ETHICS LECTURE NOTES - Uncover the truth

- Avoid sophism

Philosophy - “love for wisdom”

Chapter 1- Philosophy - Greek word:
o Philia – love of/to/for o Sophia -
Philosophy wisdom
- Oldest discplines known to man - Coined by Pythagoras o Samian sage o First
- People insists that it is also the values and used the term
beliefs. philosophy
- More than an area of knowledge but a
o Created the Pythagorean theorem
paradigm or a way of life o Encounter/gave several
- Help in the development of one’s self and formulas/equation
the world we live in § When some great minds
of the 21st century only
MISCONSTRUED INTERPRETATION came up with one
OF SOPHISTRY AS DOING § Ex: Albert Einstein o More
PHILOSOPHY of a religious scholar
than a mathematician
Sophistry § Mathematical
equations/discoveries not
- “pamimilosopo”
for science but for
- Entails the use of fallacious arguments religious convictions
- Sophists o People who engaged in sophistry • “Tetractys” o With 10 dots, when
o Traditionally regarded as connected produces 10
triangles
philosophers
§ Considered o Comprise of 2 independent
historically but there are numbers, 1 & 0
philosophers who o 10 points represents the value
refused to acknowledge of all things o Prayer of
o Believe that effective play of words Pythagoras § Similarities with
can win any argument western religions and
o They are not concerned with Pythagora’s prayer
truth and justice but with § One seen as the beginning
of everything`
power and recompense
o Claim resides in claims of great
philosophers
• Socrates later distinguished the sophists § Scientific facts are only
from the Philosophers o See distinction in considered scientific if
the works of his student Plato explained mathematically
• Plato describe Sophistry as nothing more but o Pythagoras refuse to accept the
a specious and rhetorical act that does not popular belief around him
offer true § Inquiry inspired by
knowledge but claims that are intended to religious
deceive or mislead § Actions questioned
• Pioneer of modern day teachers. o Teach in status quo and the
norms
exchange for money o Motive of
compensation o “falsifying truth to win an o Doing philosophy is not just a mode
argument” of inquiry but a way of life
§ Not simply memorizing
Pamimilosopiya and understanding how
they arrive at conclusion
 § In philosophy, we
become critical.
Philosophical thinking
o In ethics
§ We attempt to understand
ethical theories
addressing human
problems
§Ethical principles in
solving
o Solutions acceptable before may
not be acceptable in the present
time.
§ Every situation must be
analyzed by its own
merits and values
§ What Pythagoras wanted
philosophy to be
Etymological Defintion
• Can advance another type of argument
o Look at self differently o Being of
an active participant
in the search for knowledge
• Philia – Love of/to/for o Requires
clarifications o 1st rule: terms and
definitions
must be understood in the context
of the people or community who
coined them
§ Ancient greeks
§ To be human is to
possess the faculty of
reason
o Believed that greeks believe
that their physique is what makes
them humans
§ Not the physique but
capacity to use intellect
§ The Republic
§ Cast based on
• Sophia = wisdom o Distinguish difference
intellectual capacity
o A leader should not be one that is
strong, good in combat, brave, or
charismatic but must be capable of
using their intellect in the full
capacity
§ Wisest among peers
§ Encountered in the
republic, king =
philosopher
o Women are treated as less of a
man(human)
§ Treated as tools or
vessels
§ Continuity of human race
§ Found in many
ancient literatures
§ Females are considered
as
vessels/carriers of
humanity
o For ancient greeks
§ Don’t consider females as
human beings
§ See males as peers/equal
§ Human relationship would
only be a relationship
between a man and a
man
subject to friendship
§ Man-woman
relationship, not friendship
• Proprietorship
• Man owns woman
• Philia as love of/to o Much more than
saying there’s love that occurs
§ Misunderstand for
affection/attraction/de
sire
o Philia for greeks; relationship with
themselves
§ Urge/motivation by the
individual in developing
one’s self
in his fullest potential
§ Describe the feeling of
wanting to be
better
§ Love/urge to be better
between wisdom and knowledge
§ Greeks o More than
ability to solve
problems
o Ability to modify/alter
information in order to
resolve ---- o
Knowledge
§ Understanding natural
phenomena
§ No value in our lives
 § Can be translated in a Aristotle
more pragmatic form
• Considered to be wisdom • Use of logic as method, similarity of science,
§ Can only become wisdom if mathematics, and
we have knowledge to ---- philosophy o

• Wisdom for the ancient Greeks cannot

Being-per-se as the Goal of Inquiry
happen without knowledge
- Must have a formal goal
• Knowledge cannot be proven to other
people without Wisdom - Representative of an actual object/entity
o Being attempts to represent
Wisdom anything that the human mind can
perceive
- Not simply memorizing
o Everything, has been, is o
- Using ideologies to –
Potential of a thing can
become something
Philosophy o Existing o
- An attitude, desire to motivate ourselves

Nominal Definition of Philosophy:

ULTIMATE CAUSESS, REASONS, AND
- “name” lexical definition of terms; PRINCIPLES
- Many defintions of philosophy as
philosophers/scholars Philosophy
o Own definition of philosophy o
Definition coincide & • After the truth
cointrast • Deals with the WHAT, WHY, and HOW OF
THINGS.
• Science of beings in their ultimate causes,
reasons, and principles, acquired by the aid • Unlike empirical sciences, it does not seek
of human reason alone the immediate cause of things, instead
o Provided by St. Thomas seeks the ultimate cause from
which things follow or arise
Aquinas o Causality,
Methodology PHILOSOPHY

As a Science:

Science - Missed one synchronous session –

• Is more than just a systematic body of
knowledge
• To be scientific, its claims must be verifiable ETHICS: BASIC CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES

• Systematic way o Systematic body of

Ethics
knowledge
• Defined as the science of morality
• Process of repetition
• Generally, represent the norms of society
• Uses a system/process born out of logic
o Presented in a systematic • It is primarily determined by the prevailing
moral order of that society
manner
o Verify inferences o • It deals with what is right and wrong in
ABI SENA human actions

- Aristotle of the east • It hopes to answer questions such as:

- Acquainted with the teachings of
o What constitutes human actions as
right or wrong/good or bad? And
how do we know?
o How are moral decisions affected
by private and public interests?
o How do we justify a moral
theory to be either valid or invalid
Etymology:
• Defined as a “characteristic way of doing
things, or a body of customs”
• Hence, ethics may be understood as the
study of human customs or
ways of doing things
ULTIMATE CAUSES REASONS AND PRINCIPLES
• Philosophy also deals with the
WHAT, WHY, and HOW OF
THINGS (like other scientific
discipline)
• Philosophy does not seek the immediate
cause of things (unlike the empirical science)
o It seeks the ultimate cause from which
things follow or arise
The difference between philosophy and hard science
is the approach use in attaining its objectives.
The similarity between philosophy and hard science is
they are both interested with causality.
HARD SCIENCE
• Uses Inductive Approach
PHILOSOPHY
• Uses Deductive Methodology
Greek believe that finding the ultimate truth of
things would be help us understand the nature of
everything about ourselves and the world we live in.
THALES, HERACLITUS, ANAXIMANDER,
AND ANAXIMENES
• Started cosmological inquiry into true nature
of things
• Water, Fire, Air, and the Apeiron –
primordial stuff (ultimate reality of all things)
o APEIRON – process occurs between
the 3 elements
• Argued that understanding the characteristics
of these elements would help us understand
and explain how we are to conduct ourselves
(ethics) and master them.
ACQUIRED BY THE AID OF HUMAN REASON
ALONE
• Philosophy based its conclusions solely on the
power of NATURAL reason
o Natural means arriving knowledge w/o
the aid of experimentation or divine
authority.
PURE PHILOSOPHERS
• Address the nature of the mind providing us
with theories to help us understand things.
• THEORETICAL – intended exclusively for
cognitive
appreciation of beings
• PRACTICAL – directed towards perception
APPLIED PHILOSOPHIES
• Attempt to explain based on accepted and
prevailing theories provided by pure
philosophies.
• METAPHYSICS – Meta means beyond and
Physikon means physical universe. The study
of the very meaning of Existence. Its formal
object is Being per se or Essence.
• ONTOLOGY – a sub branch of
Metaphysics. Its formal object is being-
beings. It looks into the nature of existing
things either as possible or actual beings.
• THEODICY – It is responsible for its title as
the handmaid of theology.
The study on the Justice of God – refer to the
truth about the nature of God.
• ESPITEMOLOGY – studies the nature
of knowledge including veracity,
formation, and retention.
• COSMOLOGY – The study of the intelligence
of the universe and the acceptance of certain
theories has always affected our attempts to
create social structures. It deals with
questions governing physical universe.
• PSYCHOLOGY – It is the oldest branches of
Philosophy. It is involved in the study of
Human Nature.
o PHILOSOPHICAL
PSYCHOLOGY – interested in the
nature of mind and powers of soul
including the study of reason and
volition.
o CLINICAL
PSYCHOLOGY - more concerned
with the physiological bases of
human behavior
THEORETICAL BRANCHES – makes our mind
beautiful (e.g. Aesthetics, Social Philosophy, and
Semantics)
CLINICAL BRANCHES – makes our lives a little bit
colorful by helping us learn how to appreciate things
differently

AESTHETICS
• The foremost branch of the Practical
Philosophies – Science of Beauty and the
Appreciation of Arts
• It deals with the way we appreciate the
beauty in things
• Aestetikon means “one who understands
standards or simply an expert”
• Beauty is something we project to the things
we are appreciating—a subjective
experience.
• Beauty is whatever we find pleasurable to us.
Hence, beauty is upon the eye of the
beholder.
• Beauty has hierarchy. The closer to
matter(senses) the lower the degree as
experienced pleasure goes further from
matter and closer to the intellect the higher
the degree of beauty become.
• The science and art of valid inferential
reasoning.
• There is no strict formula or method that will
satisfy the distinction.
FORMAL LOGIC – primarily interested in the validity
of argument base on from rather than content.
Generally used in deductive reasoning.
MATERIAL LOGIC – primarily interested in the validity
of argument according to content rather than in its
form.
DEDUCTIVE LOGIC – It is also known as top-down
logic. It starts from universal statements to a more
particular one.
INDUCTIVE LOGIC – It is also known as bottom-up
logic. It has premises serve as evidences in proving
the already accepted truth or falsity of the conclusion.
Unlike deduction, this type produces conclusions that
are only be probable.

ETHICS
SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY

• The youngest among the major branches of • “Ethos” means character

Philosophy.
• “Socious” means others
• Its subject matter to explain theories about
societies and how people behave in it.
• Social Science – Freedom, Liberty, and
Justice
• “Ethikos” means actions arising from habit
which connects the word ethics closer to the
meaning of morality.
• It deals with what is right and wrong in human
behavior and conduct.

ETHICS VS MORALITY

SEMANTICS • Moral = good — individual

• It deals with the very foundation of language • Ethical = right — society

• It also deals with understanding the minimal • Immoral = bad — individual

or foundational elements of meaning that • Unethical = wrong — society
allows us to understand words and symbols
multilingually.
• “Semes” understood as first

LOGIC

• Branch and Method of Philosophy – therefore

present in all branches
• Greek: “Logos” means from the word;
“Logike” means thought,
reason, or discourse

MODULE 2: ETHICS - BASIC CONCEPTS
AND PRINCIPLES
What is Ethics?
● In revolves within the human dimension
● Intrinsic part of human lives
0 When we talk about our lives, it is mostly
dominated by ethics/ethical questions ■ What
to do?
■ Is what we did good or bad/right or
wrong?
○ We, as humans, have our duties and
obligations, not only to ourselves, but also to
other people.
○ Our lives, and how we ought to live our lives in
order to promote a civilized/decent
community, we should be aware/conscious in
our need to be ethical
■ There are things we need to avoid in
order for us to be ethical
● Our very existence is situated in the middle of the
ethical dimension, where we will find ourselves in
constant need to struggle/to make things that are right
to make judgments to make good choices as opposed
to bad ones.
● Ethics serves as a beacon that gives us a sense of
direction on how we should live our lives responsibly
● Why is it important for us to talk about it? Everytime
we are talking about our lives, we are basically talking
about ethics. Everytime we ask a question about our
future or our goals, we are basically talking about
ethics. So how we're going to manage achieving that
goal is not simply a social question, is not even a
political only, but more so it is an ethical question.
● It deals with what is right and wrong in human actions
(ethics as a beacon)
● It hopes to answer questions such as:
a. What constitutes human actions as right or
wrong/ good or bad? And how do we know if
it is right or wrong/ good or bad?
b. How are moral decisions affected by private
and public interests?
c. How do we justify a moral theory to be either
valid or invalid?
● Ethics is defined as the science of morality.
0 While ethics generally represent the norms of
society it is primarily determined by the
prevailing moral order of that society
■ our expected societal behavior is
determined by our current morality
■ Ethics is always considered to be
the culmination/end product of our
moral values
■ When we are required to establish
moral values, oftentimes it is
brought about by our practices
which is in a way, seemingly sort of
falling in a circular process that is
ethics justified by/ created by our
moral
ETHICS: ETHICS
values and yet our moral values are
justified by our ethical practices.
■ Ethics and morality is undeniably
related and connected to each other
■ Ethics and morality falls within a
single process, one as a cause, and
one as an effect (causal
relationship). There is a clear
distinction between these two
concepts (by function, etymology,
etc).
Etymology of Ethics
● Defined as a “characteristic way of doing things, or a
body of customs”.
Hence, ethics may be understood as THE STUDY OF
HUMAN CUSTOMS OR WAYS OF DOING THINGS.
- Emerita Quito, Fundamentals of Ethics
0 While this definition makes it clear that to be
ethical, quito would argue that we simply
need to follow and conform with the
standards and expectations of society
regarding our actions. it would nonetheless
require a deeper analysis and thought as to
why we believe such customs are even worth
performing or even worth observing.
○ We have to ask another question - why do such
customs become good or why are such
customs considered good? Ethics and
morality, although heavily related with each
other, are absolutely distinct from each other.
Ethics and morality are interdependent but not the same
● Ethical/unethical (ethos as character)
0 Generally used within business/professional
communities
○ Pertains to the individual character of a
person
○ Representative of a subjective phenomena
○ Character is not judged by the individual but by
the public community
○ External perception - judgment of other people,
factors that are outside
(social/political experience).
● Moral/immoral (latin: moralis/mos as
customs/manners)
0 Generally used within the realm of sexuality
○ Pertains to the relationship between human
beings
○ Someone of an objective experience because it
involves other people
○ The relationship we have towards other people
is always a reflective activity
○ Internal perception - judgment of the person
himself/herself, exclusive within the realm of
the individual
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 ETHICS: ETHICS
*It is us who modify/retain our behavior based on how we see ○ Example: people are going to pursue their
ourselves relating to other people and how we imagine other personal self interests, clash between social
people seeing and judging our actions class (poor & rich)

*The character of a person is determined by his/her adherence

to a specific set of rules/goals (a code of conduct, religious
practices) as the basis of their character.
*Here in the Philippines, most of our customs/habits/values
(individual or personal) are often associated with our religious
convictions. But nonetheless, it is not exclusive.
*Social code of ethics - norms that we follow (as being part of a
organization/place)
*Professional code of ethics - manifestations in the character of
the individuals reflective on their career; there are common
traits/impression/values between various professionals
(doctors, lawyers, engineers)
The good life is the goal morality
● Finding solace with the almighty (theology)
● Command power in their lives
● Find justice in the society
● Acquisition of wealth
Where does ethics/morality come from?
● Good life in ethics/morality - acquisition of happiness
● The Three Perspectives/Theories
and joy, to live a pleasurable life
ACQUISITION OF PLEASURE AND HAPPINESS
GOOD RIGHT
● The Philosophical Approach
0 Normative/Prescriptive - concerned and
giving instructions on what people
should/ought to be doing, not only for
themselves but also for others (example:
golden rule - don't do unto others, what u
dont want others to do unto you)
○ Meta-ethics/Analytic - for every ethical standard
that is presented to us is an essence behind
it, the purpose of meta-ethical approach is to
look at that essence. (example: when we talk
about good, bad, right, wrong, what are the
essence of these words)
■ Analyses ethical language - looking into
the essence of concepts (example: meaning
of words)
■ Analyses the rational foundations of
ethical systems or logical reasoning -
discourse analysis approach (example:
plausibility of ethical theories)
1. The supernatural theory
2. The natural law theory
3. The presupposition that things have intrinsic
values outside human experience

Is a way of being that has an
intrinsic moral worth. That is,
how a person views his own
value and regard himself as
virtuous
Accepted by society to be
good by correctly applying a
principle, law, or standard
*studying the origin of ethics/morality is like studying the origin
of man
*speculating does not mean freely giving opinions, there must
be a basis

AVOIDANCE OF PAIN *sociality began with survival > basic needs > etc. (there is a
need for man to live with other people)

BAD WRONG
The absence of intrinsic Rejected by society to be
worth or value (guilt) good due
misappropriation of
standard, rule or law
*We can interchange morality & ethics, good & right, bad &
wrong in common language but not in philosophy
Approaches to the Study of Morality
● The Scientific/Descriptive Approach
0 Simply describes observe behavior of people
and draws conclusions without making
judgments whether behavioral patterns are
morally right or wrong
○ Most often used in human sciences like
psychology
The Supernatural Theory
● Generally pertain to a supreme being which is
to regarded as the source of highest form of morality
a ● Usually grounds their definition of morality from the
divine teachings or commandments.
The Imperatives of Ethics
1. The existence of a supreme Being or God.
2. The existence of human freedom or free will/choice.
3. The existence of an afterlife i.e. life beyond the grave,
or the immortality of the soul
The Natural Law Theory
● Morality is embodied within nature called natural laws
● In theism, it refers to the natural order of things
according to the intention on how things are created.

2

● In Empiricism, it pertains to a law or a principle like the
natural laws of physics
The Four Applications of Morality
1. Religious Morality - man & relationship to
god
2. Natural Morality - man & nature
3. Individual Morality - man & himself
4. Social Morality - man & others
MODULE 3: TELEOLOGY & DEONTOLOGY
Ethical Perspectives and Theories
Recap:
Ethics defined as the science of morality
 Ethics and morality are not the same
o Ethics represents the norm of society
o Morality are theories that we used in assessing whether
an action or rule is justifiable
 Understanding the foundations of ethics and morality sharpens our
moral vision in determining whether our actions are right or wrong,
good or bad, permissible or un-permissible by helping us set aside
out personal feelings, desires and ambitions that often skew our
moral judgement and our ability to look at issues from a rational
viewpoint
o They may represent significant differences but also share
a significant interest or shared quality
o Both are directed to the acquisition of good life
 Not interpreted in one manner
 There are several ways it can be perceived by a
person
What is a Theory?
2 Major
Theories/Viewpoints of Morality
 Teleology
o Also called consequentialism
o Derived from the word Telos understood as goal or aim
ETHICS: ETHICS
The Intrinsic value of things
● Things will continue to be the way they are even in the
absence of human perception
o Based on or concerned with the consequences of actions
than on the value of the act itself
 Consequence than the cause of an act
o It argues that moral right (act) is derived from a theory of
a non-moral good (consequence)
o Its main though is expressed in the Statement:
“What is good is an End to be Achieved”
 The end justify the means
 Deontology
o Also called non-consequentialism
o Derived from the word Deon understood as duty
o Study of duty
 Value/importance on the act rather than the
consequence
o Based on the value/worth of acts without regard or
concern of their consequences
o It argues that moral right (acts) is derived without a
theory of a non-moral good (consequence)
o Its main though is expressed in the statement:
“Correct choice is always morally right regardless of the end
or consequence”
 The means is an end in itself
TELEOLOGY:
The Two Teleological theory of Morality
 Ethical Egoism
o Directed towards the self/person
o Focused on the benefits that a person could
experience/receive
 Regardless if it harms other people
 Focused on their personal well-being
o Can be seen as “Greed” or “Selfishness”, ethically
speaking it is also not
 Look at the premise or cause
 Can be the natural process of how we conduct
ourselves
o Self-interest and Selfishness are not synonymous
 Utilitarianism
o Other people benefit
3

 Doing things for other people
o No difference with an Ethical Egoist if not asked the
motive of their interest
 Hard to distinguish one from another
o Their difference does not lie on the difference of their
acts but lies on the reason/motive
 What separates an ethical egoist from a
utilitarian
o Best way to judge is to understand what is ethical egoism
 Make sure that the moral standard is apt/fitting
to the act that we are committing.
 Actions and consequences are befitting
Ethical Egoism
 States that human beings ought to act according to their self-
interest
 Derived from psychological egoism, and seen by some as the
same and interchangeable
o But it is not
 Psychological egoism attempts to tell how people act
o Is a scientific descriptive approach to egoism
Jeremy Bentham
o How they naturally act
 Ethical egoism attempts to tell people how they should act
o Is a philosophical normative prescriptive approach to
egoism
o Actions should be/mandated towards self-interest
 Not synonymous with selfishness but can be seen as such in
John Stuart Mill
certain instances
 Why would we want to sacrifice our interest for other’s?
o We don’t want to lose others
o It is within our self-interest to have them
 Not being selfish or greedy because we can accommodate the
interest of other people
o Interest of others are accommodated but for our self-
interest why it is accommodated
 Allows man to identify their own interests
o It puts people in a much better position to determine what
they want or what they need.
o To better assess their situation.
 o Common good is what we ought to pursue, represents an
2 Forms of Psychological Egoism
 Strong Form
o Maintains the belief that people ALWAYS act according
to their won self-interest
 Weak Form
o Maintains the belief that people OFTEN act according to
their own self-interest
o Makes it problematic; renders argument as whimsical
o Lacks logical foundation when asked “WHEN” should we
act or not act towards our self-interest
 When should my self-interest be subdued by
other people’s interest
3 types of Ethical Egoism
 Individual Ethical Egoism
o Everyone ought to act in their own best self-interest
 Personal Ethical Egoism
o Everyone ought to act in their own best self-interest
but make no claim how everyone else ought to act
ETHICS: ETHICS
o Usually independent individuals; “do what you want, I’ll
do what I want”
o Do not mandate others to do the same
If everyone acts based on their own self-interest, it can be
chaotic and disruptive of the society.
 Universal Ethical Egoism
o Everyone ought to act in their own best self-interest,
regardless of the interest of others, unless they share the
same interest with others
o Prevent/minimize the harm of acting on self-interest
o Not shy away from collaborating or helping each other
when their interest also benefits his own self-interest
 Render societies and communities possible; will
become an inclusivist society
 Partaking in the objective or goal of the
community or the group
LEADING PILLARS OF UTILITARIANISM
o Father of Utilitarianism
 Started the ideology that recognizes the value of
utility.
o Improved and modified ideologies of Bentham
 But we adhere to his version
SOME CONCEPTS ABOUT UTILITARIANISM
Derived from the word Utility which is loosely understood as
Usefulness
Usefulness is the ability of an act to bring a desirable good or end
o An act is right if it is useful.
But what is desirable for some may not be desirable for others
Its focus is limited to only “to the interest of everyone that is
concerned”
action desirable and beneficial to all.
Compromise is an unspoken principle.
Its main thought is expressed in the statement:
“Everyone should perform that act or follow the moral rule that
will bring about the greatest good(happiness) for everyone
concerned.”
QUALITY/QUANTITY OF HAPPINESS MATTERS
The major theme in Mill’s Utilitarianism is found in his defense of
Bentham’s utilitarian theory stating that:
o “both individuals and governments should act to
provide the “greatest happiness for the greatest
number”
With an amendment that is sometimes called the quality/quantity
distinction
o That in determining the greatest happiness or utility one
should take into account both the quantity and the quality
of the happiness or pleasure attained
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 ETHICS: ETHICS

2 FORMS OF UTILITARIANISM

 Act Utilitarianism
o Says that everyone should perform the act that will bring
about the greatest amount of good over bad for everyone
affected by the act
o There can be NO ABSOLUTE RULES because every
situation is different and every person is different
o May consider lying to be good, it can do more good than
bad; killing someone to stop world war,
 Every situation is different

 Rule Utilitarian
o Says that everyone should always establish and follow
that rule or those rules that will bring about the greatest
good for all concern.
o Might consider certain acts to be good if it will prevent
future harm
 Under the premise of self-defense
