Basic Writing Skills

PARAGRAPH LEVEL WRITING

Definition
A paragraph is a group of related sentences that present and develop one main idea. It is a unit
of communication in a relatively fixed form. A paragraph can stand alone, or it can be part of a
longer piece of writing. Just as words are the building blocks of sentence, sentences are the
building blocks of longer forms of writing. Thus, a paragraph is a unit of writing beyond a
sentence level containing one main idea or a topic and sentences that develop the main idea. It is
termed as unified because it has one central idea and all the sentences in the paragraph should
only talk about this central idea.
Structure of a Paragraph; by the structure of a paragraph is meant the building or
composition of it. The definition of a paragraph indicates that the sentences must be related; it
must have a particular structure. This structure is determined by the relationship of the ideas, and
it is by constructing the paragraph properly that you develop the idea. To develop an idea is to
unfold or reveal it. For instance, when someone asks you how to do a mathematical problem, you
explain the process by giving the steps in order. The last sentence of your explanation is, of
course, the last step of the problem. The development of an idea in a paragraph follows the same
procedure. Therefore a well-organized paragraph is expected to have:

1. A topic sentence;
2. Supporting details( major and minor); and
3. Conclusion sentence
A typical paragraph has a topic sentence, supporting sentences (major and minor) and a
concluding sentence.
 The topic sentence introduces the topic and tells what the writer is going to say about the
topic.
 The sentences that follow further to explain and support the topic sentence are called
supporting sentences.
 The concluding sentence often repeats the information in the topic sentence in a different
way.

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The topic sentence is usually the first sentence of a paragraph. It is made up of two parts, the
topic and the controlling idea. The topic sentence should fit evidence or analysis into a broader
argument. In other words, it should contain the Main Idea of the paragraph.
To do so, it does three things.
1. A topic sentence holds facts together. When you have a series of facts on the same
general subject, group them together and summarize them with a topic sentence.
2. A topic sentence relates facts to argument. In addition to summarizing the facts within a
paragraph, it must show their relevance to your overall thesis. To do so, a topic sentence
cannot merely state facts, but must make a claim about those facts, serving as the thesis
statement of a one-paragraph essay.
3. A topic sentence relates the paragraph to what came before. It often will contain
transition words showing continuity (next, another, more) or a turning point in the
argument (despite, nevertheless, but).
The topic sentence presents the topic and explains what the writer will say about the
topic. The specific issue that the writer wants to explain is called the controlling idea.
Read the following topic sentences. In each one the topic is my friend. The controlling ideas
explain what the writer will say about the topic. These controlling ideas tell the reader what to
expect in the supporting sentences.
My friend is an honest person.

Topic controlling idea

A topic sentence must not be a simple fact or a specific detail. The controlling idea must say
something about the topic that can then be supported, developed, or demonstrated in the
supporting sentences. The controlling idea must also not be too general, or the topic sentence
will be unclear.
The controlling idea can be expressed using phrases such as:
 Two main types  results
 Several reasons
 Three groups
 For steps
 The following

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Activity: Read the paragraph below and identify the topic sentence, major supporting details,
minor supporting details and the concluding sentence.

(1)There are three reasons why Ethiopia is one of the best countries in the world. (2)First
Ethiopia has an excellent health care system. (3) All Ethiopians have access to medical
services at a reasonable price.(4) Second Ethiopia has a high standard of education.
(5)Students are taught by well-trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at
universities. (6)Finally, Ethiopia’s cities are clean and efficiently managed. (7)They have
many parks and lots of spaces for people to leave. (8)As a result, Ethiopia is a desirable place
to live.

A. The topic sentence is sentence number ____________________

B. The supporting details are sentence numbers_______________
C. The Major supporting details are sentence numbers___________
D. The minor supporting details are sentence numbers__________
E. The concluding sentence is sentence number _______________

Characteristics of a good Paragraph

A good paragraph fulfils the following major features (characteristics):
1. Unity
2. Coherence
3. Completeness
1. UNITY
Every good paragraph must have UNITY. Unity means “oneness.” That is, a paragraph must
deal with only one idea. In the paragraph about washing a cocker spaniel, you might feel that you
should describe the way your dog behaves when you wash him; this description breaks the unity
of your paragraph. Although it might be entirely appropriate to explain how you control the dog
in the bath, which is not the place to tell a story about your dog. When you finish your paragraph,
look it over, and cross out any sentence that is not doing its work–which is developing the topic
sentence.

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2. COHERENCE
Not only will your paragraph be well-organized, it will have one of the most important qualities
of all paragraphs: COHERENCE. Coherence means “a sticking together.” A coherent paragraph
has all the sentences so well arranged that not one could be interchanged with another. Coherent
—the sentences should be arranged in a logical manner and should follow a definite plan for
development.
There are four significant ways of achieving paragraph coherence.
A. Using connectives: Connectives are words and phrases that writers use to make smooth
transition from one idea to another within a paragraph. They are also called transitional
devices or cohesive devises. Some of them are mentioned below with their function.
1) Addition : and, furthermore, moreover, besides, again, likewise, similarly, also, in
addition, what is more, what is worse, next, the other reason
2) Contrast : but, however, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the contrary, though, even
though, although
3) Result/conclusion: therefore, hence, thus, consequently, as a result, in summary,
4) Enumeration: firstly, second,(ly)
5) Sequence : first, second, third, last, then finally, next
6) Time :inthe meantime, then, later, soon, next, after, before, as, while, now,
during, finally
7) Space : above, below, beside, behind, in front of, next, across, the opposite side, to the
left, nearby
8) Illustration : Namely, that is, for instance, for example, specifically, such as

Transitional words signal the direction of a writers thought. They are like the road signs that
guide travelers.
Writers often use time, space or order of importance to present the supporting information in a
paragraph coherently. The following example is organized by space.
When you drive into the airport, you will see many signs for the different terminals. After you
pass the signs, you drive over a hill. On your right you will see the international terminal. This
terminal is two stories tall. The front is all glass. On the left, you will see the domestic terminals.

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B. Repeating words

You might have been taught not to repeat words in writing. However, repeating key words helps
you tie together the flow of thought in your writing. Look at the following example.
Capital can build irrigation canals in India, supply pumps and tube-wells to tap the fresh water
under the saline marshes of the Indus river basin in West Pakistan. Capital can supply tools,
machinery, pesticides, fertilizers, and provide training in modern methods. Most important of all,
foreign capital can create an atmosphere that is conducive to self-help. In the countless analysis
of the subject, one fact stands out: the lack of incentive in the poverty stricken, potentially rich,
farm lands of the third world. Capital generates incentive by producing goods and creating
demand and it widest the distribution of the fruits of labor.
As you can see the key word “capital” is repeated to achieve coherence of the paragraph.
C. Using pronouns
Pronouns (he, she, it, they and others) are another ways to connect ideas in a paragraph.
Pronouns have transitional values by referring to their antecedents. Also using pronouns in place
of other words can help you avoid needless repetition. Look at the following example.
Pasteur proved that he was right by a very simple and clever experiment. He put some soup in to
some bottles and then he boiled it in order to destroy any germs that might already be in the
soup. After that, he heated and pulled out the neck of each bottle until it formed a long narrow
neck with a big bend in the middle.
D. Using Synonyms
Synonyms are words alike in meaning. Using synonyms can also help you move easily from one
thought to the next. In addition, the use of synonyms increases variety and interest by avoiding
needless repetition.
A Coherence in a paragraph means that the ideas have a logical flow: the relationship between
the sentences is clear and one idea connects to the next. All the ideas fit together in a logical
flow. It is the quality of sticking together. A paragraph is coherent when readers can move easily
from one sentence to the next, reading the paragraph as an integrated whole.

3. COMPLETENESS (Well-developed)—every idea discussed in the paragraph should be

adequately explained and supported through evidence and details that work together to explain
the paragraph's controlling idea.
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I. Read the following paragraph, and identify the sentence that is different from the others
(violets unity)
(1) I am an Ethiopian girl living in the USA, and there are many adjustments that I must make.
(2) First of all, I must get a new kind of food. (3) I am learning to eat a lot of hamburgers
because they are not expensive, and they are easy to buy. (4)Secondly, the people are different,
and I am learning to meet new foreign friends. (5) For example two of my new friends are from
Pakistan. (6) Pakistan is an interesting country to visit. (7)Thirdly, the weather requires another
kind of adjustment. (8) Some days it is hot just as in my country; but on other days it is cold and
this is very strange for me. All in all, (9) I am adjusting to the USA in many ways, but it is not a
problem for me because I like to know about different places and people.
________________________________________________________________________
II. Arrange the following disordered sentences to make a coherent paragraph.
A. The second reason I am not happy is that I am very lonely.
B. Although I think that the money will come soon, I am still very worried.
C. Generally life is very difficult for me, and consequently, I am very unhappy.
D. Thirdly, because I do not own a car, transportation is very difficult.
E. The most serious problem of all I have is that my father has not sent money to me from
my region.
F. There are many reasons why I have been unhappy since I have come to Mekelle.
G. In order to go to the market or the doctor, I must take a taxi or call a friend.
H. I miss my family terribly, and my Tigrigna is not good enough to make tigrian friends.
I. First, the weather in the winter is so cold, and I am frequently sick during that season.

The logical order is___ _________________________________________

Activity 1:

3.4. Order of Sentences (paragraph organization)

1. A time, or chronological, order is the natural order of narration and is commonly used in
explaining the steps in a process. Events are recorded in the order in which they occur--
first, second, next, and so on to the last. Thus if you were telling a story or giving directions
on how to reach a certain designation or how to bake a cake, the natural order would be a
time order. Here is an illustration:
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.2. A space order is useful when the writer wishes to report what he sees. The movement of the
paragraph thus follows the movement of his eyes. That movement must have some
continuity which a reader can recognize and follow. It need not start at the far left and
move steadily to the far right, or vice versa, since in any view an observer's gaze is likely to
be drawn quickly to the most conspicuous object. But there should be some logical or
natural progression from one descriptive detail to the next. It may be very confusing to flit
haphazardly from left to right, then center to left again. Notice that the following paragraph
begins with the front view, then moves right, down, and to the rear. This order reflects the
relative conspicuousness of the objects described.
3. Specific to General: A common order in expository paragraphs is from a succession of
particular statements to the general statement or conclusion to which the particulars lead.
Huxley used this order when he began a paragraph by describing an experiment which
shows that chalk contains lime, related a second experiment to show that chalk also
contains carbonic acid, and finally stated the conclusion that chalk is composed of
carbonate of lime. By this order the reader is led to the conclusion through details of
evidence or illustration. Hence the order is often called inductive, from the Latin word
meaning to "lead in." A paragraph so organized will have the topic sentence at or near the
end.
4. General to specific: The most popular order for expository paragraphs is just the reverse of
the one above. It begins with a general statement, then moves to particulars which explain
or illustrate, or persuade the reader to accept the generalization. This order is similar to the
illustrative pattern for developing an essay. In effect, the topic sentence at or near the
beginning of the paragraph states the purpose, and the subsequent sentences illustrate it. In
the paragraph that follows, the bold topic sentence is developed by three sentences, each of
which adds an illustration.
5. Question to Answer, Effect to Cause: Less common than any of the orders we have
considered so far is the paragraph that begins with a question and moves toward the
answer, or begins with an effect and moves toward the cause. Such a paragraph usually has
no explicit topic sentence, since the answer to the question or the cause of the effect is
explained by the paragraph as a whole. But the opening question, problem, or dilemma
announces the purpose of the paragraph clearly if implicitly.

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6. Order of importance (Emphatic Order)

This is the other way (method) of organizing details in order. It is a method of organizing details
which writers use when they want to show readers that some details are more significant than
others. Details can be written (sequenced) by placing the most important ones before the least
important.
7. Order of Impression
This way of sequencing details is used when writers want to put their details according to the
order they experience. It is used when they describe details in terms of what they saw first,
second and third. Look at the following description which is organized in terms of the impression
of the woman in the description itself. Example
A brilliant red parasol leads the eye directly to the young woman, sheathed in a silk
kimano. Next, one notices the small, bright flowers edging the still pond and, finally, the
hushed greens that curtain the scene.
Types of paragraphs

1. Descriptive paragraph
Descriptive paragraph is a paragraph which clearly and vividly portrays the image of an object, a
place, a scene, a person or spiritual aspects of a person (feeling, emotion, attitude etc). It uses
details that concentrated on the five senses such as hearing, smell, taste and touch.
When writing a descriptive paragraph, writers use appropriate words which clearly describe the
image and nature of the thing described. The most appropriate and commonly used words and
expressions are describers such as adjectives, adverbs, adverbial phrases, etc. Example
This is a story about a well-known local man who goes by the name Mekuria. He is both wealthy
and generous – he is also a very handsome man and popular with the women of the area.
Mekuria lives in a huge, rectangular mansion on the lush green banks of Lake Tana. Mekuria
works in a company nearby Bahir Dar and every morning he drives into town in his expensive,
spanking – new Toyota Amazon. He lives alone. He does not have a wife. He doesn’t have
children. He lives alone with Toto, a beautiful vibrant yellow bird with pink-red eyes, flesh
coloured feet and very red beak.
2. Narrative Paragraph
Narrative paragraph is a type of discourse writing that reports an account of events in the past. It

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is a reporting of a series of happenings, incidents, actions and events. Since it is concerned with
time and action, it is presented following chronological order.
The most commonly used verb forms in narrative writing are simple past and past perfect though it
is possible to use other verb forms too. In narrative paragraph, the story or the event is narrated
either with first person or third person point of view. First person point of view (I, me, my) is a
way of telling story in which the narrator is participant of the story or the event. Third person point
of view (he, she, his, her, they, they), on the other hand, is a method of telling story in which the
narrator is outside of the story. Example
My first step onto the bus was filled with fear. I had never taken the bus alone before, but I was
reassured by an old guy who smiled at me, so I sat next to him. I couldn’t help noticing the many
wrinkles on his face and obviously out-of-style clothes he wore. I took out my cookies and
thought that mom would have wanted me to offer him one. He said no, mentioning not being able
to chew well. I couldn’t imagine not being able to chew sweets. I was feeling a little
uncomfortable, but he got off soon. He walked away slowly as if it hurt to move. It was really
sad, and I realized, I was lucky to be young and healthy.
3. Expository paragraph
This is the other type of paragraph in which facts are presented, information is explained and
concepts or ideas are expressed in detail. As its name implies, expository paragraph exposes and
explains topics, ideas, thought or issues. It is the most frequently used type of written discourse.
When students answer essay questions, when they give written instructions, define terms, express
the cause and effect of something, when explaining process; comparing and contrasting things, and
when classifying topics, they often use expository writing.
Since it is usually factual, expository paragraph is free from the emotion of the writer. Writers
usually employ the third person point of view in developing the paragraph. Example
Behavioral scientists have found that a child’s emotional health is strongly affected by the
number of brothers and sisters he or she has. Emotional health means the ability of a person to
cope intellectually and emotionally with everyday stress. Several studies of elementary and high
school children have shown that youngsters in small family get along more happily with their
brothers and sisters, as well as their parents, than youngsters in a large family. They are less
liable to suffer emotional upsets and much less likely to end up in a mental hospital. A survey of
state hospitals in Maryland revealed that mental illness among children in two-parent families

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increases with the number of children in the family.

4. Argumentative (persuasive) paragraph

Argumentative paragraph is a paragraph in which you try to show that your idea or belief is more
acceptable than another idea. In this kind of paragraph writers attempt to influence readers to
accept their idea and think or act in certain way. In developing an argumentative paragraph you
need to employ logical reasoning and concrete evidences by stating facts, giving sound reasons,
using examples or/and quoting experts.
When we use or stating evidences, hearsays, personal opinion, speculations are not effective.
Thus, in your argumentative paragraph, use reliable evidences which are relevant, unbiased, up-to-
date, complete and verifiable. Example:

Some people argue that abortion should be legalized. They have many reasons to say so. The
first one is that the pregnancy may not be planned, which can cause economic crises to the father
as well as the mother. This is because after the child is born, it needs proper care feeding,
education, and so on. The other problem is that when a woman is pregnant before she is mature
enough or before marriage, she may face many difficulties when she gives birth. She may become
a victim of some serious health problems like ‘fistulae’. Since pregnancy before marriage is
forbidden in the culture and religion of many societies, it will have negative impacts on her life. It
will affect her health and education. It will also bear psychological problems which may cause a
darkened shadow on her life. Therefore, abortion is a good alternative to escape from all these
problems.

 Methods of paragraph development

1. The method of Definition

This method is used when a term in a topic sentence is explained at some length. Mostly the
terms defined at length are abstract, unfamiliar or unknown terms/concepts/facts. When defining
such kinds of words, a writer describes or explains the unknown term by relating it to something
known or concrete.

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Do you know what Empathy means? The example below defines it at length.
Example: Empathy is the ability to completely understand another person’s point of view. It is a
great asset in a police work. By practicing empathy, police officers can avoid being closed-
minded. It will help them to see all sides of a traffic accident or a criminal incident. Empathy
eliminates bias; instead, introduces tolerance, understanding and sympathetic human relations.

2. The method of illustration

This is a paragraph developing technique which writers employ to help readers understand a
more general idea with something specific. It is a method of developing paragraph by giving
examples to readers to help them understand an idea easily. Look at the paragraph below and
examine how it is developed. Example:
Science has helped us get rid of many sicknesses of the mind and the body. For example,
advancement in the field of psychology have enabled effective cures for many mental elements
like claustrophobia, schizophrenia etc. Similarly, many other discoveries in science have made it
possible to cure terrible diseases such as malaria, small pox, pneumonia and tuberculosis.
As you can see in the paragraph, the writer illustrated the general ideas stated in the topic
sentence by presenting instances that helped to get rid of many sicknesses of the mind and the
body. All the sentences beginning from sentence two are examples used to illustrate the idea in
the topic sentence.

3. The method of comparison

This is a paragraph developing technique which is used to show the similarity between two
things. It compares the similar aspects or qualities of two subjects. Look at the example below
and notice how a paragraph and an essay are compared. Example
Despite their obvious differences in length, the paragraph and the essay are quite similar
structurally. For example, the paragraph is introduced by either a topic introducer followed by
topic sentence. In an essay, the first paragraph provides introductory material and establishes
the topic focus. Next, the sentences in the body of an essay consist of a number of paragraphs
that expand and support the idea presented in the introductory paragraph. Finally, a terminator,
whether it is a restatement, conclusion or observation ends the paragraph. The essay too, has a
device which brings its ideas to a logically and psychologically satisfying completion: the
concluding paragraph. Although exceptions to these generalizations may be observed in modern

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creative writing, most well written expository paragraphs and essays are comparable in
structure..
4. The method of contrast
The method of contrast is a way of developing a paragraph by showing the differences exist
between two subjects. Look at the paragraph below. It illustrates how a paragraph is developed
through a method of contrast. Example:
Antarctica differs from the Arctic regions, which are better known to us and easier to reach. The
North Pole is crossed daily by commercials airlines, whereas not a single commercial airliner
operates over Antarctica. The Arctic is an ocean with drifting ice and hemmed in by the
continents of North America, Asia, and Europe, The Antarctic, on the other hand, is a continent
as large as Europe and the united states put together, and surrounded entirely by oceans- the
Atlantic, the Indian, and the Pacific. More than a million persons live with 2,000 miles of the
North Pole, and the area is rich in forest and industry. There are animals and birds of many
varieties. Within the same distance of the South Pole, there are no settlement a part from
scientific stations, which are entirely dependent on outside supplies for every need. There is no a
single tree and no a single animal. It takes 70 to 80 years to grow an inch of moss.
As you can see in this paragraph, the two subjects contrasted are Antarctica and the Arctic
regions. The writer discussed the difference between the two regions in terms of their location
and what they possess.

5. The method of causes and effect

This is a method of developing idea that looks for the relationship between two actions or two
events of which one is the reason for the other. In other word, it is a paragraph developing
technique by showing cause and the result of some actions and events. Example:
During the past five years, the number of persons killed annually in car accidents has risen to
more than 55,000. This needless slaughter on streets and highways can be attributed to general
causes. Mechanical failures, especially, those related to faulty brakes and bald tires, account for
a significant number of fatal accidents. Environmental conditions such as blind corners, narrow
streets and heavy reads also contribute to the grisly accident statistics. But without doubt, the
most frequently reported factors in car accidents are errors of human judgment, all the way from
follies such as excessive speed and drunken driving to such momentary lapses as failure to signal

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a turn, or a change from one lane to another.

Dear learner, the above paragraph reveals the general and specific causes for car accidents. The
writer developed the paragraph by presenting evidences for the causes of the accidents.

6. The method of classification

This is a method of developing a paragraph by classifying subjects into separate category. It
presents ideas, objects, or issues to be discussed in their respective category. The following
sample paragraph illustrates how the paragraph is developed by classifying illustrations used in
science and technology writing. Example
Illustrations used in science and technology writings can be broadly classified into two
categories namely ‘tables’ and ‘figures’. A table is used for displaying the original numerical
data and the derived statistics in a logical, orderly and compact fashion. There are two sub-
categories of table, namely, dependent table and independent table. The former is a part of the
text, whereas the letter is self-contained and separated noticeably from the text. A figure is
generally used as a visual to summarize the text and to present the details left out in the
discussion. The sub-categories of the figure are graph, chart, drawing, photograph and map. The
choice of the type to be used depends up on the purpose and the kind of information to be
presented.

7. The Method of Enumeration

This is a method of paragraph development which lists or enumerates details.Example:
Whatever be our purpose of writing, it is likely to correspond to one of the four types of writing
conventionally classified as discourse. The first type is exposition or explanation, where our
main intention is to convey information. The second is argument or persuasion, in which we
persuade our readers to accept or do what we want. The third is description, in which our aim is
to share with our readers those impressions that have made an impact on our senses. Finally, it
is narration where our intention is to enable the reader to perceive real or imagined events that
took place within a particular framework of time.
When using a method of enumeration, writers normally use words or phrases which enable them
to list their points. These words or phrases help the writer to keep the smooth flow of the
paragraph. As used in the example above, words like first, second, third, finally are words which
maintain the coherence and smooth flow of a paragraph.

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8. The method of process description

This is a paragraph developing technique which explains how to do something step by step. It is
a convenient method to enable readers to be able to follow the step to get a desired result. Now
look at the example below, and examine the nature of paragraph development technique
employed. Example
Imagine that you are on vacation at beach, and open your suitcase to discover that you have
forgotten your swimsuit! This and other disasters and inconveniences can be avoided if you
follow certain steps when packing your suitcase. The first step is to review your travel plans and
activities. Make a list and save it so that you can check your items before you leave. Next, gather
the items you will need for your activities. Remove any item that is not necessary. Try to mix and
match fewer pieces of clothing and shoes by choosing a color/colors that match. Third, you are
ready to pack. Start with large items such as books or shoes. Stuff your shoes with extra socks to
save space. Then place shoes in plastic bags and fit them into the corners of your suitcase. There
should be plenty of room for the clothes. To avoid wrinkles, layer your clothes and roll them up.
Put the rolls of clothing into the suitcase. Then put in the smaller items. Finally, before you close
your suitcase, check your list. Make sure you have not forgotten your swimsuit!
In developing a paragraph by describing a process, writers employ words or phrases which show
sequence or time order. These words tell readers the sequence of steps in a process. The most
commonly used words are first, second, next, then, later, after that, finally etc.
The other feature of a process description paragraph (a paragraph developed through a process
description) is the use of imperative sentences. An imperative is used to give instructions or
direction or to tell the reader the steps in the process directly. Apart from this, modals of advice,
necessity and prohibition such as should, must, should not or must not are common when
developing a process description paragraph. In developing a method of process description
paragraph, writers, sometimes, employ passive sentences.

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