ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT AND

SCALES

Research Methodology
Dr.S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta
Learning Objectives
To discuss about :
• Nature of Attitudes
• Difficulty of Attitude Measuerement
• Use of Scaling in Research
• Types of Scales
• Law of Comparative Judgement by L.L.Thurstone
• Multi-Dimensional Scaling
• Semantic Differential Scaling
• SPSS procedure for Multidimensional Scaling

© S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta

Introduction
• Measurement is the assignment of numbers or symbols
to the characteristics of objects based on certain
predetermined rules.
• An attitude is an individual's enduring perceptual
knowledge based evaluation and action oriented
process with respect to an object or phenomenon.
• Measurement of attitude is central to many research
situations.
• Components of Attitudes
– Cognitive component
– Effective component
– Behavioural component

© S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta

Measurement Reliability
• The term reliability is used to refer
the degree of variable error in a
measurement.
• We define reliability as the extent to
which a measurement is free of
variable errors.
• Approaches to Reliability testing:
– Test‑retest reliability
– Alternatives forms reliability
– Internal comparison reliability
– Scorer Reliability

© S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta

Measurement Development
1 Specify domein of Concept

2 Generate Sample of Items

3 Collect Data

4 Purify Measure

5 Collect Data

6 Assess Reliability

7 Assess Validity

8 Develop Norms

© S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta

Scaling
• Scaling is extension of ‘Measurement’.
• Scaling is creating a range or continuum on
which measured objectives are located.
• Scaling refers to the process of measuring
attitudes.

Example:
• Measurement of attitude : favorable or
unfavorable.
• Scaling creates four levels : Very favorable,
favorable, Unfavorable, Very unfavorable.
• Measurement assigns the number: 4,3,2,1.

© S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta

 Types of Attitude Rating Scales

Develop Norms

Single Item Continuous Multi-Item

Scale Scale Scales

Likert Semantic Thurstone Stapel-item

Scales Differential Scales Scales
Scales

Itemized Comparative Rank Order Q-Sort Pictorial Paired

Category Scales Scales Scales Scales Comparison
Scales Scales

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 Classification of Scales

Scales

Comparative Scales Non-Comparative

Scales

Continuous Rating Itemized Rating

Paired Comparison Rank OrderConstant Sum Q-Sort and Other
Scales Scales
Procedures

Semantic Stapel
Likert
Differential

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Scales
• Single Item scale
• Itemized Category scale
– All categories are labeled.
– The respondent is forced to make a choice
– There is no explicit comparison of the
respondents.
– Very satisfied, Quite satisfied, Somewhat
satisfied, Not at all satisfied
– +2 to ‑2

© S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta

Basic Scales
• Nominal scales
– Example : Categories, Identification, roll nos.
• Ordinal scales
– Example : Rankings., Preferences, Most popular brand(s).
• Interval scales
– Example : Temperature, Grading in exams, User categories.
• Ratio scales
– Example : Length, Marks in exams, Distance, Salaries.

© S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta

Comparison of Basic Scales
Scale Basic Empirical Typical Typical Descriptive
Inferential Operations Statistics
Usage

Nominal Determination of Classification: Percentages Chi‑square,

equality male‑female, mode binomial test
purchaser, social class

Ordinal Determination Rankings: Preference Median Mean‑Whitne

greater of less data, market position y U,
attitude measures, Friedman
many psychological two‑way
measures ANOVA,
rank order
Interval Determination of Index numbers attitude Mean, range, Product
equality of measures, level of standard moment
intervals about
knowledge deviation correlation
brands
test, factor
analyse
ANOVA
Ratio Determination of Sales, units produced, Coefficient of
equality of ratios number of customers variation
costs

© S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta

Scales (Cont..)
• Comparative Scales
– Very superior, Neither superior nor inferior, Very inferior
• Rank Orders / Ordinal Scale
• Q - Sort Scale (Ordered Category Sorting)
• Pictorial Scales
• Likert Scales
– Usually Five point scales.
– These show the Levels of Agreement /Disagreement and are Easy to explain /develop.
• Itemized Scales (also known as Discrete).
• Staple Scales
– Unipolar, 10 point interval, rating from +5 to -5. And are balanced without neutral
point
• Semantic Differential Scales
– Usually 7 point scales.
– Bi-polar, with a neutral point. Like, rating +3 to -3.
• Constant - Sum Scales
– Require respondents to allocate a fixed number of rating points among several objects,
to reflect the relative preference of each object.

© S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta

Basic Non-comparative Scales
Basic Non-comparative Scales
Scale Basic Examples Advantages Disadvantages
Characteristics
Continuous Place a mark on a Reaction to TV Easy to construct Scoring can be
Rating continuous line commercials cumbersome
Scale unless
computerized
Itemized Rating
Scales
Likert Scale Degrees of Measurement Easy to construct, More
agreement on a 1 of attitudes administer, and time-consuming
(strongly disagree) understand
to 5 (strongly
agree) scale

Semantic Seven-point scale Brand, product, Versatile Controversy as

Differential with bipolar labels and company to whether the
images data are interval

Stapel Scale Unipolar ten-point Measurement Easy to construct, Confusing and

scale, -5 to +5, of attitudes and administer over difficult to apply
without a neutral images telephone
point (zero)

© S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta

 Itemized ScaleofDecisions
Summary Itemized Scale Decisions
1) Number of categories Although there is no single, optimal number,
traditional guidelines suggest that there should be
between five and nine categories
2) Balanced vs. unbalanced In general, the scale should be balanced to obtain
objective data
3) Odd/ even no. of categories If a neutral or indifferent scale response is possible
from at least some of the respondents, an odd
number of categories should be used
4) Forced vs. non-forced In situations where the respondents are expected
to have no opinion, the accuracy of the data may
be improved by a non-forced scale
5) Verbal description An argument can be made for labeling all or many
scale categories. The category descriptions should
be located as close to the response categories as
possible
6) Physical form A number of options should be tried and the best
selected

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Scales (Cont..)
• Interval Scale
• Ratio Scale
• Specialized Scales
• Fractionation Rating Scale
• Fishbein's Scale

© S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta

Considerations in developing a scale

• Number of categories
– More or Less
– Where to stop ( maximum no. of
categories)
• Balanced /Unbalanced
• Odd or Even number of categories
• Neutral Point ( forced / Non-forced)
– Genuine neutral point or
– Escape route for the respondents

© S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta

Advantage & disadvantage of Scales
• Graphic :
– + Easy to explain, Maximum flexibility
– -- Difficult to measure ( requires computerized /magnetic
recognition readers)
– -- Subjective interpretation of middle points
• Itemized or Discrete / Marked
– + Easy to explain to the respondent
– + works well with ‘ limited ’ categories
– + Easy to analyze
– -- Difficult with ‘ many’ categories
– Verbal expression should be distinguishable
• Pictorial
– + Best for children/ respondents with less education
Note: + or -- denotes the positive or negative characteristics.

© S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta

Comparative Judgement by L.L. Thurstone
Composite Standard Method:
• Step 1: Comparing the total number of proposal or preference for
each.
• Step 2 :Using the data' column mean can be calculated by using the
following formula:
MP = C + 0.5 (N)
n (N)
Where, Mp = The mean proportion of columns
C = Total number of choices for a given suggestion
N = Number of Stimuli
n = Number of items in the sample
• Step 3 : When the Mp < 0.5, z is negative, when Mp > 0.5, z is
positive, z for Mps is secured from area under the curve.
• Step 4 : z represents an interval scale, zero is arbitrary value.
Hence, negative value is eliminated considering zero is the lowest.

© S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta

Arbitrary Scales

• Developed on an ad‑hoc basis

• Designed largely through the researcher's own
subjective Selection of items.
• Merits
– Can be developed very easily and quickly and are relatively
less expensive.
– Designed to be highly specific and adequate.
• Limitations
– We do not have objective evidence that such scales measure
the concepts for which they have been developed.
– Have to rely on the researcher's insight and competence.

© S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta

Differential Scales
• Also known as Thurstone Type Scales
• Developed using consensus scale approach, when a panel of
judges who evaluate the items of whether they are relevant to
that topic area and unambiguous in implication makes the
selection of items.
• Merit
– Most appropriate and reliable when used to measure a single
attitude.
• Limitations
– More cost and effort is required.
– Values assigned to various statements by the judges may reflect
their own attitudes.
– More subjective then objective.

© S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta

Summatted Scales
• Also known as Likert Type Scales
• Advantages
– Easy to construct and reliable. It also provides more information and data.
– Each statement included in the Likert type scale is given an empirical test
for discriminating ability.
– It permits the use of statement that are not manifestly related to the attitude
being studied.
– Such a scale can easily be used in respondent ‑centered and stimulus Q
centered studies.
– It takes less time to construct.
• Limitations
– We can simply examine whether respondents are more or less favourable to
that topic, but we cannot tell how much more or less they are.
– No basis for belief that the five positions are equally spaced. This means
that the Likert scale does not rise to a stature more than that of an Ordinal
scale.
– There remains a possibility that people may answer according to what they
think they should rather than how they feel.

© S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta

Cumulative Scales
• Consist of a series of statements to which a respondent express
his agreement or disagreement.
• Advantages
– It assures that only a single dimension of attitude is being
measured.
– Researcher's subjective judgment is not allowed to influence the
development of scale since the scale is determined by the replies of
respondents.
• Limitations
– In practice perfect cumulative or un‑dimensional scales are very
rarely found and we have only to use its approximation, testing it
through coefficient of reproducibility.
– Its development procedure is tedious and complex.

© S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta

Multi‑Dimensional Scaling
• A set of procedures for portraying perceptual
or effective dimensions of substantive
interest.
• Used when all the variables (metric or
non‑metric) in a study are to be analysed
simultaneously and all such variables happen
to be independent.

© S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta

 Sporty

MDS (Cont..) 1
7

Non-luxurious Luxurious
Uses of MDS 3
1. Market segmentation 5 10
6
2. Product life cycle
3. Vendor evaluations Non-sporty
4. Advertising media selection

Limitations of MDS
1. Conceptual problems
2. Empirical problems
3. Computational problems

© S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta

Multiple ‑item Scale
Development of a Multi-item Scale
Develop Theory

Generate Initial Pool of Items: Theory, Secondary Data, and

Qualitative Research

Select a Reduced Set of Items Based on Qualitative Judgement

Collect Data from a Large Pretest Sample

Statistical Analysis

Develop Purified Scale

Collect More Data from a Different Sample

Evaluate Scale Reliability, Validity, and Generalizability

Final Scale

© S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta

 Scale Evaluation
Scale Evaluation

Scale Evaluation

Reliability Validity Generalizability

Test/ Alternative Internal

Content Criterion Construct
Retest Forms Consistency

Convergent Discriminant Nomological

© S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta

SPSS Procedure for Multidimensional
scaling
After the input data has been typed according to the variables desired according to
the problem, proceed according to following steps in respective cases.

1. Select Analyze menuMultidimentional Scaling ALSCAL)….This will open

Multidimentional Scaling dialogue box.
2. Enter the variables into Variables list box.
3. Click Model… button to open Model sub dialogue box. Select the level of
measurement, conditionality, dimensions, scaling model according to your
needs. Click Continue to close this sub dialogue box.
4. Previous Multidimentional Scaling dialogue box will come again. Click
Options push button to open Options sub dialogue box. Select display, criteria
and treat distances according to the requirements. Click Continue to close this
sub dialogue box.
5. The previous main dialogue box will be seen again. Click Shape push button in
the Distances box. A sub dialogue will be opened. Select the shape required and
click continue. The Multidimentional Scaling dialogue will be opened again.
Click OK to see the output.

© S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta

• Questions???

© S.L.Gupta and Hitesh Gupta