Atmosphere: Physical Geography Part-II

Physical Geography Part-II 7
01
Chapter
Atmosphere Notes
The pleasure of flying kite in a windy afternoon, of getting drenched in

the first showers of the monsoon, of seeing the moon go in and out of
clouds is not unknown to anyone! But, little do we realize that the wind
that blows our kite away, or the rains that give us water, or the clouds
that form strange shapes in the sky are all part of an all-encompassing
system — the atmosphere
Our planet is enveloped by a deep blanket of gases extending several

kilometres above its surface. Like the lithosphere and hydrosphere,
the atmosphere too is an integral part of a gigantic system... Earth.
The right kind of temperature coupled with the force of gravity, has
provided Earth an atmosphere that has no parallel. This makes Earth
unique in the solar system.
When compared with the radius of our planet, the atmosphere
appears to be only a very thin layer of gases. However, because of the
force of gravity, it is inseparable from the Earth. Atmosphere is more
commonly referred to as air. It is mobile, elastic and compressible.
The most interesting thing about air is that we do not feel its presence
unless it moves.
Our atmosphere is one of our most precious natural resources, and
constitutes a vital component in the systematic study of our planet. It
is a place of incredible activity and has been called the working fluid
of our planetary heat engine. Its constant motions shape the course of
environmental conditions at every moment on the surface.
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Origin
The origin of the atmosphere was not a unique event. It was associated
with the evolutionary processes which brought the Earth into existence.
However, it is also true that the composition of the atmosphere was not
always the same as it is today. Its composition is the result of a very gradual
change which began with the origin of the Earth some 4.6 billion years ago.
Ever since the Earth formed, the process of degassing or vulcanism has
taken place at periodic intervals. A secondary atmosphere began to be
formed by the gases that were released through degassing. This new
atmosphere was primarily composed of water vapour, carbon dioxide and
nitrogen. As the cooling of the Earth proceeded, liquid water and water
vapour that were co-existent condensed to form clouds. Subsequently heavy
rains started and the cycle of evaporation and precipitation continued to be
repeated which expedited the further cooling of the Earth. The heavy rains
not only removed much of the water vapour from the air, but also carried
away much of the carbon dioxide. Oxygen, the second most abundant gas
in the atmosphere, came at a much later stage. With the appearance of
green plants, the level of oxygen started rising slowly.
However, the composition of the atmosphere has been continuously
changing since it was formed. Notably, the level of oxygen has increased
manifold since the historic times. Our atmosphere has slowly evolved from
being a reducing entity comprising hydrogen, methane and carbon dioxide
to a gaseous cover that is life-giving.
General Studies for Civil Services Exam

8 Physical Geography Part-II
WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Weather is the day to day state of the atmosphere and consists of short-
term variations of energy and mass exchanges within the atmosphere
Notes and between the earth and the atmosphere. It results from process
that attempts to equalise differences in the distribution of net radiant
energy from the Sun.
Acting over an extended period of time, these exchange processes
accumulate to become climate. More than a statistical average, climate
is an aggregate of environmental conditions involving heat, moisture
and motion.
Any study of climate must consider extremes in addition to
means, trends, fluctuations, probabilities and their variations in time
and space.
Elements of Weather and Climate

• Rainfall
• Pressure
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Winds
• Sunshine
• Clouds
COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE
The earth’s atmosphere consists of a mixture of various gases
surrounding the earth to a height of many kilometers. Held to the earth
by gravitational attraction, this envelope of air is densest at sea level
and thins rapidly upward.
Although almost all of the atmosphere (about 97%) lies within 30
km of the earth’s surface, the upper limit of the atmosphere can be
drawn approximately at a height of 10,000 km, a distance approaching

the diameter of the earth itself. From the earth’s surface upward to an
altitude of about 80 km, the chemical composition of the atmosphere is
highly uniform throughout in terms of the proportions of its component
gases.
Pure, dry air consists largely of nitrogen, about 78% by volume,
and oxygen, about 21%. Nitrogen does not enter easily into chemical
union with other substances and can be thought of as primarily a
neutral substance. Very small amounts of nitrogen are extracted by
soil bacteria and made available for use by plants.
In contrast to nitrogen, oxygen is highly active chemically and
combines readily with other elements in the process of oxidation.
The combusion of fuels represents a rapid form of oxidation, whereas
certain forms of rock decay (weathering) represent very slow forms of
oxidation. Animals require oxygen to convert foods into energy.
The remaining 1 percent of the air is mostly argon, an inactive gas
of little importance in natural processes.
Part of that 1 percent consists of a very small amount of carbon
dioxide, about 0.033 percent. This gas is of great importance in
atmospheric processes because of its ability to absorb radiant heat
and so allow the lower atmosphere to be warmed by heat rays coming
from the sun and from the earth’s surface. Green plants, in the process

of photosynthesis, utilize carbon dioxide from the atmosphere,

converting it with water into solid carbohydrate.
Also present, but in extremely small amounts, are the following
gases: neon, helium, krypton, xenon, hydrogen, methane, and nitrous Notes
oxide.
All the component gases of the lower atmosphere are perfectly
diffused among one another so as to give the pure, dry air a definite
set of physical properties, just as if it were a single gas.
STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere has a layered structure, because of density
stratification as a result of which lighter gases move up and denser
ones settle down.
The lowermost part of the atmosphere in which we live, and which
is the theatre for almost all the weather phenomena is known as the
troposphere. Troposphere literally means the region of mixing and
has been derived from the Greek word ‘tropos’, meaning mixing or
turbulence. The height of the troposphere at the poles is about 8 km,
while at the equator it is about 16 km. This is because there is greater

heating at the equator.
Above troposphere is the stratosphere, which is important primarily
because of the presence of ozone. This layer of calm and clear air
is preferred for high-speed jet flights because of the absence of air
pockets. Also, the near absence of water vapour in this layer prevents
the formation of clouds, thus providing pilots with better visibility.
Above stratosphere is mesosphere, which is more of a transitional
layer. Above mesosphere lies the ionosphere, which has electrically
conducting layers that help in radio communication. There are
two important layers in the ionosphere viz. E Layer or Kennelly
Heavyside layer that reflects the medium radio waves, thus helping
in short distance radio communication and F Layer or Appleton layer
that reflects the short radio waves and helps in long distance radio
communication.
The outermost layer of the Earth’s atmosphere is known as the
exosphere. It is so highly rarified a region that its boundary is not clear.
The Troposphere and Man

The lowermost atmospheric layer, the troposphere, is of most direct
importance to Man. Almost all phenomena of weather and climate that
physically affect Man take place within the troposphere.
Besides the gases of pure dry air, the troposphere contains water
vapour, a colorless, odorless, gaseous form of water that mixes perfectly

Temperature more
Exosphere than 10000C
400 Km 400 Km
Notes Thermosphere
Ionosphere
Temperature
Increases
with height
Refects
radio
waves
80 Km 80 Km (-1000C)
(-1000C)
Temperature
Mesosphere decreases
with height
50 Km 50 Km (00C)
(00C) Temperature
O
Z Stratosphere Increases
O with height
N 18 Km (-800C)
ere
e Troposph
8 Km Temperature
Troposphere decreases
(-450C) with height
Earth
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
with the other gases of the air. The quantity of water vapour present
in the atmosphere is of primary importance in weather phenomena.
Water vapour can condense into clouds and fog. When condensation
is rapid, rain, snow, hail, or sleet-collectively termed precipitation-are

produced and fall to earth. Where water vapour is present only in small
proportions, extremely dry deserts result, In addition, a most important
function is performed by water vapour. Like carbon dioxide, it is a gas
capable of absorbing heat in the radiant form coming from the sun
and from the earth’s surface. Water vapour gives to the troposphere
the qualities of an insulating blanket, which inhibits the escape of heat
from the earth’s surface.
The troposphere contains myriads of tiny dust particles, so small
and light that the slightest movements of the air keep them aloft. They
have been swept into the air from dry desert plains, lake beds, and
beaches, or injected by explosive volcanoes. Strong winds blowing
over the ocean lift droplets of spray into the air. These may dry
out, leaving as residues extremely minute crystals of salt that arc
carried aloft. Forest and brush fires are another important source of
atmospheric dust particles. Countless meteors, vaporizing from the
heat of friction as they enter the upper layers of air, have contributed
dust particles. Industrial processes involving combustion of fuels are
also a major source of atmospheric dust.
Dust in the troposphere contributes to the occurrence of twilight
and the red colours of sunrise and sunset, but the most important
function of dust particles cannot be seen and is rarely appreciated.

Certain types of dust particles serve as nuclei, or centers, around

which water vapour condenses to produce cloud particles. In contrast,
the stratosphere is largely free of water vapour and dust. Clouds are
rare in the stratosphere, but there are high-speed winds in narrow Notes
zones.
THE OZONE LAYER-A SHIELD TO LIFE

Of vital concern to Man and all other life forms on earth is the presence
of an ozone layer within the stratosphere. This layer sets in an altitude
of about 15 km and extends upward to about 55 km. The ozone layer
is a region of concentration of the form of an oxygen molecule known
as ozone (O3), in which three oxygen atoms are combined instead of
the usual two atoms (O2), Ozone is produced by the action of solar
radiation on ordinary oxygen atoms.
The ozone layer serves as a shield, protecting the troposphere and
earth’s surface by absorbing most of the ultraviolet radiation found
in the sun’s rays. If these ultraviolet rays were to reach the earth’s
surface in full intensity, all exposed bacteria would be destroyed and
animal tissues damaged severely. In this protective role. the presence
of the ozone layer is an essential factor in Man’s environment.
A serious threat to the ozone layer is posed by the release into
the atmosphere of Freons, synthetic compounds containing carbon,
fluorine, and chlorine atoms. Compounds of this class are also called
halocarbons. An alternative name is chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs.
Prior to a ban issued in 1976 in the United States, many aerosol spray
cans used in the household were charged with halocarbons. They are
also widely used as refrigerants, a practice that continues to contribute
to the release of halocarbons.
Molecules of halocarbons drift upward through the troposphere

and eventually reach the stratosphere. As these compounds absorb
ultraviolet radiation, they are decomposed and chlorine is released.
The chlorine in turn attacks molecules of ozone, converting them in
large numbers by chain reaction into ordinary oxygen molecules. In
this way the ozone concentration within the stratospheric ozone layer
can be reduced, and the intensity of ultraviolet radiation reaching the
earth’s surface can be increased. A marked increase in the incidence
of skin cancer in humans is one of the predicted effects. Other possible
effects are reduction of crop yields of various plants and the killing of
certain forms of aquatic life found in the surface layer of the oceans
and in streams and lakes.
INSOLATION & TEMPERATURE

Temperature and Temperature Distribution
• The Primary source of energy of earth is Sun.
• Earth intercepts only one in two billion of the total energy radiated
by the sun.
• The incoming solar radiation is known as Insolation.
• The incoming solar radiation is in the form of short waves.
• The amount of solar energy received at the outer margins of our
atmosphere is found to be constant. It is 1.94 calories/sq. cm./
minute and is known as solar constant.

INSOLATION
Insolation is the incoming solar radiation. It is received in the form of
short waves. The earth’s surface receives this radiant energy at -the
Notes rate of 2 cal/sq/cm/minute.
Of the total radiant solar energy that strikes the outer surface of
the atmosphere, only half (approximately 51 per cent) is able to reach
the earth’s surface directly or indirectly and is absorbed. The rest is
lost through scattering (by gas molecules), reflection (by clouds) and
absorption (largely by water vapour) passing through the atmosphere.
Factors affecting the distribution of Insolation

• Angle of incidence
• Vertical rays heat the minimum possible area.
• Oblique rays have to traverse a larger distance through the
atmosphere
• Longer the period of sunshine, larger the supply of radiation.
• Transparency of the atmosphere.
• Reflection from dust, salts, smoke, cloud tops.
• Water vapour & dust particles can reflect, scatter or absorb
incoming radiation
• Distance between the earth and Sun.
• Earth has an elliptical orbit.
• Perihelion and aphelion
• Approximately 7% difference
• Solar constant
• very negligible change
• variations caused by periodic disturbances and explosions in
solar surface
• Sunspot cycle – 11 years
PROCESS OF HEAT TRANSFER

Radiation
Radiation is direct heating of a body or an object by the transmission
of heat waves. This is the only mechanism in which heat can travel
through the relative emptiness of space. Hence, the vast amount of
energy coming to and leaving the earth are in this form.
The amount and nature of radiation are governed by certain basic
laws such as:
• All objects, whatever may be their temperature, emit radiant energy.
• Hotter objects radiate more energy per unit area than the colder
objects.
• Temperature of an object also determines the wave length of
radiation. Radiation from the earth is called terrestrial radiation and
it is in the form of long waves.
• Objects that are good absorbers of radiation are also good emitters.
The earth’s surface is a good absorber of the insolation. It is also
a good radiator as it radiates with 100 per cent efficiency. On the
other hand, gases and water vapour are selective absorbers and
radiators.
The atmosphere is very transparent to insolation because it does
not absorb certain wave length of radiation such as visible light. But it is

nearly opaque (good absorber) to long wave terrestrial radiation since

gases such as water vapour and carbon dioxide are good absorbers
of long wave radiation.
The atmosphere is, therefore, heated more by terrestrial Notes
radiation than the incoming solar radiation. This also explains why
the atmosphere is heated from the ground up instead of vice versa
especially in the troposphere.
Conduction
Transfer of heat through matter by molecular activity is called
conduction. When two bodies of unequal temperature are in contact
with one another, there is a flow of energy from the warmer to the
cooler body. This transfer of heat continues until both the bodies attain
the same temperature or the contact is broken.
Metals are good conductors. Air, on the other hand, is a poor conductor
of heat. Conduction is important only in the lower layers of the atmosphere
where the air is in the direct contact with the earth’s surface.
Convection
Transfer of heat by the movement of a mass or substance from one
place to another is called convection. Convective motions are possible
only in liquids and gases.

When the air in the lower layers of the atmosphere gets heated
either by terrestrial radiation or conduction, it expands. Owing to
decrease in density, it moves upward. Continuous ascent of the
heated air mass pushes aside the air at the higher levels. As a result,
the pushed air mass moves horizontally towards cooler areas and
gradually descends down due to increasing density.
Due to continuous ascent of the heated air, a vacuum is created in
the lower layers of the atmosphere. Cooler air mass moves horizontally
near the earth’s surface to fill up this void. Reaching the heated region,
it also warms up and rises. Hence, cyclic movements associated with
the convectional currents in the atmosphere transfer heat from the
lower layers to the upper layers and heat up the atmosphere.
HEAT BUDGET
Let us assume that the total heat received at the top of the atmosphere
is 100 units. Roughly 35 units are reflected back to space even before
reaching the earth’s surface. Of these, 27 units are reflected back from
the top of the clouds and 2 units from the snow and ice-covered areas
of the earth. The reflected amount of radiation is called the albedo of
the earth.

The remaining 65
units are absorbed,
14 units within the
Notes atmosphere and 51
units by the earth’s
surface. The earth
radiates back 51
units in the form of
terrestrial radiation.
Of these, 17 units
are radiated to
space directly and
the remaining 34
units are absorbed
by the atmosphere
(6 units absorbed
directly by the
atmosphere, 9 units
through convection
and turbulence and 19 units through latent heat of condensation). 40
units absorbed by the atmosphere (14 units from insolation +34 units
from terrestrial radiation) are also radiated back into space. Thus, the
total radiation returning from the earth and the atmosphere respectively
is 17+48= 65 units which balance the total of 65 units received from
the Sun. This is termed the heat budget or heat balance of the earth.
ALBEDO
The percentage of shortwave radiation reflected by land and water
surfaces is an important property because it determines the proportion
of insolation that is absorbed at the surface and converted into sensible
heat.
For the earth as a whole planet. albedo measured from an orbiting
satellite depends on both surface reflection and cloud reflection
because as clouds are excellent reflectors of shortwave radiation. The
equatorial zone is a belt of low albedo, mostly in the 15 to 25 percent
range. Across midlatitudes, albedo increases steadily poleward.
Maximum values are over the snowcovered surface of Antarctica.
Surface Percent Reflected

Fresh snow 80-90
Old snow 50-60
Sand (beach, desert) 20-40
Grass 5-25
Dry soil (plowed field) 15-25
Wet earth (plowed field) 10
Forest 5-10
Water (Sun near horizon) 50-80
Water (Sun near Zenith) 5-10
Thick cloud 70-85
Thin cloud 25-30
Earth and atmosphere (overall total) 30

Latitudinal Heat Balance

Although the earth as a whole maintains a balance between the
incoming and outgoing radiation, still its ratio is not uniform all over the
earth. The amount of insolation gradually decreases from the equator Notes
towards the poles. The amount of terrestrial radiation also varies. At
latitudes below 40 degrees more solar radiation is received than is lost
to space by the earth. The opposite is true for higher latitudes where
more heat is lost than the received. The tropics, therefore, should have
been getting progressively hotter and the poles getting progressively
cooler. But this is not so.
The atmosphere and the oceans act as giant thermal engines that
transfer heat from the tropics towards the poles. As most of the heat
transfer takes place across the mid-latitudes, much of the stormy
weather is associated with this region. Thus, the transfer of surplus
energy from the lower latitudes to the deficit energy zone of the higher
latitudes, maintains an overall balance over the earth’s surface.
TEMPERATURE
Essentially heat is a form of energy which makes things hotter. In other
words, it refers to the quantity of energy. Temperature measures the
intensity of heat i.e., the degree of hotness.
They are related because gain or loss of heat is necessary to
raise or lower the temperature. Besides, difference in temperature it
determines the direction of heat flow.
Factors controlling Temperature
Insolation
• Single greatest cause for temperature variation.
Land and water
• Differential heating of land and water surfaces.

• Greater extremes of temperature over land than over oceans.
• Temperature contrast between land and oceans more in winter
than in summer.
Prevailing winds
• Windward coastal location has moderating influence of the oceans.
Ocean currents
• Warm currents raise the temperature of the coastal areas.
• Cold currents lower the temperature e.g. N Atlantic drift, Benguella
current.
Altitude
• Atmosphere is heated from below by the terrestrial long wave radiations.
• Normal lapse rate 10C for every 165 m.
Aspect of slope
• Slopes more exposed to the sun receive more solar radiation e.g.
Himalayas – southern slope.
Inversion of Temperature
Temperature inversion, is a reversal of the normal behavior of
temperature in the troposphere, in which a layer of cool air at the
surface is overlain by a layer of warmer air.
Effects
Inversions play an important role in determining cloud forms,
precipitation and visibility.

An inversion acts as a cap on the upward movement of air from the

layers below. As a result, convection produced by the heating of air
from below is limited to levels below the inversion. Diffusion of dust,
Notes smoke, and other air pollutants is likewise limited.
In regions where a pronounced low-level inversion is present,
convective clouds cannot grow high enough to produce showers.
Visibility may be greatly reduced below the inversion due to the
accumulation of dust and smoke particles. Because air near the base
of an inversion tends to be cool, fog is frequently present there.
Inversions also affect diurnal variations in temperature. Diurnal
variations tend to be very small.
Ideal Conditions For Temperature Inversion
• Long nights, so that the outgoing radiation is greater than the
incoming radiation.
• Clear skies, which allow unobstructed escape of radiation.
• Calm and stable air, so that there is no vertical mixing at lower levels.
MOISTURE IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Water-vapour content forms only a small proportion by volume of the
atmosphere, it is the most important constituent of the air in deciding
weather and climate.
Water-vapour in the atmosphere comes through evaporation
from the oceans, lakes, rivers, ice-fields and glaciers, which together
comprise about 75 per cent of the earth’s surface.
There is a continuous exchange of water between the oceans, the
atmosphere and the continents through evaporation, transpiration,
condensation and precipitation. This unending circulation of the water
on the earth is called the hydrologic cycle.
HUMIDITY
• Humidity is the state of the atmosphere in relation to its water

vapour content.
• Atmosphere gains water vapour mainly by:
• Evaporation
• Transpiration from plants
• Atmosphere looses water vapour mainly in the form of rain or snow.
• Most important factor controlling the atmospheric moisture is
temperature
Measurement of Humidity
• Absolute humidity: The weight of actual amount of watervapour
present in a unit volume of air is called the absolute hurnidity. It
is usually expressed as grams per cubic metre of air. Absolute
humidity of the atmosphere changes from place to place and from
time to time. Warm air can hold more moisture than the cold air.
• Specific Humidity: The weight of water-vapour per unit weight of
air, or the proportion of the mass of water-vapour to the total mass
of air is called the specific humidity. Since it is measured in units of
weight (usually grams per kilogram), it is not affected by changes in
pressure or temperature.
• Relative humidity: It is the ratio of the air’s actual water-vapour
content to its water-vapour capacity at a given temperature.
This relationship between absolute humidity and the maximum

moisture holding capacity of air at a particular temperature is

always expressed in percentage. It can be changed in either of the
two ways. First, if moisture is added. by evaporation, the relative
humidity will increase. Second, a change in temperature will also Notes
affect relative humidity and a decrease will cause an increase in
relative humidity.
• Air containing moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature is
said to be saturated. It means that the air at the given temperature
is incapable of holding any additional amount of moisture at that
stage. The relative humidity of the saturated air is 100 per cent.
• The temperature at which saturation occurs in a given sample of air
or water-vapour begins to change into water is known as dew point.
A moist air as in equatorial region has high relative humidity, and
dry air as in a desert has low relative humidity although the latter is
capable of holding more of it.
Evaporation
Evaporation is the process by which water is transformed from liquid
to gaseous form. One calorie is the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of one gram of water to 1°C. The energy which is
subsequently released as heat when the vapour changes back into
liquid, it is generally referred to as latent heat.
Factors which favour Evaporation
• Initial humidity: if the air is very dry, strong evaporation is likely to occur.
• Supply of heat: higher the temperature of the water and the air
above it, faster the rate of evaporation.
• Wind strength: in calm conditions evaporation quickly saturates the
overlying air, thus limiting further evaporation.
Condensation

The process by which vapour changes into a liquid or solid form, either
by cooling air below its dew point or by saturating air.
Favorable conditions
• Radiation/conduction at the surface on a calm, cool night.
• Advection/conduction when warm moist air cross over a cold water
body.
• Adiabatic expansion of rising air - (most frequent condition).
• Mixing of warm moist air with cool air.
Essential Condition
• Presence of ‘hygroscopic nuclei’ in the atmosphere.
• In pure air, even if the relative humidity is over 100% condensation
will not take place.
• Salt derive from the sea, dust and pollen particles can become
hygroscopic nuclei.
Adiabatic Process
• It occurs on parcels of air rising through the atmosphere to higher
elevations.
Air may be induced to rise by:
i) Convection caused by the heating below
ii) Orographic uplift
iii) Turbulence in air flow
iv) Uplift at frontal surfaces

• In adiabatic process there is no exchange of heat from the parcel of

air.
• As air rises up, due to decrease in pressure, air expands.
Notes • But to expand, energy is required and this energy is provided by the
parcel itself, resulting in drop in temperature.
Lapse Rate
The rate of temperature change in the atmosphere with height,
sometimes referred to as vertical temperature gradient.
• Dry adiabatic lapse rates: When a parcel of dry unsaturated air
rises through the atmosphere in equilibrium, it expands and cools
at a constant rate, termed as dry adiabatic lapse-rate which is 100C
per kilometer.
• Saturated adiabatic lapse rate: This has lower values between 40C/
km to 90C/km, because, latent heat released in the condensation
process partly offsets the adiabatic temperature loss.
• Environmental lapse-rate: The actual rate at which temperature
decreases with increasing altitude at a given place at a specific
time. It averages about 6.40C per kilometer.
CLOUDS
A cloud is a mass of small water droplets or tiny ice crystals. Clouds
form when moist air rises and cools. Heat from the sun turns water
in the oceans, rivers, and moist soil, into water vapour. The water
vapour expands as it rises and becomes cooler. Cool air cannot hold
as much moisture as warm air and soon reaches a saturation point.
The water vapour condenses into tiny water droplets forming clouds.
Their form, shape, height and movements tell us a great deal about
the sky conditions and the likely weather.
Everyone is aware that clouds occur in many shapes and sizes,

and vary from white to black, depending on how thick they are and
whether the sun is shining through them or not. Because of the
profusion of cloud forms, some sort of cloud classification is obviously
necessary if we are to associate clouds with specific weather. Notes
A. High Clouds
(i) Cirrus - wispy shaped (ii) Cirrostratus - which produces a halo
effect around the sun or moon (iii) Cirrocumulus - popularly known
as the mackerel sky
B. Middle Clouds (i) Altostratus (ii) Altocumulus
C. Low Clouds (i) Stratus (ii) Nimbostratus - popularly called the rain
clouds.
(iii) Stratocumulus
D. Clouds with vertical development (i) Cumulus - is the familiar
white woolpack cloud, often indicative of bright brisk weather.
(ii) Cumulonimbus - or the thunder clouds associated with heavy
precipitation and thunderstorms.
For meteorological purpose, the amount of cloud cover in the sky is
expressed in eighths or oktas.
2/8 Quarter covered
4/8 Half covered
8/8 Completely
overcast
Forms of Condensation
Dew
• When the moisture is deposited in the form of water droplets on
cooler surface of solid objects such as stones, grass blades and
plant leaves, it is known as dew.
• The ideal conditions for its formation are a clear sky, little or no
wind, high relative humidity and cold and long nights. For the

formation of dew, it is necessary that the dew point is above
freezing point.
White Frost
• When condensation takes place at a dew point which is at or
below freezing point (00C), excess moisture is deposited in the
form of minute ice crystals instead of droplets of water. It is called
white frost.
• The ideal conditions for the formation of white frost are the same
as those for the formation of dew, except that the air temperature
must be at or below freezing point.
Fog
• The microscopic small drops of water condensed from and
suspended in air near the surface of the earth in sufficient number
to reduce the horizontal visibility to less than 1 km.
• Radiation Fog: When calm moist air cools in place by nocturnal
radiation. A light wind is a necessary condition
• Advection Fog: When warm moist air blows over a cool surface
and is chilled below its dew point.
• Frontal Fog: Fogs produced along the front of two different air
masses. Caused by the saturation of the cold surface layer of air
by rain falling from the ascending warm air mass.

Smog
• In the polluted air of large industrial centres, air contains large number
of soot and dust particles which are hygroscopic. The fogs produced
Notes in these areas are dirty and mixed with smoke are known as smog.
Haze
• A state of obscurity in the lower layers of the atmosphere owing to
the presence of large number of condensation nuclei. The visibility
is just above 2 kms.
Mist
• The degree of atmospheric obscurity midway between haze and
fog with visibility between 1 and 2 kms.
PRECIPITATION
Continuous condensation in free air helps the condensed particles to
grow in size. When the resistance of the air fails to hold them against
the force of gravity, they fall on the earth’s surface. Condensation of
water-vapour in the air in the form of water droplets and ice and their
falling on the ground is called precipitation.
Forms of Precipitation
Rain
• The most common precipitation.
• Forms from clouds in rising air.
• Rain droplets have a range of 1 mm to 5 mm in diameter.
• They may begin as snow crystals which melt while descending
through warms air.
• Rain that freezes as it passes from warm air through a cold layer
near the surface becomes Sleet.
Convectional Rainfall
This type of rainfall is most common in regions that are intensely

heated, either during the day, as in the tropics, or in the summer, as
in temperate interiors.
When the earth’s surface is heated by conduction, moisture-laden
vapour rises because heated air always expands, and becomes lighter. Air
rises in a convection current after a prolonged period of intense heating.
In ascending, its water vapour condenses into cumulonimbus
clouds with a great vertical extent. This probably reaches its maximum
in the afternoon when the convectional system is well developed.
Hot, rising air has great capacity for holding moisture, which is
abundant in regions of high relative humidity. As the air rises it cools
and when saturation point is reached torrential downpours occur, often
accompanied by thunder and lightning.
The summer showers in temperate regions are equally heavy with
occasional thunderstorms. These downpours may not be entirely
useful for agriculture because the rain is so intense that it does not
sink into the soil but is drained off almost immediately.
Orographic or Relief Rainfall
Unlike convectional rain which is caused by convection currents,
orographic rain is formed wherever moist air is forced to ascend a
mountain barrier. It is best developed on the windward slopes of mountains
where the prevailing moisture-laden winds come from the sea.

The air is compelled to rise and is thereby cooled by expansion in the

higher altitudes and the subsequent decrease in atmospheric pressure.
Further ascent cools the air until the air is completely saturated.
Condensation takes place forming clouds and eventually rain. Notes
Since it is caused by the relief of the land, it is also known as relief rain.
Much of the precipitation experienced on the windward slopes
of the north-east of West Malaysia, western New Zealand, western
Scotland and Wales and the Assam hills of the Indian sub-continent,
is relief rain.
On descending the leeward slope, a decrease in altitude increases
both the pressure and the temperature, the air is compressed and
warmed Consequently, the relative humidity will drop. There is
evaporation and little or no precipitation. The area in the lee of the hills
is termed the rain shadow area.
The effects of rain shadow are felt on the Canterbury Plain of South
Island, New Zealand and the western slopes of the Northern and
Central Andes and in many other areas.
Frontal Rainfall
This type of rainfall is independent of relief or convection. It is purely
associated with cyclonic activity whether in the temperate regions
(depressions) or tropical regions (cyclones).
Basically it is due to the convergence of two different air masses
with different temperatures and other physical properties.
As cold air is denser, it tends to remain close to the ground. The
warm air is lighter and tends to rise over the cold air. In ascent,
pressure decreases, the air expands and cools, condensation takes
place and light showers called cyclonic or frontal rain occur.
The heavier and colder air masses eventually pushes up the
warmer and lighter air and the sky is clear again.

Drizzle
• Consists of uniformly minute droplets of water.
• Diameter less than 0.5 mm.
• They seem to float in response to the slightest movement of air.
• May fall continuously from low stratus-type clouds.
• Drizzle never originate from convective clouds.
Hail
• Strong rising convective currents, as in a cumulonimbus cloud, carry
the raindrops formed by intense condensation and coalescence of
water droplets to higher levels where they freeze to become ‘hail’.
• These frozen droplets fall after reaching a level of decreasing convection.
• They take on a coat of ice as they collide with super cooled droplets.
• Repeated ascent and descent results in concentric layers.
Snow
• When temperatures are well below the freezing point, minute
spicules aggregate into larger snowflakes.
• At extremely low temperature snow will be powdery and dry.
• At near freezing point, thawing takes place and it becomes wet.
Sleet
• When a laver of air with temperature above freezing point overlies
a sub-freezing layer near the ground, precipitation takes place in
the form of sleet.

DISTRIBUTION OF PRECIPITATION
• High latitudes having high pressure associated with subsiding and
diverging winds, experience rather dry conditions.
Notes • The equatorial belt with low pressure and its converging winds, and
ascending air receives ample precipitation.
• Cold air has low capacity to hold moisture than the warm air, a
general decrease in precipitation is revealed with the increasing
distance of latitude from the equator towards the poles.
• Large land masses in the middle latitudes generally experience a
decrease in precipitation towards their interiors.
• Windward mountain slopes receive abundant precipitation, while
leeward slopes and adjacent low lands fall in rain-shadow.
• The equatorial belt, the windward slopes of the mountains along
the western coasts in the cool temperate zone and the coastal
areas of the monsoon lands, receive’ heavy precipitation of over
200 centimetres per annum.
• Areas adjacent to the high precipitation regime receive moderate
rainfall varying from 100 to 200 centimetres per annum.
• The central parts of the tropical land and the eastern and interior
parts of the temperate lands receive inadequate precipitation
varying between 50 to 100 centimetres per annum.
• Areas lying in the rain-shadows, the interior of the continents and
high latitudes receive low precipitation of less than 50 centimetres
per annum.
• In some regions, precipitation is distributed evenly throughout the
year such as in the equatorial belt and the western parts of cool
temperate regions.
• Some of the regions such as monsoon lands and the Mediterranean
regions experience seasonal rainfall.
Greenhouse Effect
The Greenhouse Effect is the result of the atmosphere’s absorption of long-wave radiation emitted by Earth.
Among the atmospheric constituents, carbon dioxide absorbs the largest proportion of that radiation. Thus,
when the carbon dioxide content of air changes, a corresponding increase or decrease in the greenhouse
effect occurs. The natural supply of carbon dioxide has probably varied little over the past several million
years, but over the past 200 years human beings have increasingly acquired the capacity to alter this
balance.
In particular, the coming of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century has been accompanied
by an ever-greater consumption of coal, oil and natural gas. The burning of these fossil fuels produces
enormous quantities of carbon dioxide, and the global levels of this variable atmospheric gas have risen
substantially in recent decades. Although no firm conclusions have emerged from various scientific studies
on the possible climatic and other environmental consequences of a heightened greenhouse effect, the
evidence gathered to date suggests that higher levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide may be linked to the
increase in global temperatures.
Scientists who subscribe to the greenhouse theory of climate change have delivered forecasts of future
environmental conditions. Some predict an intensification of the global warming, with average temperatures
steadily rising by as much as 1.0 to 4.50C by 2050. Others forecast a different scenario that involves the
oceans. They argue that much of the increased heat of the atmosphere today is really being absorbed and
temporarily stored by the sea. Over the next few years, however, they expect that heat to be released in
vast quantities, thereby causing sudden, significant climatic change without warning.
These prognostications have led some to consider other implications of such greenhouse warming like
dramatic alteration of weather patterns, intensification of storm systems, re-direction of ocean currents and
severe coastal flooding as melting polar ice-caps can raise global sea levels by as much as 5 feet by 2050.

Isopleths
Type Connects points of equal
Isallobar Change in atmospheric pressure
Notes
Isobath Depth below the surface of an ocean
Isobathytherm Temperature at a given depth
Isobar Atmospheric pressure
Isothere Mean summer temperature
Isocheim Mean winter temperature
Isogeotherm Temperature in theearth’s interior
Isotach Wind speed
Isohel Sunshine duration
Isohyet Rainfall amount
Isohypse Height above sea level
Isoneph Degree of cloudiness
Isonif Amount of snowfall
Isoryme Frost intensity
Isohaline Salinity
Isotherm Temperature
Isoseismal Line Intensity of shock from an earthquake
Isothermobath Sea water temperature at a given depth
Isobront Thunderstorm at the same time
Homoseismal Line Affected at the same time by an
earthquake shock
Instruments........................................................................... Elements
Raingauge.......................................................................... Precipitation
Barometer.................................................................................Pressure
Hygrometer................................................................. Relative Humidity
Wind Vane.......................................................................Wind Direction

Anemometer........................................................................Wind Speed
Altimeter..................................................................................... Altitude
Evaporimeter...........................................................Rate of evaporation
Hydrometer......................................................Specific gravity of liquids
Hypsometer......................................... Absolute height above sea level
Solarimeter.................................................... Intensity of solar radiation
Barograph .............. Continuous recording of atmospheric pressure
Cathetometer ...........................................................................Height
Pyrometer............................................................Very high temperature
Cryometer ...................................................Very low temperature
Fathometer ...................................................................Ocean depth
Manometer................................................................ Pressure of gases
Photometer..............................Luminous intensity of the source of light
Radio micrometer.............................................................Heat radiation
Salinometer............................................................. Salinity of solutions
Actinometer.....................................................................Solar radiation
Atmometer ..............................................................Rate of evaporation
Nephoscope ......................... Height, movement and velocity of clouds
Lysimeter....................................................... Actual evapotranspiration
Psychrometer..............................................................Relative humidity
Pyranometer........................................ Scattered radiation on a surface
Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometer .................................Relative humidity
Thermostat.........................Regulates temperature to a particular point

Practice Questions
1. Of the main constituents which of the following a) 1 only b) 2 only
have great influence in earth’s climatic conditions. c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2
1. Oxygen 2. Nitrogen 7. Which among the following is/are true?
3. Carbon dioxide 4. Water vapour 1. Atmosphere is heated more by terrestrial
5. Dust particles 6. Ozone radiation than the incoming solar radiation
a) 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 b) 3, 4, 5, 6 2. Hotter the object, longer the wavelength of
c) 2, 3, 4, 6 d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 radiation
2. Which of the following statements regarding dust a) 1 only b) 2 only
particles are correct? c) Neither 1 nor 2 d) Both 1 and 2
1. Sometimes dust particles are found at greater 8. …….............. is the only mechanism in which heat
heights can travel through the relative emptiness of space
2. They act as a hygroscopic nuclei a) Radiation b) Conduction
3. They intercept and reflect insolation c) Convection d) Absorption
4. They produce the optical phenomenon of red 9. Which of the following is/are correct?
and orange waves in the sky at Sunrise and 1. At latitudes below 40 degrees more solar
Sunset radiation is received than is lost to space by
a) 2 and 3 b) 1 and 4 earth
c) 1, 2, 3 d) 1, 2, 3, 4 2. At higher latitudes the heat lost is less than
3. Which of the following statements is/are correct? that received
1. Carbon dioxide absorbs part of terrestrial a) 1 only b) 2 only
radiation and subsequently remits part of it c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2
towards the surface 10. Which of the following is/are not correct?
2. It is transparent to terrestrial radiation and 1. Greater extremes of temperature are felt over
the land than over the oceans
opaque to insolation
2. The temperature contrasts between the
3. Carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere has
continent and the oceans are greater during
been rising summer than during winter
a) 1 only b) 1 and 3 a) 1 only b) 2 only
c) All the above d) None of the above c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2
4. Which of the following is/are not correct? 11. Temperature anomaly is defined as
1. Temperature ceases to fall with the increase in a) The difference between annual range of
height at tropopause temperature in successive years
2. The air temperature at the tropopause is about b) The difference between mean temperature
–450Cat the equator and –800C over the of any place and the mean temperature of its
poles parallel
a) 1 only b) 2 only c) The difference between mean temperature of
c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2 the warmest month and the mean temperature
5. The earth’s surface receives the Sun’s radiant of the coldest month
energy at the rate of d) The difference between the maximum
a) Two calories per square centimeter per second temperature of any place and maximum
b) Two calories per square centimeter per minute temperature of the place in the same latitude
c) Two calories per square metre per minute 12. Which of the following is/are correct?
d) Two calories per square kilometer per second 1. For the year as a whole the thermal anomalies
6. Which of the following statements is/are correct? are negative over the continents from about
1. If the angle of incidence is more the intensity 400 latitude towards the equator
of insolation is less 2. On the ocean, the anomalies are positive
2. The Sun’s rays striking the earth at a low angle poleward from about 400 latitude
traverse more of the atmosphere than rays a) 1 only b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2
striking at a high angle
Answers
12. b 11. b 10. b 9. a a 8.

7. a 6. b 5. b 4. b 3. b 2. d 1. b

02 Atmospheric Pressure,
Chapter
Winds & Cyclones Notes
The atmosphere exerts considerable pressure over the earth. The

atmospheric pressure is a very important factor in producing changes
in our weather. Contrasts in temperature cause changes in air density,
which are responsible for variations in pressure.
Measurement of Air Pressure

The atmosphere rests on the earth’s surface owing to the gravitational
pull of the earth. It exerts its weight as pressure on the earth’s surface.
Atmospheric pressure is thus the weight of the column of air at any
given place and time. Which is measured by an instrument called a
barometer. It is measured as a force per unit area. The units used by
meteorologists for this purpose are called millibars (mb).
One millibar is equal to the force of one gram on a square
centimetre. A pressure of 1,000 millibars is equal to the weight of
1,053 kilograms per square centimetre.
The distribution of atmospheric pressure is shown on a map by
isobars. An isobar is an imaginary line drawn through places having
equal atmospheric pressure reduced to sea level. Close spacing
Air Pressure
Even a weakling can support 10 tonnes! No, it’s not an advertisement
for a body-building programme. We all bear the weight of the
atmosphere pressing down on us. Like the deep-sea creatures who

live their entire lives with the weight of hundreds of metres of water
above them, we have adapted to functioning and moving efficiently
in our particular environmental pressure zone. Only a sharp change
such as a sea-level flatlander taking a vacation trip in the mountains
reminds us of our adjustment to, and dependence on, a specific
atmospheric environment. There are two factors that influence this
sensitivity to altitude.
The first is the density of air molecules, particularly oxygen, at any
altitude. At higher elevations the air is ‘thinner’. We have to do more
breathing to get the oxygen necessary to maintain our activity levels.
When the Olympic Games were held in Mexico City in 1968, the low
density of oxygen at that elevation (2240m) was a decisive factor in the
unimpressive competition times recorded by most of the participating
athletes!
The second factor is the response of our internal organs to changes in
atmospheric pressure. Our ears may react first as we climb to higher
elevations. The ‘pop’ we hear is actually the clearing of a small tube
that allows pressure between the inner and middle ear to equalise,
thereby preventing our eardrums from rupturing. At very high altitudes,
we travel in pressurised aircraft. Astronauts also used pressurised
cabins, and when they leave their vehicles for walks in atmosphere-
less space, they require spacesuits to maintain a safe pressurised and
breathing environment.

of isobar indicates a strong pressure gradient, while wide spacing

suggests a weak gradient. The pressure gradient may, therefore, be
defined as the decrease in pressure per unit distance in the direction
Notes in which the pressure decreases most rapidly. There are two types of
pressure systems high pressure and low pressure.
Pressure Belts
Lowest temperatures are found over the poles which cause
subsidence of air and hence polar highs. The polar highs are small
in area and extend around the poles. In between the equatorial low
and the polar highs, there are the zones of subtropical highs and the
sub-polar lows.
The sub-tropical highs extend from near the tropics to about 35°N
and S. The descending air currents feed the winds blowing towards
adjoining low pressure belts. A calm condition with variable and feeble
winds is created in these high pressure belts called ‘Horse latitude’.
The sub-polar lows are located between 45°N and S to the Arctic
and the Antarctic circles. The winds coming from the sub-tropics and
polar, areas converge and rise in a zone between 45°N and S and the
Arctic and the Antarctic circles, respectively. Due to a great contrast
between the temperature of the winds from sub-tropical and polar
source regions, cyclonic storms or ‘lows’ are produced in the region.
WINDS
Due to horizontal differences in air pressure, air flows from areas of
high pressure to areas of low pressure. Horizontal movement of the
air is called wind. The vertical or nearly vertical movement of air is
referred to as air current. Winds and air currents together comprise a
system of circulation in the atmosphere.
Unequal heating of the earth’s surface is one of the main reasons
for the pressure differences, solar radiation may be called the ultimate
driving force of wind. Direction and speed of wind are controlled by a
combination of factors. These are the pressure gradient force, gravity,
the coriolis effect, the centripetal acceleration and friction.
The force that drives the winds, results from horizontal pressure
differences, which is produced from the region of higher pressure
towards the area of lower pressure and is known as the pressure
gradient force. The greater the difference in pressure between two
points, the steeper is the pressure gradient and the higher is the wind
speed.
Due to rotation of the earth, winds do not ‘cross the isobars at right
angles as the pressure gradient force directs but get deflected from
their original path. This deviation is the result of the earth’s rotation
and is called the Coriolis effect or Coriolis force. Due to this effect
winds in the Northern Hemisphere get deflected to the right of their
path. It is known as the Ferrel’s Law. The coriolis force changes wind
direction but not its speed.
Along and near the earth’s surface wind does not move freely
in a horizontal plane due to irregularities in the earth’s surface. The
roughness of the terrain causes friction which determines the angle at
which the air will flow across the isobars, as well as the speed at which
it will move.

TYPES OF WINDS
Winds which blow throughout the year from one latitude to the other
in response to the latitudinal differences in air pressure. These are
known as prevailing winds or planetary winds. Notes
Certain winds reverse their direction periodically with season and
are called periodic winds. Certain winds in different parts of the world
which flow in comparatively small area and have special characteristics.
These are called local winds.
PLANETARY WINDS
These winds blow over the vast area of the continents and oceans.
The Trade Winds

The winds blowing from the sub-tropical high pressure areas (300N
and S.) towards the equatorial low pressure belt are the extremely
steady winds known as the trade winds.
These winds should have blown from the north to the south in the
Northern Hemisphere and from the south to the north in the Southern
Hemisphere. But the Coriolis effect and the Ferrel’s Law explain how
these winds are deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and
to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. Thus, they flow as the north
eastern trades in the Northern Hemisphere and the south-eastern
trades in the Southern Hemisphere.
In the area of their origin they are descending and stable. The
poleward part is therefore dry. As they reach the equator, they become
humid and warmer after picking up moisture on their way. They become
unstable and produce rainfall. Near the equator, the two trades clash
with each other and on the line of convergence they rise and cause
heavy rainfall. The eastern parts of the trade winds associated with the
cool ocean currents, are drier and more stable than the western parts
of the ocean.
The Westerlies
The winds blowing from the sub-tropical high pressure belts towards
the sub-polar low pressure belts are known as Westerlies. They blow
from south-west to north-east in the Northern Hemisphere and north

west to south-east In the Southern Hemisphere.

In the Northern Hemisphere, vast land masses with their irregular
relief and changing seasonal patterns of pressure tend to obscure the
Notes general westerly airflow. The westerlies of the Southern Hemisphere
are stronger and more constant in direction than those of the Northern
Hemisphere, because of the vast expanse of water.
The westerlies are best developed between 400 and 650S latitudes.
These latitudes are often called Roaring Forties, Furious Fifties, and
Shrieking Sixties, which are dreaded terms for navigators. These
winds produce spells and variabilities in weather.
PERIODIC WINDS
The winds changing their direction periodically with change in season
are called periodic winds.
Monsoon Winds
The word monsoon has been derived from the Arabic word ‘Mausim’
which means season. The monsoon is a seasonal modification of
the general planetary wind system. The Asiatic monsoon regime is a
consequence of the interaction of both planetary and regional factors,
both at the surface and in the upper troposphere.
During summer, the sub-tropical high pressure belt and the thermal
equator are displaced northward in response to the changing pattern
of solar heating of the earth. The equatorial westerlies embedded in
tropical easterlies also move northward. From the ocean, they move
towards the land mass and blow over the Asian continent. These are
the south-westerly summer monsoon.
During winter, the subtropical high pressure belt and the thermal
equator retreat southward. The normal trade wind is re-established.
This is winter monsoon.
The summer monsoon is characterized by highly variable weather

with frequent spells of drought and heavy rains.
The winter monsoon is a gentle drift of air in which the winds
generally blow from the north-east.
Retreating monsoon cause sporadic rainfall specially in the north
eastern parts and the Tamil Nadu coastal areas of India.
Land and Sea Breezes

The land and sea breezes affect only a narrow strip along the

Naming the Winds—Sailor’s Legacy

Spanish sea captains headed to the Caribbean and the
Philippines in search of gold, spices, and new colonial territory Notes
for the crown. They depended on a band of steady winds to fill
the sails of their galleons as they journeyed westward in the
tropics. Those winds were named the trade winds. These were
the winds that first blew Christopher Columbus and his flotilla to
North America in 1492.
In the vicinity of the equator, the Northern and Southern
Hemisphere trades converge in a zone of unpredictable breezes
and calm seas. Sailors dreaded being caught in these so-called
doldrums. A ship stranded here might drift aimlessly for days.
This was the fate of the ship described in these famous lines from
Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s The Rime of the Ancient Mariner:
Day after day, day after day,
We struck, nor breath nor motion;
As idle as a painted ship
Upon a painted ocean
Ships also were becalmed by the light and variable winds in the
subtropics at about latitudes 300N and S. Spanish conquerors who
ran afoul of the breezes in these hot regions threw their horses
overboard to lighten their loads and save water for the crew. The
trail of floating corpses caused navigators of the seventeenth
century to label this zone the horse latitudes.
In the middle latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere, ships
heading eastward followed the strong westerly winds between
40 and 600S. These winds were powerful, but stormier than
the trades; so, depending on their approximate latitude, they
became known as the Roaring Forties, the Furious Fifties, and

the Shrieking Sixties.
coast. During day-time, the land gets more heated than the adjacent
sea and develops low air pressure. The sea being cool, develops a
comparatively higher pressure. The warm air of the land being lighter
ascends and its place is taken by the cooler air coming from the sea,
which is called sea breeze. It blow during day at the lower level and
moderate the weather of the coastal fringe.
At night, rapid radiation makes the land cooler than the adjoining
sea. This results in high pressure over the land and low pressure over
the sea. Air starts blowing from land to sea and is known as land
breeze.
Mountain and Valley Breezes

A diurnal or daily wind similar to land and sea breezes occurs in most
mountainous regions. During day time the slope of the mountain is
heated more than the valley floor. As such the air from the valley flows
up the slope. This is known as valley breeze.
After sunset the pattern is reversed. Rapid loss of heat through terrestrial
radiation along the mountain slopes results in sliding of cold dense air from
higher elevations to valleys. This is called mountain breeze.

LOCAL WINDS
Local winds develop as a result of local differences in temperature and
pressure.
Notes Loo
In the plains of northern India and Pakistan, sometimes a very hot and
dry wind blows from the west in the months of May and June, usually
in the afternoons. It is known as loo.
Foehn and Chinook
Foehn is a hot wind of local importance in the Alps. It is a strong, gusty,
dry and warm wind which develops on the leeward side of a mountain
range. Similar kind of winds in USA and Canada move down the west
Local Winds
Besides major wind systems of the earth’s surface, there are certain
types of winds, even though on a much smaller scale, which are
produced by the topographical peculiarities or local temperature
differences.
Since these wind systems are generated by purely local factors
and their zone of influence is quite limited, they are termed as local
winds. They play an important role in the weather and climate of a
particular locality.
Purga: a snow laden cold wind in Russian Tundra.
Levunter: a strong easterly cold wind in southern Spain and Straits
of Gibraltar. This is moist and damp wind and causes foggy weather.
This is more frequent in early winter to late winter.
Pampero: a north-westerly cold wind in the ‘pampas’ of S. America.
Pampero is similar to northers of North America and Siberia and is
more active during winter season.
Norwester: a warm, dry and gusty wind in New Zealand.
Tramontane: a local warm wind in central Europe.
Zonda: a warm and dry wind in the leeward slopes of Andes in

Argentina. This is similar to Chinook and Foehn as it is downslope
compressional warm wind.
Buran: a very cold wind in Siberia.
Haboob: a hot and damp wind laden with sands in Sudan, more
active in early summer.
Khamsin: a hot, dry and dusty wind in N. Africa and Arabia.
Brickfielder: a hot, dry, gusty and dust laden wind in Victoria of
Australia.
Shamal: a hot and dry dusty wind in Mesopotamia and Persian Gulf.
Simoom: a warm and dusty dry wind in Arabian desert.
Gibli: a warm, dry and dusty wind in Lybia.
Santa Ana: A downslope compressional warm and dry air drainage
in the Santa Ana valley of the Southern California.
Harmattan: The warm and dry winds blowing from north-east and
east to west in the eastern parts of Sahara desert.
Sirocco: A warm, dry and dusty (full of sands) local wind which blows
in northerly direction from Sahara Desert and after crossing over the
Mediterranean Sea reaches Italy, Spain etc.
Bora: Bora is an extremely cold and dry northeasterly wind which
blows along the shore of the Adriatic Sea.
Blizzard: Blizzard is violent stormy cold and powdery polar wind
prevalent in Siberia, Canada and the USA.

slopes of the Rockies and are known as chinooks. The

word Chinook literally means ‘snow eater’. It is beneficial
to ranchers east of the Rockies as it keeps the grasslands
clear from snow during much of the winter. Notes
Mistral
The mistral blows from the Alps over France towards the
Mediterranean Sea. It is channeled through the Rhone
Valley. It is a very cold and dry wind with high velocity.
JET STREAMS
Jet streams are narrow, meandering bands of swift, near-
Geostrophic winds embedded in the upper topospheric
prevailing westerlies, encircling the entire globe. In a
broader sense it also includes other high-speed jet winds
like polar nights and low level cross equatorial jets.
Polar front (450-500 North & 450-500 South): This Jet
develops at the boundary between the cold polar air mass
and warm subtropical air mass
Subtropical Jet Stream (250-300 North as well as South):
It is formed just above the Hadley cell, near the tropopause. The
westerly jet is located in the region where the Hadley cell and the
middle latitude cell meet and is marked by the convergence of cool &
warm air.
Tropical Easterly Jet Stream (150-200 North only): It occurs only
during the summer (high sun) season and is limited to the Northern
Hemisphere, over S. E. Asia, India & Africa. These are formed as
a result of the heating of Tibetan highlands and the subsequent
anticyclogenesis.
Polar Night Jet (700 Latitude): During winters, the Sun does not heat
a cone of atmosphere at the poles. The resulting strong temperature

gradient in the stratosphere creates westerly winds at heights
averaging 60 km.
Low level cross equatorial Jet Stream: These are most pronounced
at altitudes between 1.0 to 1.5 km along the eastern coast of Africa.
Has important connection with the acceleration of the Monsoon (S.
W.) winds
AIR MASS
An air mass is a large body of air whose physical properties especially
temperature and moisture content are relatively uniform horizontally.
Regions where homogeneous air masses tend to be created are
known as source regions.
Some of the well-known source regions are sub-tropical and tropical
oceans, i.e., low-latitude deserts like the Sahara in the summer and the
continental interiors’ especially those of North America and Eurasia in
the winter.
An air mass is said to be cold when it is colder than the surface over
which it rests or is moving. An air mass is said to be warm when it is
warmer than the surface ·over which it rests or is moving.
On the basis of the nature of the source region, air masses may
broadly be grouped under two categories-tropical and polar. Since
source regions may either be oceans or continents, further sub-

divisions introduce four secondary types- maritime tropical, continental

tropical, maritime polar and continental polar.
Maritime air masses contain high humidity and produce large
Notes amount of precipitation. Continental air masses are dry and produce
less amount of precipitation.
Air masses of different densities do not mix readily and tend to
retain their identity as far as temperature and moisture are concerned.
The boundary zone of convergence separating the two air masses are
called fronts. Air mass from one region gradually moves to the other
region occupied by some other air mass.
FRONTS
When two different air masses with sharp contrasts in their physical
characteristics such as temperature, humidity, pressure, density etc. are
brought together by converging movements in the general atmospheric
circulation, they do not mix readily. In fact, they come in contact with
one another along sloping boundaries. These sloping boundaries are
actually a transition zone across which a sharp transition in weather
conditions occurs. A front may thus be defined as “an interface or
transition zone between two air masses of different density”.
Cold Front
The structure of a front on which cold air is invading the warm-air zone
is called a cold front. The colder air mass, being the denser, remains in
contact with the ground and forces the warmer air mass to rise over it.
Cold fronts are associated with strong atmospheric disturbances. As
the unstable warm air is lifted, it may break out in severe thunderstorms.
Thunderstorms can be seen on the radar screen.
Warm Front
A warm front in which warm air is moving into a region of colder air.
Here, again the cold air mass remains in contact with the ground and
the warm air mass is forced to rise. Warm fronts commonly represent
stable atmospheric conditions and lack the turbulent air motions of the
cold front.
Occluded Front
Cold fronts normally move along the ground at a faster rate than warm
fronts. So, when both types are in the same neighborhood, the cold
front overtakes the warm front. An occluded front then results. The
colder air of the fast-moving cold front remains next to the ground,
forcing both the warm air and the less cold air to rise over it. The warm
air mass is lifted completely free of the ground.

ATMOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES
Cyclones
The atmospherica disturbances which involve a closed circulation
about a low-pressure are called cyclones. They fall into the following Notes
two broad categories:
• Extratropical cyclones (also called temperate cyclones)
• Tropical cyclones
TROPICAL CYCLONE
Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate over oceans in
tropical areas and move over to the coastal areas bringing about large
scale destruction due to violent winds, very heavy rainfall and storm
surge.
They are irregular wind movements involving closed circulation of
air around a low pressure center. This closed air circulation is a result of
rapid upward movement of hot air which is subjected to Coriolis force.
The low pressure at the center is responsible for the wind speeds.
The cyclonic wind movements are anti-clockwise in the northern
hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere.
The cyclones are often characterized by existence of an anticyclone
between two cyclones.
Formation
Tropical cyclones develope only under favourable conditions when
certain pre-requisites are fulfilled:
• Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C,
• Presence of the Coriolis force enough to create a cyclonic vortex,
• Small variations in the vertical wind speed,
• A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic
circulation,
• Upper divergence above the sea level system,

Ocean waters having temperatures of 27° C or more is the source
of moisture which feeds the storm. The condensation of moisture
releases enough latent heat of condensation to drive the storm.
The depth of warm water (26-27°C) should extend for 60-70 m from
surface of the ocean/sea, so that deep convection currents within the
water do not churn and mix the cooler water below with the warmer
water near the surface.
The above condition occurs only in western tropical oceans
because of warm ocean currents that flow from east towards west
forming a thick layer of water with temperatures greater than 27°C.
This supplies enough moisture to the storm.
The cold currents lower the surface temperatures of the eastern
parts of the tropical oceans making them unfit for the breeding of
cyclonic storms.
During strong El Nino years, strong hurricanes occur in the eastern
Pacific due to the accumulation of warm waters due to weak Walker
Cell. Cyclones Regions
Whirling motion is enhanced when the doldrums over oceans are Typhoons China Sea
farthest from the equator. This happens during the autumnal equinox Tropical cyclones Indian Ocean
(August-September). Due to high specific heat of water, and mixing, the Hurricanes Caribbean Sea
ocean waters in northern hemisphere attain maximum temperatures in Tornadoes USA
Willy Willies Northern Australia
August.

The Coriolis force is zero at the equator but it increases with latitude.
Coriolis force at 5° latitude is significant enough to create a storm.
About 65% of cyclonic activity occurs between 10° and 20° latitude.
Notes
Evolution
A tropical cyclone has a definite life cycle. The evolution has
following phases:
Early stage
• In the thunderstorm, air is uplifted as it is warm and light. At certain
height, due to lapse rate and adiabatic lapse rate, the temperature
of air falls and moisture in the air undergoes condensation.
• Condensation releases latent heat of condensation making the air
more warmer. It becomes much lighter and is further uplifted.
• The space is filled by fresh moisture laden air. Condensation
occurs in this air and the cycle is repeated as long as the moisture
is supplied.
• Due to excess moisture over oceans, the thunderstorm intensifies
and sucks in air at much faster rate. The air from surroundings
rushes in and undergoes deflection due to Coriolis force creating a
cyclonic vortex.
• Due to centripetal acceleration the air in the vortex is forced to form
a region of calmness called an eye at the center of the cyclone.
The inner surface of the vortex forms the eye wall, the most violent
region of the cyclone.
• All the wind that is carried upwards loses its moisture and becomes
cold and dense. It descends to the surface through the cylindrical
eye region and at the edges of the cyclone.
• Continuous supply of moisture from the sea is the major driving
force behind every cyclone. On reaching the land the moisture
supply is cut off and the storm dissipates.
• If ocean can supply more moisture, the storm will reach a mature
stage.

Mature stage
• At this stage, the spiraling winds create multiple convective cells
with successive calm and violent regions.
• The regions with cumulonimbus cloud formation are called rain Notes
bands below which intense rainfall occurs.
• The ascending air will lose moisture at some point and descends
back to surface through the calm regions that exist between two
rain bands.
• Cloud formation is dense at the center. The cloud size decreases
from center to periphery.
• Rain bands are mostly made up of cumulonimbus clouds. The ones
at the periphery are made up of nimbostratus and cumulus clouds.
• The dense overcast at the upper levels of troposphere is due to
cirrus clouds which are mostly made up of hexagonal ice crystals.
• The dry air flowing along the central dense overcast descends at
the periphery and the eye region.
Dissipating stage
The decay starts when the system enters land or an oceanic region
where Sea Surface Temperature is lower than 26°C. Over land, the
moisture supply is drastically curtailed, cutting off the energy input and
also there is dissipation due to increased frictional drag. The winds
decrease, the cyclone fills up and weakens, though the rainfall may
persist for a day or two more.
Horizontal Structure of a Tropical cyclone

Eye: The innermost or central portion of the mature cyclone is the
‘eye’. It is about 10 to 30-km diameter, depending upon the size of the
storm and is a more or less clam region with little or no clouds and
some subsidence.
In the warm core systems the temperature inside the eye region can

be higher by as much as 100C than the surroundings.
Eye Wall or Inner Ring: Surrounding the eye is a tight ‘inner ring’
of hurricane winds. This core of maximum winds is at the center of a
solid thick wall of towering Cumulonimbus clouds, 30 to 50 km wide
round the eye and is referred to as the ‘eye wall’. The Cumulonimbus
towers rise from the sea surface to the tropopause level, nearly 18
km or more high and some times extend a kilometer or so into the
stratosphere. Incessant lightning keeps the entire eye wall-illumined,
making it a fascinating and awesome spectacle. This is a region of
violent thunder squalls, torrential rains etc with mountainous waves
reaching 20 metres or more in the sea. The eye and eye wall together
constitute the core of the cyclone.
Outer Ring: Beyond the eyewall is an ‘outer ring’ of cyclonic circulation
where the wind speed decrease steeply and clouds, rain etc diminish
rapidly outwards.
TEMPERATE CYCLONE
The systems developing in the mid and high latitude, beyond the
tropics are called the Temperate Cyclones or Extra Tropical Cyclones
or Mid-Latitude Cyclones or Frontal Cyclones or Wave Cyclones.
Temperate cyclones develop in regions lying between 300 and 650
north and south latitudes in both the hemispheres. It is in these latitude
zones that the polar and tropical air masses meet and form what is

known as the polar fronts.

The heavy concentration of storm tracks in the vicinity of the
Aleutian and Icelandic lows is the most important feature of the world
Notes distribution of the paths followed by the middle-latitude cyclones.
Like the latitudinal shifting of the wind and pressure belts, there is
a definite seasonal shifting of the paths of cyclones.
The winter cyclones that develop in the middle-latitude zone are
greater in number and are more intense.
Size and Shape
• The temperate cyclones are asymmetrical and shaped like an
inverted ‘V’.
• They stretch over 500 to 600 km.
• They have a height of 8 to 11 km.
Wind Velocity And Strength
• The wind strength is more in eastern and southern portions, more
over North America compared to Europe.
• The wind velocity increases with the approach but decreases after
the cyclone has passed.
Orientation And Movement
• Jet stream plays a major role in temperate cyclonogeneis.
• Jet streams also influence the path of temperate cyclones.
• Since these cyclones move with the westerlies (Jet Streams), they
are oriented east-west.
• They are very important as they bring rains to north-west India –
Punjab, Haryana.
Structure
• The north-western sector is the cold sector and the north-eastern
sector is the warm sector.
Associated Weather
• The approach of a temperate cyclone is marked by fall in
temperature, fall in the mercury level, wind shifts and a halo around
the sun and the moon, and a thin veil of cirrus clouds.
• A light drizzle follows which turns into a heavy downpour. These
conditions change with the arrival of the warm front which halts the
fall in mercury level and the rising temperature.
• Rainfall stops and clear weather prevails until the cold front of an
anticyclonic character arrives which causes a fall in temperature,
brings cloudiness and rainfall with thunder. After this, once again
clear weather is established.
• The temperate cyclones experience more rainfall when there
is slower movement and a marked difference in rainfall and
temperature between the front and rear of the cyclone. These
cyclones are generally accompanied by anticyclones.
Temperate cyclones are a manifestation of unequal distribution of
heat on the surface of the earth.Temperate cyclones are actually a
part of Global Heat exchange process. (Warm air pushes into cold
regions and vice-versa thus exchanging the heat and maintaining the
latitudinal heat balance). Most of the temperate regions rainfall is the
result of these cyclones only.

OTHER DISTURBANCES
Thunderstorms
• These are storms produced by a cumulonimbus cloud and always
accompanied by lightening and thunder. Notes
• They exists usually for short duration (over 2 hrs) and are also
accomplained by strong wind gusts, heavy rain and sometimes
hail.
Anticyclones
• There is a common feeling that anticyclones are always associated
with fine weather.
• The middle-latitude anticyclones on several occasions bring severe
cold waves, which are considered to be a serious climatic hazard to
various human activities.
Tornadoes
• The interiors of large continents (including coastal areas), especially
in the spring and early summer, experience local storms known as
tornado.
• A tornado is a small vortex of air, averaging 100 to 500 m (330
to 1650 ft) in diameter, that descends to the ground from rotating
cloud at the base of a violent thunderstorm.
• If the twister is formed over water surface, it is called waterspout.
• In United States, torandoes frequently develop from squall-line
thunderstorms over the Great plains, particularly in the north-south
corridor called ‘’Tornado Alley’’ that extends through central Texas,
Oklahoma, Kansas and eastern Nebraska.
Cloudburst
A cloudburst is an intense torrential rainfall brought by a thunderstorm
that lasts for a relatively short duration (few minutes to few hours).
Cloudburst leads to flash floods and causes lot of damage to life and
property.

Every intense rainfall is not a Cloudburst. Cloudburst specifically
occurs when an air mass with high humidity is struck at a place due
to various reasons.
There were numerous cloudbursts in Jammu and Kashmir.
With the jet stream stalled the Sub-Tropical Jet was unable to transit
across the Himalayas as it would do ordinarily, the monsoon cell to
the south, fed by warmer waters in the Indian Ocean, had nowhere
to go and as a consequence it deposited vast amounts of rain over
Pakistan, Himalchal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir and this led to
extensive flooding.
CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION
Koeppen’s Classification
Koeppen’s Classification of Climatic Regions of India is an empirical
classification based on mean annual and mean monthly temperature
and precipitation data. Koeppen identified a close relationship between
the distribution of vegetation and climate.
The Koeppen system features a shorthand code of letters
designating major climate groups, sub-groups within the major
groups, and further subdivisions to distinguish particular seasonal
characteristics of temperature and precipitation. Five major climate
groups are designated by capital letters as follows:

A Tropical rainy climates

B Dry climates
C Mild, humid (mesothermal climates)
Notes D Snowy-forest (microthermal climates)
E Polar climates
The above mentioned major climatic types are further subdivided
depending upon the seasonal distribution of rainfall or degree of
dryness or cold.
a: hot summer, average temperature of the warmest month over
22°C
c: cool summer, average temperature of the warmest month under
22°C
f: no dry season
w: dry season in winter
s: dry season in summer
g: Ganges type of annual march of temperature; hottest month
comes before the solstice and the summer rainy season.
h: average annual temperature under 18°C
m (monsoon): short dry season.
The capital letters S and W are employed to designate the two
subdivisions of dry climate: semi-arid or Steppe (S) and arid or desert
(W).
Capital letters T and F are similarly used to designate the two
subdivisions of polar climate: tundra (T) and icecap (F).
Af Tropical rain forest. Hot; rainy all seasons

Am Tropical monsoon. Hot; seasonally excessive rainfall
Aw Tropical savanna. Hot; seasonally dry (usually winter)
BSh Tropical steppe. Semiarid; hot
BSk Mid-latitude steppe. Semiarid; cool or cold
BWh Mid-latitude desert. Arid; cool or cold
Cfa Humid subtropical. Mid winter; moist all seasons; long hot
summer
Cfb Marine. Mild winter; moist all seasons; warm summer
Cfc Marine. Mild winter; moist all seasons; short cool summer
Csa Interior Mediterranean. Mild winter; dry summer; hot summer
Csb Coastal Mediterranean. Mild winter; dry summer; short warm
summer
Cwa Subtropical monsoon. Mild winter; dry winter; hot summer
Cwb Tropical upland. Mild winter; dry winter; short warm summer
Dfa Humid continental. Severe winter; moist all seasons; long, hot
summer
Dfb Humid continental. Severe winter; moist all seasons; short
warm summer
Dfc Subarctic. Severe winter; moist all seasons; short cool summer
Dfd Subarctic. Extremely cold winter; moist all seasons; short
summer
Dwa Humid continental. Severe winter; dry winter; long hot summer
Dwb Humid continental. Severe winter; dry winter; warm summer
Dwc Subarctic. Severe winter; dry winter; short cool summer
Dwd Subarctic. Extremely cold winter; dry winter; short cool summer
ET Tundra. Very short summer
EF Perpetual ice and snow
H Undifferentiated highland climates

URBAN HEAT ISLAND

• An urban heat island (UHI) is a metropolitan area that is significantly
warmer than its surrounding rural areas due to human activities.
Changes in the radiation and heat balance at local level due to Notes
urbanization is responsible for urban heat island.
• The temperature difference usually is larger at night than during the
day, and is most apparent when winds are weak.
• Temperature decreases slowly from the city centre towards
the outer parts of the city but at the boundary of the city and the
countryside there is a sudden drop in the temperature.
• The heat island becomes most pronounced at nights and the
temperature difference varies from 6° to 12° C.
• The magnitude of urban heat island is directly related to city size
and to wind speed.
• The larger the city, the stronger the winds which are necessary to
dissipate the heat island effect.
Factors
• The masonry structure of the urban centres absorbs solar radiations
more efficiently than vegetated covers. Moreover, the incoming
solar radiations reaches the surface with full intensity.
• Man-induced heat mainly in the industrial and even in other
metroplitan cities emitted from industrial processes, space heating
and cooling, thermal power station etc. supplement the heat
recieved through solar radiations.
• In the absence of vegetations, solar radiation reaches the ground
with full intensity and loss of heat due to transpiration is less.
CLIMATIC CHANGE
Climate Change: The Burning Issue
Climate Change is a reality. It has changed in Past, is changing in

Present and will change in Future. Climate change is as much as local
as it is global. However, the perceived impacts are not immediately
visible. Atmosphereis always in a state of turmoil and instability leading
to variation in weather and climatic conditions. Climate change is a
long-term shift in the statistics of the weather (including its averages).
For example, it could show up as a change in climate normals (expected
average values for temperature and precipitation) for a given place
and time of year, from one decade to the next.
Why is climate changing?
Natural causes
Climate change is a normal part of the Earth’s natural variability.It is
related to interactions among the atmosphere, ocean, and land.
• Variation in Solar energy: It is also related to changes in the amount
of solar radiation reaching the earth-As the stream of solar energy
reaches earth, the character of the Earth’s orbit and of its rotation
plays a major role in causing long-term climate change.
• Volcanic eruptions: Explosive volcanic eruptions can inject large
quantities of dust and the gas, sulphur dioxide, high into the atmosphere.
• Whereas volcanic debris in the lower atmosphere falls out or is
rained out within days, the veil of pollution in the upper atmosphere
is above the weather and may remain for several years, gradually
spreading to cover much of the globe.

• The volcanic pollution results in a substantial reduction in the

stream of solar energy as it passes through the upper layers of
the atmosphere, reflecting a significant amount back out to space.
Notes
Anthropogenic Causes
Humans are increasingly influencing the climate and the earth’s
temperature.The Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) concludes, “that most of the observed
increase in the globally averaged temperature since the mid-20th
century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic
greenhouse gas concentrations.”
IPCC REPORT: Another warning on Warming

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has released a
special report on global warming of 1.5°C over pre-industrial temperatures.
IPCC provides details on how the global response to climate change
needs to be strengthened within the broader context of sustainable
development and continuing efforts to eradicate poverty.
The impacts of 1.5°C of warming and the possible development pathways
by which the world could get there are its main focus.
It was in 2015, at the Paris climate conference, that the global community
made a pact to pursue efforts to limit warming to within 1.5°C — half a
degree below the previous target of 2°C.
With the increase in extreme events and the very survival of small islands
at stake, the lower limit was greeted then with surprise and enthusiasm.
Why there is so much concern between 1.5°C and 2°C:
• For most people, the difference between 1.5°C and 2°C may seem
trivial when daily temperatures fluctuate much more widely.
• However, the reference here is to global average temperatures.
Different regions of the earth will warm at different rates. For instance,
the Arctic is already experiencing warming that is many times higher
than the global average.

• As per those reports, if the temperature goes beyond 2°C, then, the
impacts of climate change could be irreversible and catastrophic.
• Mainly, small island nations and least developed nations are likely
to suffer the most and hence, they asked for the goal to restrict the
temperature rise to even within 1.5°C.
• The sea levels are expected to rise on an average by about 50 cms by
2100, when the World is warmer by 2°C.
• But, beyond 2100, the overall propensity for much higher sea level rise
is greater in 2°C World.
• The risks to food security, health, fresh water, human security,
livelihoods and economic growth are already on the rise and will be
worse in a 2°C World.
• The number of people exposed to complex and compounded risks will
also increase, mostly poorer countries in Asia and Africa will suffer the
worst.
• This requires massive deployment of financial and technological resources.
• If nations do not mount a strenuous response against climate change,
average global temperatures, which have already crossed 1°C, are
likely to cross the 1.5°C mark around 2040.
• The window of opportunity to take action is very small and closing fast.
Several mitigation pathways to achieve these reductions and all of them
incorporate different levels of CO2 removal:
• There are many synergies between achieving mitigation targets and

fulfilling Sustainable Development Goals.

• To stay below 1.5°C, the transitions required by energy systems and
human societies, in land use, transport, and infrastructure, would
have to be rapid and on an unprecedented scale with deep emission Notes
reductions.
• How is the remaining carbon budget, that is the room available in the
atmosphere to safely contain more CO2, going to be shared among
different countries?
• This is a difficult question to address. The U.S. also reiterated its intent
to pull out of the Paris Agreement. It has been reported, for instance,
that the U.S. has been obstructionist in the deliberations at the recent
meeting to determine the final text of this IPCC report.
• Contributions from the U.S. and other rich countries to the Green
Climate Fund and other funding mechanisms for the purpose of
mitigation and adaptation are vital even to reach the goals of the
Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) commitments that each
country made prior to the Paris conference.
• Even if all the NDCs are implemented, the world is expected to warm
by over 3°C.
Pathways and polices in Way Ahead:
The IPCC report identifies two main strategie:
• The first stabilises global temperature around the 5°C mark with limited
overshoot and
• The second permits temperatures to exceed 1.5°C temporarily before
coming back down. The consequences of the temporary overshoot
would cause worse impacts than the first approach.
To limit warming to around 1.5°C with no or limited overshoot, global net
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissionsneed to decline by about 45% from 2010
levels by 2030 and reach net zero around mid-century.
To limit warming to the lower temperature goal, the world needs “rapid
and far-reaching” changes in energy systems, land use, city and industrial
design, transportation and building use.

Emissions of other greenhouse gases, such as methane, also will have to
drop. Switching away rapidly from fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas to do
this could be three to four times more expensive than the less ambitious
goal, but it would clean the air of other pollutants.
And that would have the side benefit of avoiding more than 100 million
premature deaths through this century, the IPCC report mentioned this also.
In comparison, to limit warming to just below 2°C, the reductions needed
are about 20% by 2030 and reach net zero around 2075.
Conclusion:
The IPCC report stated that Global warming is likely to reach 1.5°C
between 2030 and 2052 if it continues to increase at the current rate.
Disputes over the implementation of the Paris Agreement at numerous
meetings depict the deep divides among rich countries, emerging
economies and least developed countries.
For scientists there is a bit of “wishful thinking” that the report will spur
governments and people to act quickly and strongly, one of the panel’s
leaders, German biologist Hans-Otto Portner, said, “If action is not taken
it will take the planet into an unprecedented climate future.”
This special report (IPCC report) poses options for the global community
of nations, which they will have to contend with in Poland, the next
Conference of the Parties.
Each will have to decide whether to play politics on a global scale for one’s
own interests or to collaborate to protect the world and its ecosystems as
a whole. The path forward offers no simple or easy solutions.

What are the causes of rising emissions?

• Combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) produces carbon
dioxide and nitrous oxide.
Notes • Increasing deforestation: Trees help to regulate the climate by
absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere. As trees are being recklessly
cut, the beneficial effect is lost and the carbon stored in the trees
is released into the atmosphere, adding to the greenhouse effect.
• Increasing livestock farming: Livestock such as cows produce
large amount of methane when they digest food.
• Overuse of fertilizers: Fertilisers containing nitrogenproduce
nitrous oxide emissions.
• Fluorinated gases produce a very strong warming effect, up to
23000 times greater than CO2.
• This leads to the increase in the globally averaged temperature-
Global Warming.
• The world’s leading climate scientists believe that the human
activities are almost certainly the main cause of the warming
observed since the middle of the 20th.
Evidences from Kanha and Pench National Parks, India

• From 1880-2012, the average global temperature on earth
increased by 0.8 degrees Celsius, according to US space agency
NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies. During the same
period, India lost about 40% of its forest cover.
• In Kanha National Park, at least two long-term scientific studies
show that grasslands known for hosting diverse populations
of herbivorous wildlife are shrinking even as the ranks of the
herbivores increase.
• In Kanha and Pench, due to decreasing moisture conditions
and consequent drying up of soil, weed infestation and the
rise of climate-resilient exotic species such as Parthenium

hysterophorus, Hyptissuaveolensand Lantana camara have
taken place. The exotic species have overpowered the native
species.
• According to a Wildlife Institute of India report, most of the
grasslands within the reserves have changed drastically, resulting
in the predominance of less palatable and fire-resistant grasses
and decrease in cover of perennial fodder species.
• The plenitude of non-palatable grasses has forced herbivores to
move out of grasslands and raid croplands in villages.
• As these herbivores move towards human habitation, predators
like tigers too follow in search of food. This in turn leads to
increasing human-wildlife conflict. This poses a huge challenge
for the Forest Department to manage and protect wildlife.
IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Impact on Environment
Rising Sea level: During the 20th century, sea level rose about 15
cm (6 inches) due to melting glacier ice and expansion of warmer
seawater. Thermal expansion would continue for many centuries even
after GHG concentrations have stabilized causing an eventual sea
level rise much larger than projected for the 21st century.

Melting of Arctic Sea ice and glaciers: The melting of sea ice may
lead to changes in ocean circulation. Melting sea ice is also speeding
up warming in the Arctic. Mountain glaciers around the world have
decreased considerably in size. Notes
Increase in floods and droughts: Warmer temperatures have led to
more intense rainfall events in some areas leading to increase in flood
events. Drought events have also increased in many areas.
Impact on Biodiversity
• Climate Change has the potential to cause immense biodiversity
loss.
• According to International World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and
National Wildlife Federation in the United States species from the
tropics to the poles are at risk.
• Many species may be unable to move to new areas quickly
enough to survive changes that rising temperatures will bring to
their historic habitats.
• WWF asserted that one-fifth of the world’s most vulnerable natural
areas may be facing a “catastrophic” loss of species.
• The Bramble Cay Melomys (Melomysrubicola) is the first mammal
to get extinct due to climate changed induced habitat loss.
• Studies predict that global warming will also lead to extinction of
insects in the tropical zone by the end of the century while insects
in the temperate zones and the poles could experience a dramatic
increase in numbers.
• Climate change will also affect marine ecosystems adversely.
A combined effect of rising sea temperature, changes in ocean
circulation and ocean acidification will have catastrophic impact
on marine life.
Impact on Agriculture

• Climate change can affect crop yield as well as the types of crops
that can be grown in certain areas.
• It will impact agricultural inputs such as water for irrigation,
amounts of solar radiation that affect plant growth, as well as the
prevalence of pests.
• Rise in temperatures caused by increasing green-house gases is
likely to affect crops differently from region to region.
• Moderate warming (increase of 1 to 3 o C in mean temperature) is
expected to benefit crop yields in temperate regions.
• However, in lower latitudes especially seasonally dry tropics,
even moderate temperature increases (1 to 2 o C) are likely to
have negative impacts for major cereal crops.
• Warming of more than 3 o C is expected to have negative effect
on production in all regions.
• Agriculture is of prime importance for food security. It provides the
food and also the primary source of livelihood for large number of
the world’s total workforce.
• If agricultural production in the low-income developing countries
of Asia and Africa is adversely affected by climate change, the
livelihoods of large numbers of the rural poor will be put at risk and
their vulnerability to food insecurity will increase.

Impact on Water Resources

• A warmer climate will accelerate the hydrologic cycle, altering
rainfall, magnitude and timing of run-off.
Notes • Climate change will reduce water availability, hydropower
potential, and would change the seasonal flow of rivers in regions
supplied by melt water from major mountain ranges.
• Rising temperatures will further affect the physical, chemical and
biological properties of fresh water lakes and rivers.
• In coastal areas, sea level rise will worsen water resource
constraints due to increased salinisation of groundwater.
Impact on Health
• Climate change directly impacts human health.
• Climate change and the resulting higher global temperatures are
causing increasing frequency of floods and droughts leading to
the risk of disease infections.
• Endemic morbidity and mortality due to diarrhoeal disease
primarily associated with floods and droughts are expected to rise
in East, South and South-East Asia due to projected changes in
hydrological cycle.
• Climate change is a major factor in the spread of infectious
diseases. Diseases, confined to one specific geographic region
spread to other areas.
• Rising temperatures and changing patterns of rainfall are projected
to decrease crop yields in many developing countries which will
put a great stress on the food supplies. This will ultimately lead to
increased prevalence of malnutrition.
• Also, it is expected that, number of deaths related to heat waves
and other extreme weather events will increase.
Way Forward
• Climate Change is one of the most alarming issues of 21st All
the countries should address the issue with a shared perspective,

keeping aside self-centred and shallow perspectives.
• What is needed utmost at this time is an inclusive, cooperative,
scientific and environmentally sustainable approach to combat the
menace of climate change.
• Sustainable development is undoubtedly call of the hour.
Sustainable and optimal use of scarce resources and to cater to
the needs of poor is the headway to save Earth from catastrophic
effects of climate change.
What is a greenhouse gas?

A greenhouse gas is any gaseous compound in the atmosphere that is
capable of absorbing infrared radiation, thereby trapping and holding
heat in the atmosphere. By increasing the heat in the atmosphere,
greenhouse gases are responsible for the greenhouse effect, which
ultimately leads to global warming.
Many of these gases occur naturally, but human activity is increasing
the concentrations of some of them in the atmosphere, in particular:
• carbon dioxide (CO2)
• methane
• nitrous oxide
• fluorinated gases

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

• The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is
a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices
Notes
of the United Nations
• It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations
organizations, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
• It was later endorsed by the United Nations General
Assembly through Resolution 43/53.
• The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),
which is the main international treaty on climate change.
• The IPCC does not carry out its own original research,
nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related
phenomena itself.
The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature,
which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources.
Air Borne!!
• Lightning occurs when a massive electrical discharge takes place
between two oppositely charged clouds or between a charged cloud
and the ground. Charges develop in thunder clouds due to friction
as the water are tossed up and down with the rising and descending
air currents within a cloud. During a bolt of lightning, thousands of
amperes of electricity flows through air in a fraction of a second. This
rapidly heats up the air producing shock waves, which we hear as thunder.
Although the lightning and thunder are produced at the same instant, we
hear the thunder later because light travels faster than sound.
• Sundogs, also known as mock suns or “parhelia”, are a pair of

brightly coloured spots, one on either side of the sun. Sundogs form
as sunlight is refracted by hexagonal plate-like ice crystals with their
faces horizontally oriented. Sundogs are visible when the sun is near
the horizon and on the same horizontal plane as the observer and the
ice crystals. As sunlight passes through the ice crystals, it is bent. This
bending of light results in the formation of a sundog. The difference
between sundogs and halos is the preferential orientation of the ice
crystals through which the light passes before reaching our eyes. If
the hexagonal crystals are oriented with their flat faces horizontal, a
sundog is observed. If the hexagonal crystals are randomly oriented,
a halo is observed.
• Ozone Hole over Antarctic. In 1982, a British environmental research
team in Antarctic made a startling discovery: its instruments could
not detect the ozone layer in the stratosphere overhead. Atmospheric
scientists had never encountered this phenomenon before, but
artificial satellites and high-flying aircrafts by 1985 confirmed that a
large “ozone hole” existed over most of this southern polar continent.
Investigations found that this was a seasonal occurrence that peaked
in the spring (the ozone hole has been observed each year since
1985). It must be mentioned that a corresponding hole has been
observed over the Arctic Ocean since 1986. Although scientists
attribute the seasonal thinning to the presence of chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), the mechanisms by which they are made so effective at the
poles have been strongly debated.

• Terminal Velocity! A large quantity of water remains suspended in a

cloud. The water, however, is in the form of fine droplets that remain
floating. These droplets do fall at a very slow rate but continue to be
Notes airborne so long as their fall speed or terminal velocity is less than
the magnitude of the upward motion in the atmosphere. The larger
the size of the droplet, the higher is the terminal velocity. Hence,
for a droplet to fall and reach the ground as precipitation, it has to
grow to a sufficiently large size in order to acquire terminal velocities
sufficient to overcome the up current.
• ANC-No, it is not the African National Congress that we are talking
about! This useful mnemonic indicates the direction of cyclones and
anti-cyclones in the northern and southern hemispheres. It works
like this - Anti-cyclones in Northern hemisphere have a Clockwise
direction (when read from left to right) and Cyclones in Northern
hemisphere have an Anti-clockwise direction (when read from right
to left). The direction of cyclones and anti-cyclones gets reversed in
the southern hemisphere.
• A Wet Day is a period of 24 hours during which at least 1 mm of
rainfall is recorded. While a Rainy Day is a period of 24 hours,
during which at least 0.25 mm of rainfall is recorded.
Practice Questions
1. Sometimes trees at the valley bottom are 4. Cyclonic storms or ‘lows’ due to the great
completely frost bitten while on the higher contrast between the temperature of the winds
ground they escape frost altogether because. are produced in
a) The air at the higher level is warmer since a) Sub tropical high b) Sub polar low
it is able to absorb a greater amount of the c) Polar high d) Equational low
incoming heat energy of the sun 5. Which of the following is/are correct?
b) The colder air collects at the valley bottom 1. Equatorial low and Polar High Pressure can
due to its higher density be called as thermal lows and thermal highs
c) The frost developed at higher level slips for the major cause of their pressures are
down and collects in the valley bottom, due to temperatures
affecting the trees there 2. Reduction in temperature and coriolis forces
d) Air pollution such as dust particles and are the two forces responsible for general
smoke disperse in the valley bottom subsidence of air in sub-tropical highs
2. One millibar is equal to a) 1 only b) 2 only
a) The force of one milligram on a square c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2
6. Which of the following factors alter wind
centimetre
direction and speed?
b) The force of one gram on a square
1. Pressure gradient force
centimetre
2. Coriolis force
c) The force of one milligram on a square
3. Frictional force
millimeter a) 2 only b) 1 and 3
d) The force of one gram on a square millimetre c) 1, 2 and 3 d) 2 and 3
3. Which of the following is/are true? 7. Which of the following statements is/are
1. A calm condition with variable and feeble correct?
winds are produced along ‘Horse latitudes’ 1. The normal trade winds over monsoon Asia
which is a low pressure belt during winters are called winter monsoon
2. The region of ‘Doldrums’ are characterized 2. In Eastern Asian countries such as Japan
by extremely calm conditions due to high and China, the winter monsoon is stronger
pressure than the summer monsoon
a) 1 only b) 2 only a) 1 only b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2 c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2

8. Which of the following statements is/are 12. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct
correct? answer from the codes given below:
1. Sea breezes blow during day at lower level List-I List-II
2. Valley breeze occur during night time which A. Fog 1. A mass of minute droplets of
is a Katabatic wind water or tiny crystals of ice
a) 1 only b) 2 only formed by the condensation
c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2 of water vapour in free air at
9. Which of the following is/are not correct? considerable elevations
1. Many houses along the Rhone valley have B. Cloud 2. Condensation at a dew point
their doors and windows south-eastern side which is at or below freezing
just to prevent them from cold wind Foehn point
2. ‘Chinook’ is the snow-eater along the lee- C. White Frost
3. Moisture deposited in the
ward side of Rockies form of water droplets on
a) 1 only b) 2 only cooler surface of solid objects
c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2 such as stones, grass blades
10. Which of the following is/are correct?
etc
1. Specific humidity is not affected by changes
D. Dew 4. A mass of minute droplets
in temperature and pressure
of water formed by the
2. Change in temperature and pressure cause
condensation of water vapour
changes in the absolute humidity
in free air with its base at or
3. A decrease in temperature cause increase
near ground
in Relative humidity
Codes:
a) 1 and 2
b) 2 and 3 A B C D
c) 1 and 3 a) 4 2 1 3
d) 1, 2 and 3 b) 3 2 1 4
11. Which of the following is/are correct? c) 3 1 2 4
1. In the saturated air, the decrease of d) 4 1 2 3
temperature with the height is twice than in 13. Which of the following is/are correct?
unsaturated air 1. Radiation fogs are thicker than advection
2. The rate of decrease in temperature in rising fogs
unsaturated air is known as wet adiabatic rate 2. When the moist air moves over a cold

a) 1 only surface, precipitation fog is produced by
b) 2 only mixing and cooling of warm air with cold air
c) Both 1 and 2 a) 1 only b) 2 only
d) Neither 1 nor 2 c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answers
13. d 12. a 11. d 10. d 9. a 8. a

7. c 6. c 5. c 4. c 3. d 2. d 1. b

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Atmosphere: Physical Geography Part-II

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Physical Geography Part-II 7

The pleasure of flying kite in a windy afternoon, of getting drenched in

Our planet is enveloped by a deep blanket of gases extending several

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WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Elements of Weather and Climate

drawn approximately at a height of 10,000 km, a distance approaching

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of photosynthesis, utilize carbon dioxide from the atmosphere,

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The Troposphere and Man

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is rapid, rain, snow, hail, or sleet-collectively termed precipitation-are

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Certain types of dust particles serve as nuclei, or centers, around

THE OZONE LAYER-A SHIELD TO LIFE

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INSOLATION & TEMPERATURE

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Factors affecting the distribution of Insolation

PROCESS OF HEAT TRANSFER

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nearly opaque (good absorber) to long wave terrestrial radiation since

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Surface Percent Reflected

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Latitudinal Heat Balance

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An inversion acts as a cap on the upward movement of air from the

MOISTURE IN THE ATMOSPHERE

• Humidity is the state of the atmosphere in relation to its water

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moisture holding capacity of air at a particular temperature is

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• In adiabatic process there is no exchange of heat from the parcel of

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This type of rainfall is most common in regions that are intensely

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The air is compelled to rise and is thereby cooled by expansion in the

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12. b 11. b 10. b 9. a a 8.

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Winds & Cyclones Notes

The atmosphere exerts considerable pressure over the earth. The

Measurement of Air Pressure

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of isobar indicates a strong pressure gradient, while wide spacing

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west to south-east In the Southern Hemisphere.