BULLETIN OF THE POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

TECHNICAL SCIENCES, Vol. 65, No. 3, 2017

DOI: 10.1515/bpasts-2017-0045

Theoretical and experimental research of anti-tank

kinetic penetrator ballistics
K. MOTYL1, M. MAGIER2, J. BORKOWSKI2, and B. ZYGMUNT1*
1
Faculty of Mechatronics and Aerospace, Military University of Technology, 2 Kaliskiego St., 00-908 Warsaw, Poland
2
Military Institute of Armament Technology, 7 Prymasa Stefana Wyszyńskiego St., 05-220 Zielonka, Poland

Abstract. A mathematical-physical model of the hypersonic anti-tank kinetic subcalibre projectile for 120 mm munition was built. Computer
simulations of the projectile flight were performed for any angle of shooting, from 0° to 90°. Trajectories of projectile flights were determined
considering all angles of shooting. Theoretical calculations were verified by experimental measurement of the projectile velocity in time while
shooting on a test range. Some conclusions with regard to safety during hypersonic projectile shooting on the test range were formulated.

Key words: hypersonic projectile, mathematical model, simulation of flight.

1. Introduction
Subcalibre anti-tank projectiles are a modern kind of artillery
ammunition used for the destruction of heavy armoured fighting
vehicles (e.g. troop carriers). Kinetic energy in the order of 10
MJ is delivered with an elongated metal rod, the so-called pen-
etrator, made of a sintered tungsten or sintered uranium pow-
ders, having the mass of a few kg and a velocity of over 1500
m/s. The propulsion of the projectile to a hypersonic velocity is
achieved in a gun barrel, due to the interaction of the combustion
products of a propellant charge, i.e. due to powder gases under
a maximum pressure of over 500 MPa. After hitting a target, the
process of projectile penetration takes place (e.g. into a steel or
composite tank armour). The penetrator’s diameter is several
times lower than the calibre of the gun barrel from which the
penetrator is fired, and hence the projectile’s name – subcalibre.
A heavy penetrator moves in the barrel as a carrier integrated
with so-called sabots, i.e. clamps made of lightweight metal (Al
alloy) that drop off from the projectile when it leaves the barrel.
Stable and straight-lined flight of the projectile is ensured by the
fins fixed to the end of the penetrator [1–6]. A schematic of the
subcalibre anti-tank projectile is shown in Fig. 1.
The development of subcalibre antitank projectiles was
focused on increasing their velocity and slenderness, i.e. in-
creasing the ratio of projectile length to its diameter (l/d). At
present, this parameter exceeds a value of 30. In the literature,
models and simulations are described that are related to the
internal ballistics of the penetrator driven in a barrel, and ex-
ternal ballistics of the penetrator related to the initial phase of
projectile flight (up to several km) for an almost horizontal shot.
The hypersonic velocity of the projectile and its aerody-
namic shape allow a significantly greater maximum range to
be achieved. Thus, ensuring safety has become very important
when subcalibre projectiles are fired. One possible solution is
*e-mail: bogdan.zygmunt@wat.edu.pl
discarded sabot
fins
projectile core
sealing
projectile nose
Fig. 1. Construction of a subcalibre anti-tank projectile
to apply self-destruction of the projectile by the separation of
stabilisers, or its division into several parts after a few seconds
of projectile flight. For projectiles that do not undergo fragmen-
tation, it is necessary to know their maximum ranges, especially
for the cases of unintentional firing at large angles.
Here, simulations of flight have been undertaken and tra-
jectories have been determined for the angles of firing from 0°
(horizontal shot) to 90° (vertical shot) for the developed math-
ematical-physical model of the subcalibre projectile. The ini-
tial data used for simulations were obtained from experimental
measurements of the projectile velocity in time. The main goal
is to assess the safety zones when shooting hypersonic subcal-
ibre projectiles at military ranges.
2. Physical model of subcalibre projectile
To develop a physical model, the features of the object that
have a significant influence on the analysed phenomena were

Bull. Pol. Ac.: Tech. 65(3) 2017 399

Brought to you by | Gdansk University of Technology
Authenticated
Download Date | 2/16/18 9:32 AM
 ii –– matching matchingfactor. factor. X1 /R
where: - al
g⃗ = −g 0 ∙ (R /r )r = −g 0 [ 2 3 1 − XX2 11 X 2 /R ],
∙
/R
/R (3)
⃗g – earth acceleration; 2 3 -- algebrai
algebrai
g⃗g⃗ = = −g −g00 ∙∙(R (R2 /r /r3 )r )r = = −g −g00[[11− −22∙∙XX22/R /R X],3],/R (3) (3)
R – earth radius;
where: X X 33 /R /R
K. Motyl, M. Magier, J. Borkowski, lat – lattitude; and B. Zygmunt
⃗X gwhere:
where: –, XEarth acceleration;
⃗gR ⃗g1–––Earth Earth2, X3acceleration; – position of the projectile in space.
Earthacceleration; radius;
RR–– Earth Earthradius; radius;
lat – latitude;
considered - geometrical [7–12]. Firstcharacteristics; of all, to develop a physical model of lat lat –– latitude;latitude; g0 = 9.80665[1 ¡ 0.0026]  gv ⃗0 = 9. u ⃗0 − w ⃗⃗⃗[ ;▪-0.00  cos(2 ▪ lat); cos( lat)] (5)
the projectile, it was necessary: X
X 1
X11,, X, X
X22,, X2 , X 3
X33 –– position– position
positionof ofthe ofthe the projectile
projectile
projectile ininspace; in
space; space;
- mass-inertia geometrical characteristics;
characteristics; ⃗
v = ⃗
u − ⃗
w ⃗⃗ ; (5)
1. To- accept the characteristic.
coordinate systems that are necessary for the ⃗⃗ggg000-–= =
= 9.80665[caused
acceleration
acceleration
9.80665[1
9.80665[1 1 −−
caused
− 0.0026
0.0026 0.0026 bybyCoriolis ∙Coriolis
∙cos(2 cos(2 ∙ cos(2 ∙force;
force:
∙lat)];
lat)]; ∙ lat)];
tracer
mass-inertia
- geometrical characteristics; characteristics; ⃗ – vector ofcaused
ω Earth by angular
⃗ Coriolis
v =u ⃗ − velocity: ;
⃗⃗⃗ force;
w (5)
3. description To
-- determine tracer ofcharacteristic.
projectile
the characteristics;
component movement external and offorces the forces and af- ––– acceleration
acceleration
accelerationcaused caused by byCoriolis Coriolis force;
force; ⃗⃗ - (⃗⃗ ⃗u)
mass-inertia ω
⃗ – vector of Earth  angular
∙ cos(lat) velocity:
∙ cos(AZ)
3. fecting -moments it. of the
geometrical characteristics; and the ⃗v – relative velocity ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗= ⃗⃗==u
of⃗[= −−2(ω ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗;⃗× ⃗×⃗ u ⃗× )) u ⃗ )(4) (5) (4) (4) (4)
⃗⃗Earth
To determine the forces
component affecting external the projectile forces and v −2(ω −2(ω
projectile: w u
∙ ⃗sin(lat)
2. To
- determine
tracer characteristic.
the projectile structure, i.e.: ω
⃗ – vector of ω = angular∙ cos(lat) ∙ cos(AZ) ].
velocity: (6)
-functions
moments mass-inertia describing
of the characteristics;
forces them, affecting i.e.: the projectile and the u
⃗ – velocity of projectile;
3. –-To determine the component external forces and ⃗⃗ =
ω of[of
−  ∙
∙ cos(lat) cos(lat)
 ∙ sin(lat) ∙
∙ cos(AZ) sin(AZ ]. (6) (5)
- - geometrical geometrical
-functions
moments
tracer
geometrical
gravitational
- of
characteristics;
characteristic.
characteristics;
characteristics;
geometrical
describingthe force
forces them, and
affecting its moment;
characteristics;
i.e.: the projectile and the ⃗ –⃗w
ω ⃗v⃗v⃗⃗vvector relative
––– relative
relative
wind ofvelocity;
Earth velocity
velocity
velocity angular ofof
−
projectile;
projectile;
projectile; projectile;
velocity: ∙
v⃗v ⃗cos(lat) = =u ⃗u ⃗− −∙ w ⃗⃗⃗w⃗⃗⃗v⃗;; = u
sin(AZ ⃗ − ⃗
w⃗⃗ ; (5)
-3. mass-inertia –To determine the
mass-inertia
mass-inertia component external forces and
characteristics;
characteristics; ⃗u⃗u⃗u ––– velocityvelocity
velocityof ⃗
ω
projectile;
ofofprojectile;
projectile; ⃗
projectile; = [  ∙ sin(lat) ]. (6)
-etrical geometrical-
characteristics; -
-functions aerodynamic
gravitational
-characteristic.
characteristics;
geometrical ofdescribing
characteristics;
mass-inertia force
characteristics; them, and its
characteristics;
i.e.: moment; v⃗ =ω ⃗ [− w
u
 ∙ cos(lat) ∙ cos(AZ)
⃗⃗⃗v⃗v⃗;==u⃗∙ sin(lat) ⃗−
u −− ⃗⃗⃗ ∙;w
w ⃗⃗⃗cos(lat) ; v
⃗
∙ sin(AZ (5) (6)
u
⃗ -w⃗⃗
(5) (5)
–moments tracer the forces affecting the projectile and the ⃗⃗w w⃗w ⃗ ––––vectorwind
wind
wind velocity;
⃗velocity;
⃗velocity;
velocity;
racteristics; - - tracer tracer
- - - -characteristic.
characteristic.
Coriolis
aerodynamic
gravitational
mass-inertia tracer force and
force
characteristic.
force
characteristics; its
and
and moment; its
its moment;
moment; ⃗
v = ⃗u
⃗ −ω
⃗3. ⃗
w⃗⃗
– ;
vector
Scalar
of = Earth of
form
of
angularangular
Earth
Earth of
velocity;].(5)
equations
angular velocity:
velocity: of projectile motion
-inertia mass-inertiacharacteristics;
3. To determine functions characteristics;
describing them, i.e.:
the component external forces and moments ⃗ ⃗ –∙ cos(lat)
ω
− vector∙ of sin(AZ Earth angular cos(lat) velocity:
cos( )
3.-3.tracer
-racteristics;
characteristic. To To-determine
geometrical
determine
of--3.
characteristic.
- the Magnus
Coriolis
tracer
aerodynamic
- gravitational
geometrical
forcesgeometrical
To the
the
characteristic.
determine
affecting
characteristics;
component
force
componentforce and
force theits
and
characteristics;
characteristics; the and
its external
moment.
moment;
external
component
projectile its moment;
moment; andforces forces
theexternal and forces
functions de- ⃗ and
ω – vector 3. Scalar
of Earth form angular ⃗ v
v =⃗
v of ⃗ equations
velocity:
=u  −u ⃗ ∙∙ cos(lat) ;w
⃗⃗⃗cos(lat)
w− ⃗⃗⃗ ; ;(5) ∙ ∙ofcos(AZ)
cos(AZ) projectile (5)motion (5)
stic. 4.
moments
3. To The
- characteristics
of
Magnus
determine the forces
the force component of
affecting
and itsthe moment.
externalmedium
the projectile
forces ofω
⃗ and –thevector
andobject’s⃗ of– Earth
ω
the vectorangular of Earthvelocity: angular ⃗ = ⃗
u
velocity: − ⃗
w⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ [∙ cos(lat) sin(lat) ∙ cos(AZ) ] (5)
To inedetermine
-the component moments
mass-inertia -
- -
scribing - the- of
aerodynamic
Coriolis
geometrical
mass-inertia
geometrical them,the
mass-inertia
moments
componentexternal forces
characteristics; force
i.e.: force
of
forces affecting
and
the
external
characteristics; and
characteristics;
characteristics; its its
forces
and moment;
ω⃗
forces
⃗ the
moment;
affecting
– projectile
vector
and ofthe projectile
Earth angular and 3. the
velocity: AScalar scalar 
form form
∙ cos(lat)
⃗
ω⃗
ω ⃗ = = ⃗
v
of
⃗
v of
[[ =
= ∙ cos(AZ)
equations ⃗
u⃗
u
equations −−
  ⃗
w⃗
w⃗⃗
∙∙
⃗⃗ ;;
sin(lat)
sin(lat) of of projectile
projectile ].
]. movement
motion (5) is (6)
(5) (6)
- -moments geometrical characteristics;  ∙ cos(lat) ∙∙cos(AZ) cos(lat) ⃗ =u
v ⃗∙ cos(AZ) ⃗−
ω⃗ w ⃗=⃗⃗ ].;[ - cos(lat) ∙ sin(lat) sin( (5)
].
mponent 4.
functions
functions external
- – motion, The - Coriolis
-gravitational
mass-inertia
tracer describing
Magnustracer
describing
forces
mass-inertia
ofi.e.
characteristics the
force
characteristic. and
force density,
forces
characteristic.
force and
them,
them,
andand
characteristics;
characteristics;
affecting
of
its its viscosity,
the
moment;
i.e.:
its
i.e.:
moment; moment. the
medium projectile temperature,
of and the the object’s

and 3. ω
⃗ Scalar– vector
obtained A form
⃗⃗scalar
ω of =Earth [of
Earth equations
form  ∙ sin(lat)
angular
angular of − velocity:
velocity:
equations ∙ of projectile
cos(lat) of ∙ projectile
sin(AZ motion (6) movement is
∙ by projection of∙velocity: the vector equation (6) on the(6) axes of
functions describing them, i.e.: ∙ cos(lat) ⃗– –[vector
ω ∙
vector cos(AZ)
moments
of the
es
- forces
affecting
tracer
3.- - 4.To
of- 3.the affecting
functions
pressure
-gravitational
- gravitational
–the motion,
The To forces
characteristic.
mass-inertia
tracerMagnus
determine
characteristics
projectile
aerodynamic
determine
the
affecting
describing
ofi.e. air
force
characteristic.
the
projectile
characteristics;
depending
the
force
forceand and
density,
component
them,
the
and
themoment.
ofitsi.e.:
its
component
and
projectile
and
viscosity,
the
its
moment; on thethe flight
external
medium
moment;
external
and theand were
of altitude
temperature,
forces
forces the object’s
and and ⃗⃗ω
ω ⃗ = ⃗⃗of
ω =of [Earth
Earth
sin(lat)
−∙ cos(lat) angular
angular
∙ cos(lat)
−
∙ sin(lat) ].
∙ sin(AZ
cos(lat)
velocity:
∙ cos(AZ) − ].∙ ∙sin(AZ cos(lat) ∙ sin(AZ
functions
describing
. To 3. -
4.describing
determine -them, - tracer
tracer i.e.:-
theinto
gravitational characteristic.
them,
component
characteristic. force
gravitational i.e.:
force and external
and its
force
its moment;
moment; and
forces its moment;
andaltitude⃗
ω⃗ = [  ω
⃗ω
⃗
∙ –
–the
sin(lat) vector
obtained
vector A
Earth scalar of
of by Earth
projection
coordinate
Earth
]. form  angular
∙
angular of
cos(lat) of
equations
system. velocity:
the∙ vector
cos(AZ)
velocity: (6)
Such of equation
projectile
designed on the
movement
mathematical axes of is
- To
moments –The taken moments
pressure
motion,
Coriolis
determine
aerodynamic
characteristics
of of
i.e.
force
the
ofair
the the
consideration.
and density,
force
forces
of moment;
forces
depending
its
component and
the
affecting
affectingmedium
viscosity,
its on The
external
moment;
the the of
theatmospheric
flight
projectile
the
projectile
temperature,
forces object’s
and
and
and model
the
the wereand A ω –−
⃗ scalar vector ∙ cos(lat)
form ⃗of
ω ⃗ = −Earth
of ∙
[ equations ∙sin(AZ ∙angular
cos(lat)  cos(lat)
∙ sin(lat) of ∙ velocity:
sin(AZ
∙ cos(AZ)
projectile ]. movement is (6)
them, 3. -
i.e.: To aerodynamic
- determineaerodynamic
- of the force
aerodynamic component
force andand its
itsforce moment;
external
moment; and forces
itswas moment;and − ∙ cos(lat) the
obtained ∙
Earthsin(AZ ⃗
ω ⃗ =
coordinate [  ∙ cos(lat)
 ∙
system. sin(lat) ∙ cos(AZ)
Such designed ]. mathematical(6)
-ational moments 3.force
gravitational
- functions
To–motion,
moments of determine
and
taken
-pressure
Coriolis Magnus the
functions
implemented force
its forces
into moment;
i.e.
force
describingof
the
force
the
and density,
describing
in component
affecting
its
the
consideration.
air and
forces and its
dependingmoment;
them, moment.
affecting
its
the
viscosity,
them,
computer i.e.:
moment;
external
i.e.:projectile
onThe program
the the forces
temperature,
atmospheric
flight
projectile and and
the
altitude the
and
and
Normal
model
the were model
obtained by projection ⃗⃗by
isω a projection
⃗== [system
− of

∙the ∙∙ cos(lat)
cos(lat) 
cos(lat) of of ∙the
∙ ∙∙sin(lat)
vector sin(AZ
equation
vector
differential-algebraic
∙∙ cos(AZ)
cos(AZ)
∙ sin(AZon].
equation
.(6)
].the axes of
on the axes
equations, (6)of
ce and -its moment;
moments
moments Coriolis
pressure - Coriolis of
of force
of
gravitationalthe
the force
air forces
and
depending
forces and affecting
its
forceitsmoment;
affecting moment;
on
and the
its the flight
moment;
the projectile
altitude
projectile and
were
and the
the 3. Scalar 3. Scalar
form ⃗of
ω =equations
form
form
[− ∙ cos(lat)
of equationssin(lat)
of projectile of ].
projectile
motion (6)
motion
(6)
− ∙∙of
-ynamic functions
aerodynamic force 4. The describing
and
Atmosphere
implemented -
force
itsdescribing
characteristics moment;Coriolis
andthem,
ofinforce its
Artillery
ofthe the force
i.e.:
moment;
computer
medium (NAA) and of its
program [7]. moment;
theatmospheric
object’s wasmotion, the Normal i.e. the Earth coordinate model
the
among Earth is
which ⃗
ω⃗a
coordinate
⃗⃗3.=
ω system
one [
Scalar
[ ∙ cos(lat) can 
 of
system. ∙equations
distinguish:sin(lat)
form differential-algebraic
sin(lat) Such
of equations of projectile
designed
]. mathematical motion
equations,
(6)
of projectile
ce force -its- -functions functions -taken
Magnus
taken
Magnus gravitational
- Magnus into into
force
describing
aerodynamic
force force consideration.
consideration. and
and and them,and
its
its
them,
force
its
i.e.:
its
moment.
moment.
i.e.:
and
moment. The itsThe
moment; atmospheric
moment; modelmodel
−
system. Such
cos(lat) designed ∙∙ sin(AZ
sin(AZ mathematical
-lis -and Coriolis gravitational
and moment;
functions
4.-- implemented density,
The Atmosphere
force
its moment;
implemented
gravitational
aerodynamic -and
- characteristics
describing
viscosity,force Magnus
its of
in thein and
moment;the
force
them,
Artillery
temperature, force
its
computer
ofand
computer andthe
i.e.:
moment;
(NAA)
itsits
and
medium and its
program
moment;
moment;
program
[7].
pressure moment.
of
was the of
was
3.the
the
air the
Scalar
object’s
Normal
depend-
Normal 3.form Scalar
model -among
model
dynamic
ofis equations
form
a form systemwhich
is ofa
equations one
system
equations
of of
−
− can ∙ cos(lat)
of of
cos(lat)
projectile
differential-algebraic distinguish:
motion ∙∙ sin(AZ
differential-algebraic
of projectile of
sin(AZ
projectilemotionprojectile equations, mass
motion equations,
center:
gravitational Coriolis force
force and its moment;moment;
nd
-us4. -4.Magnus
its
force moment; The The
aerodynamic
and - Movement
-- ing
characteristics
characteristics
force
motion,
Atmosphere 4.
its gravitational
onmoment.
Atmosphere the
aerodynamic
Coriolis
- The
and
Magnus
flight
force
i.e. of
its
force
of
both
of force
altitude
and
characteristics
moment.
density,
of
of spin-
Artillery
force
and
Artillery
force its
its
and
the
the
and
were
and and
moment;
viscosity,(NAA)
moment;
(NAA)its
medium
medium
its taken
its
moment.
moment;
3.
fin-stabilised
of
moment;
[7]. Scalar
into
the
[7].
temperature,
of
of
consideration.
medium form object’s
projectilesand of
ofThethe equations
is
among
3. A scalar
object’s Scalar
-
amongdynamic
which A of one
form
scalar
which
of of
projectile
equations
can
equations
form
one
form
equations
distinguish:
A can
scalar of
ofof motion duof
of projectile
equations
motion
distinguish:
equations
form of
of of
movement
projectile
of
equations
motion
projectile
projectile
is
mass movementcenter:
movementmo
of projectile is
nd its moment. motion,
motion, most - atmospheric
Movement
aerodynamic
aerodynamici.e.
i.e.
frequently density,
density,
model
of described
both
force
force and
viscosity,
and
viscosity,
implemented
spin- using
and
its
its moment;
moment;
one-
in
fin-stabilised the temperature,
temperature,
or three-degrees-of-
computer program
projectiles and obtained
is 3. 3. Scalar
Scalar by projection form
form of of
of the equations
equations vector
1
equation ofof projectile
on
projectile the axes motion
of
motion
The- characteristics
acteristics Coriolis --of 4.pressure the force
Coriolis
Magnus motion,
medium ofof andairthe
force
force its
dependingi.e.
of
and
and moment;
medium the
its
its density,on
moment;
moment. the
object’s
of flight
the viscosity, altitude
object’s temperature,
were - and
dynamic
obtained by equations projection of motiondu
of the of
vector projectile equation mass oncenter:
the
theaxes onoo
The
Coriolis characteristics
force and itsof the
moment; medium of the object’s - 3. 3.
dynamic 3.Scalar Scalar equations form form of of
projection of
motion equations
equations of dt
projectile
of the of vector projectile
projectile
mass center:
equation motion
motion on axes
of -the pressure
medium
freedom - was Coriolis
the ofof Normal
mathematical air theforcedepending and
object’s
Atmosphere its
models moment;
on of the
Artillery
that differflight (NAA)
inthealtitude
the A [7]. scalar
number were form
A
the
of scalar
Earth AofScalar equations
scalar form
coordinate form
π ∙form of
ρobtained
∙ i system. ∙ equations
of
dof 2equations
of projectile
equations
by
Such of
of
projection
1
designed projectile
movement
projectile
of projectile
ofX1 the
mathematical movement
movement is
vector motionis is
equation
motion,
.e. 4.pressure
density, Magnus most
i.e. - Movement
The
-
taken
Movement Magnusof
frequently
force
motion, into
characteristics
density,
viscosity,
Magnus
air
pressure of and depending
ofboth
force
i.e.
force
described
consideration.
both its
viscosity, spin-
ofand
density,spin-
moment.
of
temperature,
and air and
its
itsthe on
using
and The
depending
moment.
viscosity,
medium the
fin-stabilised
temperature,
moment.
one-
and flight
atmospheric
fin-stabilised A
or on
scalar
three-degrees-of-
projectiles
the
temperature,
of and model
projectiles
flight
object’s
form isand
of is
altitude
equations 3.
the
Scalar
were of
Earth
form
projectile of du1equations movement du dt1 ofisprojectile motion (7)
obtained A = scalar by ofcoordinate
form
projection of ofequations the system.
vector v ∙ v1of Such
− projectile
equation on designed
the movement
axes ofmathematica
ofis(7) ma
- Movement Magnus ∙ 8ρcoordinate system. Such designed mathematic
offorce both and
spin- its
andmoment. fin-stabilised projectiles iswere
most model A scalar is −aform (system equations 2) CDof
∙equation ∙projectile gthe movement
∙ axes is obtained
of .y, air
pressure The 4.taken
viscosity,
depending
4.
takendependent
freedom
most
ofmost The
motion,
characteristics
The
implemented
air
into
into
frequently
pressuremathematical
temperature,
frequently
characteristics
depending
on i.e.
taken
characteristics
variables
consideration.
consideration.
the of in
described the
described
air
density,
of into
flight on
and
models
computer
and
depending
the of
of
usingtheusing
viscosity,
medium
consideration.
the
altitude
the flight
simplifications
TheThe
one-that
program
onone-
medium
medium were or
the ofatmospheric
differ
atmospheric
altitude
was
three-degrees-of-
or
flight
the
of
obtained
inthe the taken
Normal
three-degrees-of-
ofThe
temperature, altitude
the
object’s
were
the
numbermodel
object’s
atmospheric
object’sand by into
obtained
projection
of
modelby projection
of πthe the mi ∙of
∙∙vector of
dEarth differential-algebraic
dtthe 0vector
coordinate dt∙axes
on equation 0 system. XR1equations,
on of the
Such axes designed
obtained by projection of the
A A vector
scalar scalar form
equation
form of of equations
on
equations the ofof of projectile
projectile movement
movement is
isis
4. frequently The described
characteristics using of one-
the or
medium three-degrees-of-freedom of the object’s by
the
obtained projection
Earth
model coordinate
by of
projection the vectorsystem. of equation
the Such vector on
designed the equation axes of
mathematical
on the Earth
the axes co- of
consideration for the forces and aerodynamic moments ∙ i ∙πdis ∙aSuch system 0 of Xdifferential-algebraic equations
Atmosphere of Artillery (NAA) [7]. among =
which
πA
−
scalar ( one can distinguish: ) ∙ C ∙ v v − g ∙
onding on dependent
implemented
freedom
implementedfreedomthe
motion, flight
takenmathematical
mathematical
i.e. variables
ininthe
altitude
into the computer
models
consideration.
density, computerwereand
models onsimplifications
that
viscosity, program
differ
Thediffer
that
program in was
the
atmospheric
was
temperature,in the the
number
the taken Normal
ofand
model
number
Earth into
the of
coordinateEarth A coordinate
system.
scalar ∙ )8ρform
form Such
i ∙system. 2of
system of equations
3∙ designed
equations aSuch ofsystem of
of projectile
differential-algebraic
designed
mathematical projectile movement
mathematical
movement is
equation
D 1 0
aken motion,
consideration. into pressure
mathematicalmotion, i.e.
consideration. of
density,
implemented
Thei.e. air
models depending
atmospheric
density, viscosity,
The
that in
differ the
atmospheric
viscosity, in thetemperature,
computer
model
the flight temperature,
number altitude
program
modelof and
dependentwerewas
and the ordinate Normal + ∙ ρ−2(sin(lat)∙u
system.
2
model m d designed is1differential-algebraic
+cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u mathematical1 ofXR2model
1)differential-algebraic
(7)
is a system (7)
acting
dependent motion,
consideration on
implemented i.e.
thevariables
variables for density,
projectile the and
in theforces viscosity,
during
simplifications
computer and its
program
the aerodynamic
Earthtemperature,
flight. taken
was Athe point
coordinate into
moments
Normal and
mass = model
-obtained
dynamicthe − obtained
( Earth is
equations
∙by by
a projection
system
projection
coordinate ∙ C of0 one ∙
motion vof
)system. v
∙of of −
Dthe the
g
of∙distinguish: ∙ vector
projectile
v vector
Such v1 − designed equation
mass ∙ center:
equation on
equations,
onthe the
mathematical axes
theaxes of
axesofof
asystem. +Such designed mathematical
Atmosphere
dependent
pressure
taken into of of air Artillery
depending
consideration. and (NAA) on The the [7].
simplifications flight
atmospheric altitude taken modelwere into obtained
among =8− (by which projection D Cof
can 0the
0 ∙vector g equation on
ration.
ted pressure
mplemented in the Atmosphere
The pressure
computer
variables pressure
consideration of
Movement inatmospheric
air
the and
Atmosphere of
of of
depending
Atmosphere
computer
program air Artillery
simplifications
of
air
for both depending
depending
theof model
was
spin- onof(NAA)
program
forces
Artillery the
and the
taken
and on
Artillery Normalflight
the
was
fin-stabilised
on
(NAA)
[7].
into
the
aerodynamic flight
the
flight
[7]. altitude
(NAA) Normal
consideration model
altitude
[7].
projectiles
altitude
moments were forismass
were
is
were model
the system
of
among
obtained
is awhichof
differential-algebraic
m
system
−2(sin(lat)∙uby which projection
differential-algebraic
8among
one ∙ mcan ofone can
which
distinguish:
of
3differential-algebraic
+cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u
equations, the distinguish:
du vector
one
R
2 among can equation
0
equations, R2 ) one
distinguish:
which on the
canaxes
equations, dis- of
trajectory
acting
consideration on model
the for was
projectile the built
forces according
during and its aerodynamicto
flight. NATO A pointSTANAG
moments the model theEarth Earth iscoordinate coordinate
a system du
system. system.
of differential-algebraic
SuchSuch designed
designed mathematical
equations,
mathematical
omputer programtaken
implemented into wasprojectile the
consideration.
in the Normalcomputer The model
program atmospheric was isprojectile
amodel
the systemmodel
Normal of +tinguish: the
−2(sin(lat)∙u
-can Earth
differential-algebraic
dynamic coordinate 3 +cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u
equations
1
system. of equations,
du 2Such
motion 2) designed
of projectile mathematicalmass
masscenter:
taken taken
into into
consideration. consideration. The The atmospheric oratmospheric model -the Earth coordinate equations system. of motionSuch designed
ofmotion projectile mathematical center:
forces
most and aerodynamic moments acting onthree-degrees-of-
the during dt
Atmosphere
re of Artillery acting
4355. taken
trajectory
acting
Atmosphere
implemented
offrequently (NAA)
onArtillery
This
on
the
into model
model
the of
described
[7].
in
(NAA)
consideration.
was
projectile with
Artillery
the built
computer
using
[7].
during
threeduring
(NAA)
one-
its
The
degrees
according flight.
its
program[7].
atmospheric
of
to
flight.
ANATO among
point
freedom
was Athe
mass
point which
model
assumes
STANAG
Normal
among
mass one among
which
dynamic
model
+ −2(sin(lat)∙u
distinguish:
whichis one
equationsa can
-system
one dynamic distinguish:
of
can2du dt3motion +cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u
of
distinguish: equations of projectile
differential-algebraic of 2 ) center:
mass ofequations,
projectile mas
eryimplemented
(NAA) Movement
Movement freedom
its
trajectory
that implemented
implemented[7].
flight. Movement
the in of
modelof
mathematical
A point
Movementthe
projectile
both
both in mass
computer
was
in of the
the spin-
spin- models
built
both iscomputer
of and
and
trajectory
spin-
computerboth program
according
perfectly andfin-stabilised
fin-stabilised
that
spin- differ
among
model
program
program to
fin-stabilisedwas
and
stabilised NATOin
was the
which
was
the projectiles
number
built the
Normal
STANAG
projectiles
fin-stabilised
was the
on one
according
Normal
Normal
its of can is
flight is model
distinguish:
projectiles model
–
model dynamic
π ∙ is
ρ is∙ is
is
i a
∙ π d a
a
2∙ ρ
system
equations system
∙
systemi ∙ d of of
2 of
motion
of differential-algebraic
differential-algebraic
dt of
differential-algebraic
du du
du
X projectile 2X
mass 2
(7) equations,
center: equations,
equations, (8)
4355. This model with three degrees of freedom
- dynamic assumes
into -of equations
dynamic ( equations ofwhich motion du
iDof ∙of 2motionprojectile −0 g 0of∙ projectile mass 0center: mass R 2 center:
= − ( ) ∙ C ∙ v ∙ 2 v 1 11 − g (1 − )
trajectory
Atmosphere model of with was
Artillery built according
(NAA) [7]. tothree-degrees-of-
NATO STANAG =-− among
dynamic which ∙)
πequations 8ρ ∙∙∙oneone
Cm ∙can vdt of∙ v1distinguish:
1
motion du
Rof− projectile
dependent variables and simplifications taken D 2 1mass center: (8)
mostfrequently to frequently
4355. NATO
Atmosphere
most This ofSTANAG model
frequently described
of 4355.
Artillery
described threeusing
This(NAA)
degrees
using one-
model one-[7].
ofor orwith
freedom
or three degrees
assumes
three-degrees-of- among 0dcan distinguish: 2X
ofmost
Movement Atmosphere
both spin-
that4355. Atmosphere
trajectory,
that of
Movement
consideration
freedom freedom both
the
most
and
theThis spin-
assumes
projectile
described
Artillery
frequently
i.e.
fin-stabilised
projectile
model
of for
mathematical
of
the
both and
that
Artillery
the with
is
(NAA)
projectile’s
spin-
the forces
using
three
and
(NAA)
described
fin-stabilised
is projectiles
perfectly
projectile
perfectly
models and
one-
[7]. axis
degrees -
fin-stabilised dynamic
[7].
using
follows
aerodynamic
is projectiles
stabilised
perfectly
stabilised
that differ is of three-degrees-of-
one-the
freedom
on
in
equations
on
projectiles
moments
stabilised
the its
or
direction
is
number
itsassumes
flight on is
its
of
ofamong
of
three-degrees-of-
flight motion among
-
π=∙ which
dynamic
8ρ− of dud2 one
i(∙projectile
∙∙which
m
equations
one can can ) du mass∙distinguish:
of
Cdistinguish:
dt
D
motion
∙ v dt∙ dt
center: vdt2
of
2Xg2 0 (1 −
projectile dt (8)
mass
)
center:(8)
in- and freedom
freedom fin-stabilised
its
trajectory, mathematical
mathematical
velocity i.e. projectiles
vector.
the models
models
projectile’sAccordingisor that
that axis differ
differ tofollows the in the
in the
principle
the number
direction of of =
ofa-number
+du − (
--=dynamic
−2(sin(lat)∙u + π ∙ ρ π
2(cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u
∙ ∙ )81
ρ
πequations
i ∙ d ∙
2∙ C mi ∙
∙ 3ρρ+cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u
∙∙ ii∙0∙C∙ d d ∙2 v 2 ∙
2of v 1 du
−
motion
0 g (1 −
+cos(lat)∙cos(AZ)∙u
2∙of
) 1Rprojectile
X ) 2XR mass
2 3 (7) ) center: (7)
(1 −∙ XX11mass
D 2 1 0
yfrequently
described most that
acting
flightMovement
trajectory, described
using
frequently
dependent freedom
theon i.e.
trajectory, theone-
projectile
of mathematical
using
projectile
described
the both
i.e.
variablesor the three-degrees-of-
spin-
projectile’s one-
is perfectly
during
using
and
projectile’s
and axis models
three-degrees-of-
its
one-
fin-stabilised
axis
follows
simplifications stabilised
flight.or follows that differ
A direction
point
three-degrees-of-
the on
projectiles
the itsin
mass
direction
taken of intothe
flight
is
of dynamic dynamic
1−=
1 (8− of∙m ((equationsequations
dt ) dof
D0)
of
∙dt
π∙vCmotion
∙∙Dmotion
ρvdu 1∙∙−
1
iv∙∙g∙vd0v∙of
2 of projectile
−projectile
g−0 g ) center:
mass center:
X1 (7)
d using dependent
dependent
Movement one- Movement
Movement
momentum
its or
of
velocity variables
both of
three-degrees-of-
variables of
change,
spin-both
both
vector. spin-
and
and
spin-
an and
and
equation
fin-stabilised
According fin-stabilised
simplifications
simplifications
fin-stabilised
of to projectile theprojectilesprojectiles
taken
projectiles
movement
principle is ofis
into
is ina = −
+ 2(cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u
8 ∙ m8 ∙ = m −( du ) ∙
)∙ ∙i C C dt0
du
2 v
∙ v ∙)Rv11∙ C−3 )g0∙0v∙ ∙RR
DD021011+cos(lat)∙cos(AZ)∙u v − 3 )g ∙
dependent variables and simplifications ρ ∙taken ρinto
2
ematical
om mathematical freedom
most its trajectory,
models
trajectory velocity
frequently
consideration
velocity that
model
mathematical i.e.
models
vector. differ
vector. the
was
described
for projectile’s
that
in
built
models
According
the
According the
differ
using
forces number
according that
to axis
in
one-
and
the to the
differ tofollows
the ofnumber
or NATO
aerodynamic
principle in the
principle the
STANAG
three-degrees-of- direction
of
number
of a momentum of πa∙of
moments of + 2(cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u
dt
2 du
∙πi ∙∙ ρd3∙ i=∙8d−∙3m
2 8 ∙ m π 1 ∙+cos(lat)∙cos(AZ)∙u
ρ du ∙ du d 1 D
X1∙ 0v3 −(7) R (7)
1 X 0
i ∙ d +π −2(sin(lat)∙u ∙+ dt X18 dt ) ∙ CDX g 0 ∙ 3 ) (7)
2
most
consideration
most amomentum frequently
frequently
system for
connected described
the
described forces
with using
using
the and
Earth one-
one- aerodynamic or
or three-degrees-of-
three-degrees-of- (+cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u dt∙ 1m 1∙) v
3
R
(7)
odels
most
ariables
ndent consideration that
frequently
freedom 4355.
its
momentum
variables
dependent and
change, differ
acting This
velocity anin for
described
consideration
on
mathematical model the
change,
simplifications
and
variables
equation the the
change,vector.number
withanforces
using
projectileof an three
for equation
equation
simplifications
andprojectile
models of
one-
According
theand
degrees
during
taken
simplifications
that or
offorces itscan
aerodynamic
of of
to
projectile
movement into
differ projectile be
three-degrees-of-
freedom
flight.
taken the
and
in πwritten
∙A
movement
in
the assumes
principle
ρtaken
=∙point
into i−
aerodynamic
a system
number ∙asd(22follows
moments
movement in
mass
into of
con-
of =ina−moments (=)duπ− ∙+ C(ρD2(cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u
du ∙
dt
−2(sin(lat)∙u
−2(sin(lat)∙u vπ 2∙) ∙X vρ ∙ ∙ C −
i )∙ d0π g∙2∙C ∙ v8
D ρ ∙ ∙∙ v
∙mi v1∙dt d∙−v211+cos(lat)∙cos(AZ)∙u
dt
+cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u
+cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u g − g∙(7) 02
0 ∙ X3 ) ) XR
nd acting freedom
freedom
simplifications [13]:
amomentum on
system mathematical
mathematical
the projectile
connected taken models
models
iswith during
into
the that
that
Earth its differ
differflight.
can be in
(in the
the
A8[13]:
written number
number
point asof of
8
∙of
mass
follows ∙ m 8
3 ∙ ∙ m∙
π
0 i ∙∙
8 d
ρ3
∙ ∙
m = i 1
1∙ − d
+D20)
2
2D
(
0
−2(sin(lat)∙u du
0
3 R )
0
∙ C 2XR R X
0g+cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u
∙ 2 v ∙ v − 2
g (8)
∙
3
(7)
2 )(9)
athat the projectile perfectly stabilised on its flight (∙∙π ∙∙00(ρ ρ3i∙∙∙) ii ∙∙∙ 2Cd 0 )∙X1 (7)
= − )into CD ∙ v−∙= (v11 − gdu 3 2
eedom
for acting
deration the mathematical
nected
consideration
dependent
dependent forces on
system
for trajectory thewith
acting
the and projectile
connected the
for
variables
forces
variables
change,
model
on models
Earththe
aerodynamic with
the was
and an
can during
forces that
the Earth
equation
built
be
projectile
and
and aerodynamic differ
according
written
and itscan
simplifications
moments
simplifications
ofasflight.
in
be projectile
aerodynamic
during the
written
to
follows NATO
moments A
number
its as
taken
taken
follows
∙movement
STANAG
moments
flight.
m A
into
Din 0=
point
0 = dt −π=
mass
− 8( π− mdt
ρ ∙ ∙ 8d∙dm
R )
)C∙ ∙vC2D−
π∙ ∙∙∙v∙C 8ρD D+∙dt
0m
2 ∙gv ∙(1
∙∙∙0∙vvvd∙∙∙20vvv11du
i−2(cos(lat)
v3−
du −
−− Dg3
g 0 ∙∙ X
R X
1 3
∙R11cos(AZ) ∙ XuR32
0
(7)(7)
dependent
trajectory trajectory,
[13]:
[13]:
a system 4355. model Thisvariables
i.e. was
connected the
model projectile’s
built with
with and thesimplifications
according
three axis
Earth degreesfollowscan toofbe the
NATO freedom
written taken
direction
+ STANAG of into+ −2(sin(lat)∙u
−2(sin(lat)∙u
assumes
asNATOfollows + = − (
−2(sin(lat)∙u
−3(+cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u
=2(cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u 8 8 ∙
∙∙ =mm )
+cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u
− (3∙ CDD0∙ 2v)∙ v)11∙−CDg C
+cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u − 2 g 0
2 0∙ ) ∙
∙v∙2RR )
∙ v3du − 2g 0 (9) ∙ (9)
trajectory model was built according to NATO d32+))
0

grces
ependent
projectile
on and
acting
consideration
the
considerationits
consideration
aerodynamic
variables
projectile
during
that
on
velocity
the
trajectory
the its projectile
for
for
for during
vector.
projectile
and
⃗
the
flight.
the
the
moments
model simplifications
forces
its
forces during
A
According
forces
is
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ wasflight.
point
perfectly
and
and
and builtitsaerodynamic
to
flight.
aerodynamic
mass
A + theaccording
aerodynamic
stabilised point taken
−2(sin(lat)∙u
⃗
⃗
A mass
principle
, (1)
point
on to into
moments
moments
of
moments
its
mass
a
flight
3 (1) STANAG
+
+cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u +
π ∙8ρdt
−2(sin(lat)∙u ∙ ∙8im ∙m
2
−2(cos(lat) 1 8 0−
+ ∙
+cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙um
+cos(lat)∙cos(AZ)∙usin(AZ)
−2(cos(lat)
du ∙ cos(AZ)
dt
dt
∙ u002)2X
1 3
R
∙
Ru
2) cos(AZ)
2
)
∙ u
R (8)
2
(9)
4355. [13]: This model ∙with three degrees of∙NATO freedom assumes = − (
8 du
) ∙ C 0du2
∙ v ∙ v − g (1 − )
elduring its flight. A point mass
4355.
onsideration trajectory
acting This on formodel
model
the the m with
was u̇ =built
forces
projectile DF
three and + m
degrees
according
during ∙ g⃗its+ flight.
aerodynamic mtoof freedom A STANAG
moments
point mass3 +
+ −2(sin(lat)∙u
−2(sin(lat)∙u
2 D+cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u
3 2
u12) 0 ∙ u1 ) R∙22cos(AZ) 2 )) dt
4355. This model with three degrees of freedom assumes ∙πm∙2ρ−∙ isin(AZ) 2+cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u ∙ sin(AZ)
3 22 −
ctory wasmodel acting
actingbuilt momentum was
according
on
trajectory,
on the
thebuilt change, i.e. according
projectile
projectile to
the an NATO during
equation
projectile’s
during to STANAGNATO
of its
axis
its flight.
projectile
follows
flight. STANAG A
movement
the
A point
direction
point (1) mass
in
mass of ∙ 3d + −2(cos(lat) 2X ∙ u (8)
)) (1 − 2X2 ) (8)
where: m ∙ ⃗
u̇ u̇⃗with
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
DF ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
+ m ∙ ⃗
g + m ∙ ⃗
⃗ , ⃗⃗ ,
 + du
(1) +22(cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u−2(sin(lat)∙u
du
2 π ∙ ρ
ρ ∙ ∙ i i∙ ∙
d d
+cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u dtdu 2 X ) 2X 22
cting
lt that thaton
according 4355. the
trajectory
trajectory the
a the
system This
projectile projectile
to model
model
projectile
that NATO
connected
model the
m ∙was
was is is =built
during
STANAG
with
projectile
DF
perfectly
builtthree
perfectly
the
+ itsm flight.
degrees
according
Earth
according is
∙ g⃗can + be
stabilised
stabilised
perfectly
mof
towritten
to
∙freedom
A NATO
NATO point onas assumes
its
STANAG
mass
follows
stabilised
STANAG flighton its
3
=
flight =−−((dt 2 3 ) dt )π
∙1−
) ∙∙∙DC ρCdudu
C+cos(lat)∙cos(AZ)∙u∙D ∙vi22∙∙∙∙vvdv3 ∙−
2
∙ vvug2∙120)− −∙ gg 23
3(1
)(1− −
2
.delThis with model
trajectory three its withdegrees
velocity
model three of
vector. degreesfreedom According of assumes
freedom to the assumes
principle of a π ∙ ρ ∙ i ∙ d = − ( sin(AZ)
0D ∙) C 02X∙ v ∙ v − g (8)
∙was built according to ∙aerodynamic
NATO STANAG 2 - kinematic
∙ d2 88equations vofdt projectile mass )center 2 RR motion:
where:
where: dt 8 ∙∙∙ m m du dt 00 R 0 (8)
hree
ajectory that
trajectory,
degrees4355. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
DFmodel the –of
This negative
projectile
i.e. the
freedom
wasmodel mbuilt ⃗u̇with
acceleration
projectile’s is=
assumes ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
perfectly
three
DF
according + m caused
axis
degrees ∙ to g⃗stabilised
follows
+NATO by
m of freedom ⃗⃗ , the

freedom onmovement
STANAG itsassumes
direction flight
assumes ∙ (1)
πdrag; ρ of ddt
∙ -i ∙kinematic =π ∙−ρ(∙ iequations m
2) CD20 ∙ 8
of∙ g∙i projectile ∙∙2X 2vm
2− g 0center (1 D 2X
− 2 (8)
2
(9) 0 (8) R
thetrajectory, i.e. the projectile’s axis follows the
0
4355. [13]: This
momentum model change, with three
an equation degrees of of
projectile in dt 2mass motion:
ectile projectile
is
4355.
trajectory,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
DFm perfectly
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
DF
where: – –This
–
trajectory,
negative
projectile is
i.e.
negative model perfectly
thestabilised with
acceleration
acceleration
mass. i.e.
projectile’s
acceleration
the
three projectile’s
stabilised
on caused
caused axisits
degrees
caused by
by flight
follows onby of
aerodynamic
aerodynamic axis
its
freedom
π
the
aerodynamic ∙ follows
flight
ρ =∙ i
direction assumes
drag;
drag;
− ∙ d( 2 the
2
of
drag; = direction
− ( ) - ∙ + C of
kinematic
du 3ππ ∙
∙∙8 ρ
v
ρ ∙
2(cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u ∙
m
∙
∙) ii
vπ∙∙∙2+ d
equations
∙d
C −ρ−2(cos(lat)
2X
2 ∙∙d v (1 ∙ v
dX− of
dt − projectile
∙g )
cos(AZ) (1 (8) −
+cos(lat)∙cos(AZ)∙u ∙ mass
u X2X
R)
2X 3 2 center motion:
) (8)
(8)
355. its
erfectly itsThis that
that velocity
velocitymstabilised
the
model
a–projectile
–the system projectile
vector.
with
vector. connectedon three is
According
its perfectly
According
withdegrees
flight the Earth of stabilised
totocanfreedom
=the the be(written on
principle
assumes
principle its
as flight
follows of∙8C∙DDam = −
8dt D
(2(cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u
π
0 =∙ ρ
∙(mg 008(1 − ∙( i ∙ d 2D ) 02 2
∙0 C ) ∙∙2 C v
vv1 )∙∙0R
1 ∙ v∙ v 0 −+cos(lat)∙cos(AZ)∙u
∙ v g − (1 g −
R
2
∙ 2X 2 ) )
3 (8)
itsprojectile is perfectly stabilised on its flight 1 3
− )principle ∙ v ∙=vof 2+ 2(cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u vv=221u +cos(lat)∙cos(AZ)∙u (10) 3 )
−
π− d− ) ∙∙ C)CDDD00∙ 1∙∙uof − g 0 (1 −
dX 2)
velocity vector. 2 According to the (∙aρ ∙8i∙∙∙m
D 3 0
ctory,
the that
projectile’s
i.e. the
m the projectile
projectile’s
axis
projectile mass.
follows
mass. is
axis perfectly
the followsdirection stabilised
the of
direction on its
of flight 2 m − 8sin(AZ)
∙) 1m − 1R R
ile’s its
momentum
axis trajectory, mDF velocity
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗follows – –projectile
[13]: i.e.
negative
change, vector.
the
m ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
the
DF∙ ⃗u̇mass.
projectile’s
acceleration
an
direction
= According
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
DF π∙ρ∙i∙d
equation
+ m2 of ∙ axis
caused
⃗
g + of mtofollows
∙ ⃗the
⃗by

projectile , principle
the
aerodynamic direction
8movement
∙m (1) ofdrag; a in00 +=-2(cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u
of
(2)
−
2kinematic 8 ∙ m equations R = u01dX dt +cos(lat)∙cos(AZ)∙u
1 projectile2 −1g 0 0 (1mass 2XR
R
))
center
23(10) (9) motion: (8)
hat
velocity
vector. the
momentum projectile
trajectory,
trajectory,
According
vector. momentumi.e.
change,
i.e. is
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
According
DF the
the
to =
perfectly
=projectile’s
an −
projectile’s
the
− equation
change,
(
(
principle
π∙ρ∙i∙d
to )
stabilised
the
∙
axis
)
axis
2anC ofequation
∙ C
∙
follows
projectile
∙
follows
principle
vDof ∙ ⃗
v
v
,
∙
a on
⃗
v , the
the
of its
of flight
direction
+ 2(cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u
direction
projectilea (2) of + 2(cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u
ofmovement =− + (2(cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u
in du 1 +cos(lat)∙cos(AZ)∙u )dt +∙ −2(cos(lat)
C
ππ 1D∙+cos(lat)∙cos(AZ)∙u
∙0ρ ρ ∙ 2∙v∙ ii+cos(lat)∙cos(AZ)∙u
∙∙∙vd= d2−
22 g) 0 (1 −∙ 2u23 ) ) )
u∙31cos(AZ) XX33 (10) X
momentum
its m where: velocity –connected projectile change,
vector.⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
m
m mass.
DF an equation
According 8∙m
π∙ρ∙i∙d of projectile
to + the movement
principle of (2)in aaa - kinematic + 8
2(cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u ∙ m33
= π− −∙−ρ((sin(AZ) du dX dt +cos(lat)∙cos(AZ)∙u π ∙ ρ ∙ i ∙ d R )
) )) ∙ CCDD0 ∙∙vv∙ ∙)vv3∙3X− 3)gg ∙ ∙
du3 ∙ i ∙333d 1 3
aasystem system
its velocity connected vector. with (the
8∙m Earth
−According
D
Ccan
to be
vthe 2(cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u
⃗written
principle of 1 +cos(lat)∙cos(AZ)∙u = )dX
ajectory, i.e. the anprojectile’s axis follows the ,direction of u∙X1v∙ center −
+ 2(cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u 3
cording itschange, where:to
velocity principle
vector. with
= the of8∙m Earthawith ) ∙ can D ∙ be ∙ written
v (2) as follows 1 +cos(lat)∙cos(AZ)∙u
1 ∙21∙− 3
(10)
⃗u̇an=According to the ⃗ , principle of g 0X∙ C3D0 0∙0v ∙RR
∙= uC1= ( v3 (11)
− g0 ∙
ange,
entum an
amomentum
system
momentum equation
where:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
DF – negative aconnected
system of
equation
change, m connected
projectile
acceleration
m ∙ with of the
equation
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
DF projectile
movement
Earth
caused
+ m2 ∙ of ⃗
g can
by
+the be
projectile
m Earth
movementin
aerodynamic
∙ ⃗written
 can as
movement be
in
drag; written
follows
du (1) in as+1du π follows
∙ ρ ∙ i ∙ d dt
equations
= 2π−
∙ ( ∙dX
ρ i of ∙ 2d 2 8
projectile
dt 8 ∙ ) m m =mass
D0u
8
∙ v30 −motion:
∙ m
quation [13]: ofdm change, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
DF an − equation
( into) of
π∙ρ∙i∙d
CDprojectile , 3 movement in 2(cos(lat)∙sin(AZ)∙u
dt
du π 8
∙ ρ ∙ m
∙ i ∙ d dt2 +cos(lat)∙cos(AZ)∙u (11)
R X ) (9)R
(9)
–projectile movement
s [13]:velocity momentum dwhere: ––where: vector.
diameter change, According
of = projectile;
an equation ∙of the ∙ vprinciple
projectile ∙v ⃗du movement ofπ a∙ ρ= 3 (2)
in 3 =i u∙ 2dX 1dt 2 2 3 3
ected
tem connected
with
[13]:
a system
system the diameter
projectile [13]:
Earth
with
connected of
can
the
m projectile;
mass. Earth
be with written can
the 8∙m be
Earth aswritten follows
can be be as written follows as (follows
follows ∙ i−∙ d(2
2
=du du−333(= =) − −∙ C((Dπ πdt
dX ∙∙∙ρ ρv∙∙∙) iXv∙∙33+d
d+ C2−D)) 2 g∙ ∙Cv∙ ∙ v
−2(cos(lat)
0∙=
−2(cos(lat)
0C Du0 2∙∙ v v3 ∙∙−vv3g− 0 ∙∙g
− g∙cos(AZ) X3
X333 ∙ ∙uu2(9)
∙∙∙(10)
cos(AZ) (11)
momentum aa system where:
 dwhere: ––change,
diameter
air connected
connected
density; anofequation with
with
projectile; the
the2of Earth
Earth projectile can
canbybeaerodynamic written
movement
written
3
= as
−
as follows dt
in dt
) ∙ 8 C ∙ m dt ∙ v =∙ v − 8 (−∙ m0 1
g 8+ = ∙ ∙ −2(cos(lat)
m u dX ) ∙ C D R ∙ v ∙+ ∙ v −2(cos(lat)
cos(AZ)
3 − g 0
0R ∙ u R (9)
∙ cos(AZ)
2 ∙ u2
he Earth [13]: can d
air
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
DF–
be
diameter
written
–density;
negative ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
DF
of
as
acceleration
projectile;
follows
π∙ρ∙i∙d caused dt drag;
(2) 8 ∙ m - kinematic duD D00dt equations
3dt
3π ∙ ρ8
3 dX dt380∙of
0 ∙i m
∙m ∙projectile
RddX 1
−
2 dt32 Dmass
sin(AZ) =
0
u
0
∙ u center
3
) motion:
(9)
0 R
2
RX3 (9)(9)
(9)
(11)
system[13]: [13]: C ––diameter
= − ( ) ∙ C ∙ v ∙ ⃗
v , = − ( + −2(cos(lat) − sin(AZ) − ) ∙= sin(AZ) ∙ u
CDu01∙∙3(9) )∙cos(AZ)
v2− ∙ u
∙∙∙ vcos(AZ)
1 )
3 − ∙gu 0 (12)∙∙∙uu21 ) (12)
(9)
connected –aerodynamic∙ ∙u̇⃗with the coefficiant;
Earth8∙mm ∙can +be mwritten ⃗⃗,,, as follows + −2(cos(lat) =1∙ −2(cos(lat)
ucos(AZ) u sin(AZ)
C dρDD–m air density;
aerodynamic ⃗u̇∙mu̇⃗= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
coefficiant; + −2(cos(lat) 2 cos(AZ)
1
⃗⃗ , (1)(1)
D
m m
projectile of==mass.projectile;
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
DF DF⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + + +u̇⃗m ∙∙g⃗g⃗g⃗DF + m ∙∙m∙⃗⃗⃗ 82dX ∙+ dX dt ∙ cos(AZ)2∙∙ u
iwhere:
C ––
– air
matching
matching
–
m
density;
aerodynamic factor.
factor.
DFm ∙
coefficiant;
m= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
+ m
+ ∙ ⃗
g + m ∙  + −2(cos(lat) (1)dt ∙ cos(AZ) dX dt +
−
m∙ −2(cos(lat)
u=
3
sin(AZ)2dt u 3
= ∙ uu )
uR 2
2(10) (12)
(9)
13]:where: where: where: C  D– air density;
– aerodynamic ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
DF
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
coefficiant; π∙ρ∙i∙d 2
⃗
⃗ (1)
(2)
− sin(AZ) −∙ u sin(AZ)
1 ) dt=
− u
sin(AZ)2
dX ∙ 1 u 1 ) ∙ u 13) (11)
D (1) , (1) dt
⃗
∙ u̇ = DF ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
miC∙+ d – ⃗
u̇ diameter
m =where:
∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
DF
⃗
g m + ∙
+ of u̇
⃗
m = =⃗⃗
projectile;
m ∙  ∙ DF
⃗
g ,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − + (+ m m ∙ ∙ ⃗
 ⃗⃗
g) , +∙ C m ∙ ∙v 
⃗⃗∙ ⃗
v , (1) dt + − sin(AZ)
−2(cos(lat) 2 ∙ u 1 ) ∙ cos(AZ) ∙ u
D
–Di –matching m ∙
m ∙ u̇factor. u̇
⃗ = DF
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + m ∙
+ m ∙ g⃗ + m ∙ , ⃗
g + m ∙ 
⃗⃗ X , /R X /R − sin(AZ)
(1) - algebraic ∙ u ) 3 1 2 (12)
–matching ⃗aerodynamic coefficiant; --kinematic
kinematic equations of of=∙projectile u3 masscenter mass center motion:
= DF 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗density; m
factor.2 2 3 3 (1)
8∙m 1 1 -– kinematic 1
additional equations
equations equations dX2of
equations: of projectileprojectile projectile center
mass motion:
center motion:
+e:m ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
DF DF ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∙ g⃗DF ––+negative
where:
where:
where:
negative
–m ∙g⃗g⃗
negative
–where:air ==, −g
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
DF −g– acceleration
acceleration
acceleration ∙ (R
0negative ∙ (R /r/r)racceleration)r caused
caused
=caused
−g
= 0 [ 10by
−g by
−by
[ 1 aerodynamic
2aerodynamic
aerodynamic
− ∙ X22 /R
caused ∙ X ], by
/R (3)drag;
drag;
aerodynamic
], (3) drag;
algebraic -additional
kinematic
dX 3− sin(AZ)
equations:
dt equations u1 )massof projectile motion:
(11) mass center m
m – C i – m
projectile –matching ∙ ⃗
u̇
aerodynamic = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
DF 0
mass. factor.+ m
coefficiant; ∙ ⃗
g + m ∙ ⃗
⃗ , 1
2 (1) - kinematic
- algebraic equations
additional = dX u =
of u projectile
equations:
dX 2 mass center (12) motion:
m m––⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
DF projectile
projectile – D dnegative – diameter mass.
mass. of projectile;
acceleration 2 3 caused by aerodynamic
X /R - kinematic drag; - kinematic
equations - kinematic
- kinematic equationsequations
of equations
projectile v 1 dt 1 vof== of u dt projectile
mass
− of 1 w
3 projectile
dX
projectile center
1 uu1− w mass mass mass
motion: center center motion:
(13)
center motion: motion: (10)(13) (10)
DF –––acceleration
negative g⃗m=–⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ acceleration
projectile /rmass. 2caused 0 by [ 1 aerodynamic 3/R ], drag; drag;(3)of projectile = uu111 dX1 = u1
− 2 ∙ Xdrag; 1
acceleration
negative ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
DFwhere: negative –caused
−g 0by ∙ caused
(R
acceleration aerodynamic )rby =aerodynamic
caused −gdrag; by aerodynamic
- kinematic
3
equations mass center 1 motion: = 11 = (10)
where: m ––iwhere: matching factor. 2
1
projectile air ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗density;
DF mass. π∙ρ∙i∙d 22 (2) - algebraic additional dX3dX dX
dt 1equations:
on caused
projectile
mass. mm ⃗gmass.
– by
projectile
projectile aerodynamic
⃗
g DF
=
DF
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
−g = mass.
=
mass. ∙
− −
(R ( (π∙ρ∙i∙d
π∙ρ∙i∙d
2
/rdrag;
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 3
)r )
)= ∙
∙ C
−g
C ∙∙ v
[v 1 ∙ 2
∙ ⃗
v
− ⃗
v , ,2 ∙
⃗),∙ CD ∙ vdrag;
X /R X /R ], , (3) (2)(3) dX dX v
dX = = dt dtu u − (10) w dt (12) (13)
(10)
--algebraic
kinematic equations of uprojectile mass(10) center (14) motion:
DF π∙ρ∙i∙d 1
DF ⃗⃗ – negative – EarthC –
acceleration m = − ( caused
aerodynamic
macceleration;
0 8∙m
=)22)−∙ by
coefficiant; C(DDaerodynamic
D ∙v∙v
0 1 3
2
∙ v⃗, (2) dX (2)additional 1 v2 = udt 1 −dtw=
1 1 u
2=
3 u1 1 1 1
(10) (10)
(10)
1 equations:
D ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
where: ⃗gwhere: ––i Earth
Earth =m−g
g⃗2 matching acceleration;
DF
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
DF =
∙ (R 2− 2 (8∙m
/r
π∙ρ∙i∙d
8∙m
π∙ρ∙i∙d
3
)r =2−g ∙ 0CC[D18∙m ∙−vv 2∙∙ v ⃗∙ X
v , 2 /RX],3 /R (3)(2) 1 =u 2dX
v=
vdt212 = 1 = u21u1− w21 (14)
(13)
where:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗R
π∙ρ∙i∙d
DF – ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
radius;
DF 0=
π∙ρ∙i∙d factor.
− ( m
π∙ρ∙i∙d ) ∙ ∙ ⃗ , (2)
1
= u dt dt dt dX dX (10) (11)
mi∙d =–22where:
projectile
− d( –lat = mass.
−
)where:
∙(Cm ∙= v ∙− )v⃗∙(, CD8∙m ∙ v )∙ v⃗∙ C, D ∙ v(2) ∙v ⃗, (2) dX = u 2 dX2
(10) (11)
m 8∙m D
i∙d Rg
⃗where:
diameter –– – EarthEarth
latitude; of
D radius;
acceleration;
projectile; X /R
X /R dt 1
1 v = u dX
dt
v
− 1w = u
22
− == w uu (13) (14) (11)
d)d–∙–C where:
where: m8∙m
diameter
diameter
where:
Dwhere: lat
∙ vDF –
∙ latitude;⃗ , of
v of
m 8∙m
projectile;
projectile; 22 3(2)
8∙m 3 1
- algebraic dX additional v31 = uequations:
dX
1 dX
3 dX −2 w 2=
2 1 u
= dt dt
2
u 1 (11) 222 = u(15) (11)
m e: D
d –– air X Rg
⃗ ––
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
1 density;
, X EarthEarth d, ⃗
g X– = – radius;
diameter
−g π∙ρ∙i∙d
acceleration;
position ∙ (R of
of
/r projectile;
the
)r projectile
= −g [ 1 in
− space;
2 ∙ X /R ], (2) (3) dt vdt 2 3=
==u32u2− u dt 2 (11)
(11)(15)
2 w32
2
m
ddair ––⃗ggX diameter
diameter
2= 3−of
of projectile;
( projectile;
0 ) ∙ CD ∙ v ∙ 0v ⃗, 2
dX22
2
=u
2 dX = 323u
dt (11) (11) (14)
f ––C
iameter
projectile; 
air
D– of R air
–density;
–diameter
lat density; –,m
=
01aerodynamic
X
–Earth
projectile;Earth 2, Xacceleration;
latitude;
9.80665[1
density; – 3of
air – position
radius; projectile;
8∙m
density;− 0.0026
coefficiant; of the ∙ cos(2 projectile ∙ lat)];inXspace; 3 /R = u dt v22√v =dt
v 2u = dX −
u
v dt 2w − = =dX 2wu2
dX u − (11) w (14)(13) (12)(15)
(16)
u33vdX
v= 2 2 3 3
1 + v223+ v33
1 1 1
where:
; CCDD–i––aerodynamic ––R gX –air
lat 01–
aerodynamic
air
matching ,=–Earth
X
where: density;
density;
acceleration 2, Xradius;
9.80665
latitude; – position
3factor. [coefficiant;
caused1 − 0.0026
coefficiant; byofCoriolisthe ∙projectile
cos(2 force;∙ lat) in ]space;; dt 2
2 dXdX
dt 3
== 2 uu =
3
=2wu+
3
2 3 = u (11) (12)
(12)
;ir– density; C – aerodynamic C – aerodynamic coefficiant; coefficiant; v = dX
v √v 3
3= = dt dtu + u 2 − v (12)
(12)(16)
(15)
diameter CC
D lat –
– aerodynamic
g– of
aerodynamiclatitude;
acceleration
– D
projectile;
Earth acceleration;[ coefficiant;
caused
coefficiant; by Coriolis force; ] ; dX dX dt 3 =1 3
u 3 (12)
2 3 3
dt 3 (12)
i i––matching matching
D g
D X01, X2, factor. ⃗ =
X–22icoefficiant;–XXfactor.
9.80665
33matching
– position 1 ⃗
⃗ − = 0.0026
−2(ω
factor.
⃗⃗ × ∙ cos(2
of the projectile Xin1 /R
⃗
u ) ∙ lat) space; (4) 3 v =
v u =
3 −
u dt
dt w − w
u31 2 3v22 + v32 (12)
2√v32 +
3 (15) (14) (12)(16)
iii ––– X matching 3factor.
mic
aerodynamic dX33- algebraic = u33 2v 3==
– aircoefficiant;
dt
ciant; density; g –g⃗101,R
matching
matching acceleration
=
,Earth
9.80665
−g
––factor.
∙
position
factor.position
radius;
(R [
2caused
1/r − ⃗⃗)r
3 of
of =
0.0026
the
=
the
by
−2(ω
−g
projectile
projectile
Coriolis
⃗⃗
∙ [ ×
cos(2 1 ⃗
u
− )
in
2
inspace;
force;
∙ lat)
∙
space;
XXX ] /R
;
/R
/R ], (3) (4) = u dt additional dt dX
equations: (12)
actor.
atching factor.
g = 9.80665[1 − 0.0026 ∙ cos(2 ∙ lat)]; X 1/R X /R 3 √v 2 2 2 (16)
v312vv= += +
2 v2 + v3
2
D – aerodynamic
⃗v–0–lat relative
acceleration
0
– latitude; velocity
coefficiant; 22caused2caused
33 of
⃗3)r
⃗ = projectile;
by
−2(ω
0
Coriolis
⃗ ⃗ × ⃗
u ) force;
X 11
XX11/R /R
/R 1 (4)dt - algebraic - algebraic
3
=- additional
additional
vadditional additional
√v
algebraic
3
equations:
2 1
uvequations:− + equations:
=additional
w equations:
vu equations: (16)(15) (12)
g⃗g⃗⃗u= –= −g −g
⃗–g⃗acceleration ∙ ∙(R (R /r /r )r =
by = −g
−g
Coriolis [[ 11 −−
force; 2 2 ∙ ∙XX /R
/R ], (3)(3) - algebraic = 32u − 33 w 31 (13)
g
⃗v g⃗–gfactor.
=
Xvelocity
= 1, X
relative
−g
002, 00Xg
−g ∙
⃗∙∙of
3 (R (R
=
velocity 2−g
2 /r
–projectile;
position
/r 330X )r
⃗)r ∙1 (R
)rof
=
of
/R
= −g
the
2
−g /r00projectile
=projectile;
3
0X [
[[)r1 1
11 /R
−
=
− 2−g 2 ∙
∙∙inXX 3 /R
space;
X02222[/R
2 1 ], ],
− 2 ∙ X2(3) (3)/R ], - algebraic (3) additionaldtequations: 1 1
– matching where: = −g X3velocity;
0 /R (R /r⃗⃗ − ⃗=
 = −g
−2(ω 0
⃗⃗ ×⃗∙0⃗cos(2 ⃗× ) u ⃗−)∙2lat)]; X /R
/R -], algebraic (4) -(4) algebraic
additional additional
equations: equations: vv11vuu21= −uu (13) (13)
2 3 ⃗400 w ⃗ – wind 2= 9.80665[1 1
[ 1velocity 
−projectile;
2 ∙0X[of 0.0026
−2(ω u
(3) ],/RX XX
X333/R
/R
/R
/R (3) vvv1112 = = =+− w 1−
Bull. −vw w
Pol. Ac.: Tech. 65(3) 2017 (13) (13)
g⃗(R = −g /r⃗g 0–)r⃗uv∙Earth (R = −g /racceleration;
0 )r = −g 21 /R −],2 ∙ X2 /R - algebraic additional X3 /R equations: 1 u1 − w(16)
0 1 3 3 v = √v + vw 121 1=
––velocity
relative of projectile; X = u211− −w w 31 1 1 1 (13)
(14)
= where:
−g where: where:
0where: [ 1 − 2 acceleration
∙ X /R ], caused by
(3) Coriolis force;
1
- algebraic v 1= u
where: v1 = uadditional equations:
2 3 2 2 2
g⃗⃗g–= 0R where:−g
⃗gEarth
⃗w
––⃗vu⃗vEarth
⃗Earth
Earth––0–relative ∙wind
velocity
relative 22
radius; velocity;
(Racceleration;
/r of)rprojectile;
velocity
velocity
acceleration; = of ⃗X
⃗ of
−g
 =/R0projectile;
[1 −
projectile;
3 X23u⃗∙/R )X2 /R ], (3) (4)
Brought
1 −v1w=
to you by
1 u1 − w1
| Gdansk University of
(13)
Technology
(13)
e: g
⃗ – g
⃗ Earth
–
⃗g –⃗u–⃗w Earth – wind
acceleration;
acceleration;
g
⃗ – X Earth/R
acceleration;
3velocity;
3 acceleration;
−2(ω ⃗⃗ ×
v = u − w v
vv2Download =vv2u
= u2= = −uuw
− w2(13) − − w w
Authenticated (14) (14)
(14) (14)
latREarth – Earthu⃗ –
Earth latitude;
– velocity
velocity radius; of of projectile;
projectile; X3 /R
1
1 11 1
1
vv132=
2
=u = u312− u
2 2
−w − w
Date 2 22
w312 v2 = u2 − w2 (15)
| 2/16/18 2 2 9:32 AM (14)
(13)
R R––X RR Earth
–
– Earth radius;
radius;
R radius;
radius;
– Earth radius;
Earth
leration; acceleration; ,
1 ⃗w ⃗w ⃗ X –
⃗ ⃗2v– –wind ,wind X relative
3 position
velocity;
velocity; of
velocity of projectile; the projectile in space;
 dX
dX
dX2222 =
=u (11)
(11)
dt = uu2222
dt (11)
dt
dX3
dX
dX333 ==u (12)
(12)
= uu3333
dt Theoretical
dt (12) of anti-tank kinetic penetrator ballistics
and experimental research
dt
- algebraic additional
-– additional equations:
equations:
(3)
(3) - algebraic
algebraic
algebraic additional equations:
additional equations:
(3)
v1 =
vv = u1 −− w1 (13)
(13)
11 = u
u11 − w (13)
w11(13)
1 1 1

v2 =
vv = u2 − (14)
− w2(14)
(14)
22 = u
u222 − w
w222 (14)
2

X2 [m]
v3 =
vv = u3 − (15)
− w3(15)
(15)
33 = u
u33 − w
w33 (15)
3 3 3

v== √v21222 + (16)

+ v222 + vv23222 (16)
(16)
vv = √v
√v111 + vv2222 +
+ v333 (16)
(4)
(4)
(4)
time [s]
4. Results of computer simulation of the
projectile flight for small angles of shooting Fig. 2. Height of the projectile flight vs. time for small angles of
shooting
Using the developed mathematical-physical model of a hyper-
sonic projectile, a computer simulation was performed, and the
basic parameters of the projectile trajectory were determined.
Firing with subcalibre projectiles is performed as “direct fire”,
i.e. at very small angles of ±3°. Thus, in practice, it is the case of
the so-called horizontal throw. The initial data of the designed
simulation computer program for the examined hypersonic pro-
X2 [m]

jectile are listed in Table 1.

For the simulation of the projectile flight, it is necessary to
know how the aerodynamic coefficient depends on the velocity
of the studied object. Such dependence for the projectile under
study was determined using PRODAS [14], a commercial aero-
dynamics program.
X1 [m]
Table 1
Chosen parameters of a projectile under study Fig. 3. Flight trajectories of projectiles for small angles of shooting
No. Parameter Value
1. Projectile mass 3.65 kg
2. Initial velocity 1670 m/s
3. Diameter 0.0244 m
velocity u [m/s]

4. Characteristic area of cross-section 4.676 ▪10–4 m2

5. Air density 1.225 kg/m3
6. Air temperature 15°C
7. Air pressure 1013.25 hPa
8. Wind 0 m/s
9. Gravity acceleration 9.80655 m/s2 time [s]

10. Angle of the shooting 0 ÷ 90° Fig. 4. Projectile velocity vs. time for small angles of shooting

12. Coordinates of a cannon, X1, X2 0,0 m

Exemplary simulation results, generated with MATHCAD
for the flight of the hypersonic projectile fired at small angles,
are presented graphically in Figs. 2–4.
It can be seen from the diagrams in Fig. 3, that for firing
angles larger than 1° the calculated projectile range is over 10
km. Such range can pose a serious threat for the environment
when subcalibre projectiles are fired on artillery ranges. From
Fig. 4, for the examined hypersonic projectiles firing at small
angles, this parameter does not influence the projectile velocity,
because it shows a mono-tonic decrease with distance from the
barrel outlet to the drop on the Earth’s surface.
To verify the developed theoretical model of the hypersonic
projectile, continuous measurement of the projectile velocity
was made on the initial segment of its flight, equal to 2550 m
(i.e. the distance between the barrel’s outlet and the target).

Bull. Pol. Ac.: Tech. 65(3) 2017 401

Brought to you by | Gdansk University of Technology
Authenticated
Download Date | 2/16/18 9:32 AM
 K. Motyl, M. Magier, J. Borkowski, and B. Zygmunt

The shot angle was practically 0° (i.e. the so-called hori-

zontal shot), and the height of the cannon mouth was 2,5 m.
For continuous measurement of the projectile velocity, a Wei-
bel-made Doppler radar with an SL 30031 antenna was used.
velocity u [m/s]

The obtained experimental results are shown in Figs. 4 and 5,

time [s]
Fig. 5. Experimentally measured dependence of projectile velocity
vs. time in the initial section of flight (0–2,5 km)
where they can be compared with the dependencies of projec-
tile velocity with time, which were determined theoretically.
The dependence of the negative acceleration with time for the
projectile is presented in Fig. 6. This figure was determined
from the experimentally measured dependence u = f(t) shown
in Fig. 5. The data consistency of the theoretical and exper-
imental relationships is acceptable, being in the order of 5%
(Fig. 4), which verifies the correctness of the developed the-
oretical model of the hypersonic projectile during the initial
phase of flight.

5. Results of computer simulation of projectile

flight for large angles of shooting
Determination of the approximate range and ceiling for hyper-
sonic subcalibre projectiles is significant because of the safety
a [m/s2]

assurance for people and objects in the area of exploited artil-

lery grounds. It is therefore necessary to predict rebounding
shots (ricochets) or accidental projectile firing at large angles.
Using the methodology applied in Sections 2–4, experimen-
tally verified for short shot ranges, we determined the approx-
imate flight trajectories of subcalibre projectiles for any angle
of shot, including 90° (i.e. a vertical shot). Figs. 7–9 show the
dependencies between the range parameters and the subcalibre
time [s]
projectile’s velocity versus flight time. In Fig. 7, the trajecto-
Fig. 6. Negative acceleration of the projectile determined the from ries of hypersonic projectile flights for large angles of shooting
experimental dependence u = f(t) presented in Fig. 5 (including vertical shots) are presented.
X2 [m]

time [s]

Fig. 7. Height of the projectile flight vs. time for large angles of shooting

402 Bull. Pol. Ac.: Tech. 65(3) 2017

Brought to you by | Gdansk University of Technology
Authenticated
Download Date | 2/16/18 9:32 AM
 Theoretical and experimental research of anti-tank kinetic penetrator ballistics

X2 [m]

time [s]

Fig. 8. Flight trajectories of projectiles for large angles of shooting

velocity u [m/s]

time [s]

Fig. 9. Projectile velocity vs. time for large angles of shooting

6. Conclusions The physical and mathematical models were designed ac-

We demonstrate the theoretical procedures for deter-mining
the basic parameters of flight trajectory of hypersonic subcal-
ibre projectiles, in view of assuring the firing safety. For this
purpose, a mathematical-physical projectile model for 120 mm
calibre ammunition of the determined initial parameters and
a simulation program of projectile flight were developed.
cording to the military standard NATO STANAG 4355. The
simulation results were verified experimentally by measuring
the velocity of the subcalibre projectile on the initial section of
the flight trajectory equal to 2550 m. The experimental results
are in good agreement with those calculated using the devel-
oped model. For greater distances of shooting, the calculated
results of the simulations are merely approximate, but they

Bull. Pol. Ac.: Tech. 65(3) 2017 403

Brought to you by | Gdansk University of Technology
Authenticated
Download Date | 2/16/18 9:32 AM
 K. Motyl, M. Magier, J. Borkowski, and B. Zygmunt
correctly give a qualitative picture of hypersonic projectile
flight.
It results from our simulations that for small angles of shot
(0–7°), the projectile velocity does not depend on the angle of
shooting and a range of over 10 km is obtained for shooting
angles over 1.5°. The maximum height and range of the sub-
calibre projectiles are nearly 90 km and more than 100 km,
respectively. The calculated range parameters of the subcal-
ibre projectile determine the area of potential threat for the
surroundings.
References
[1] J.P. Paine, Self-Destructing Projectile, US Patent No. 4653405
A, 1987.
[2] J. Evans and A.B. Wardlaw, “Prediction of tubular projectile
aero-dynamics using the ZEUS Euler code”, J. Spacecraft and
Rockets 26 (5), 314–321 (1989).
[3] R.L. McCoy, Modern Exterior Ballistics. The Launch and Flight
Dynamics of Symmetric Projectiles, Schiffer Publishing, Atglen,
PE, USA, 1999.
[4] M. Magier, “The conception of the segmented kinetic energy
penetrators for tank guns”, J. Appl. Mechanics – Transactions
of ASME 77 (5), 1–10 (2010).
[5] M. Magier, “The numerical optimization of the novel kinetic
energy penetrator for tank guns”, Proc. 26th Intern. Symp. on
Ballistics 2, 1171–1080 (2011).
404
[6] M. Magier, “Experimental tests of subcalibre projectiles with
segmented penetrators for tank guns”, Proc. 27th Intern. Symp.
on Ballistics 2, 1216–1225 (2013).
[7] J. Gacek, Modelling and Research of Dynamic Properties of
Ballistic Objects, WAT, Warsaw, 1992, [in Polish].
[8] L. Baranowski, B. Gadomski, P. Majewski, and J. Szymonik,
“Explicit ballistic M-model: a refinement of the implicit modi-
fied point mass trajectory model”, Bull. Pol. Ac.: Tech. 64 (1),
81–89 (2016).
[9] L. Baranowski, “Effect of the mathematical model and integra-
tion step on the accuracy of the results of computation of artil-
lery projectile flight parameters”, Bull. Pol. Ac.: Tech. 61 (2),
475–484 (2013).
[10] B. Zygmunt and K. Motyl, “Computer assisted of a rocket flight
modelling using MathCad programme”, Mechanik 7, 973–980
(2011), [in Polish].
[11] B. Zygmunt, K. Motyl, B. Machowski, M. Makowski E. Ole-
jniczak, and T. Rasztabiga, “Theoretical and experimental re-
search of supersonic missile ballistics”, Bull. Pol. Ac.: Tech. 63
(2), 229–233 (2015).
[12] J. Kokes, M. Costello, and J. Sahu, “Generating an aerodynamic
model for projectile flight simulation using unsteady time ac-
curate computational fluid dynamic results”, WIT Transactions
on Modelling and Simulation, Proc. 3rd Intern. Conference on
Computational Ballistics, 31–54 (2007).
[13] NATO STANAG 4355 – The Modified Point Mass and Five De-
grees of Freedom Trajectory Model, 3rd ed., 2009.
[14] PRODAS, Arrow Tech Associates, Inc. USA, 2008.
Bull. Pol. Ac.: Tech. 65(3) 2017
Brought to you by | Gdansk University of Technology
Authenticated
Download Date | 2/16/18 9:32 AM