart rate variability. Acta Cardiol
2000;55:181-5.
[36] Karavidas M, Lehrer P, Vaschillo E, Vaschillo B, Marin H, Buyske S,
et al. Preliminary results of an open label study of heart rate vari-
ability biofeedback for the treatment of major depression. Appl
Psychophysiol Biofeedback 2007;32:19-30.
[37] Makela P, Vahlberg T, Kantola I, Vesalainen R, Jula A. The effects of
a 6-month sodium restriction on cardiac autonomic function in
patients with mild to moderate essential hypertension. Am J
Hypertens 2008;21:1183-7.
[38] Montano N, Porta A, Cogliati C, Constantino G, Tobaldini E, Casali K,
et al. Heart rate variability explored in the frequency domain: a tool
to investigate the link between heart and behavior. Neurosci Bio-
behav Rev 2009;33:71-80.
[39] McCraty R, Atkinson M, Tiller W, Rein G, Watkins A. The effects of
emotions on short-term power spectrum analysis of heart rate
variability. Am J Cardiol 1995;76:1089-93.
[40] Lane R, McRae K, Reiman E, Chen K, Ahern G, Thayer J. Neural
correlates of heart rate variability during emotion. Neuroimage
2009;44:213-22.
[41] Appelhans B, Luekens L. Heart rate variability as an index of regu-
lated emotional responding. Rev Gen Psychol 2006;10:229-40.
[42] Visser E, Van Reenen C, Rundgren M, Zetterqvist M, Morgan M,
Blokhuis H. Responses of horses in behavioral tests correlate with
temperament assessed by riders. Equine Vet J 2003;35:176-83.
[43] Grossman P. Breathing rhythms of the heart in a world of no steady
state: a comment on Weber, Molenaar, and van der Molen.
Psychophysiology 1992;29:66-72.
[44] Marr C. Cardiology of the horse. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 1998.