Theories of Personality

1. Freud, Sigmund 12. Kelly, George

2. Adler, Alfred
3. Jung, Carl 13. Lewin, Kurt
4. Klein, Melanie 14. Murray, Henry
5. Horney, Karen 15. Allport, Gordon
6. Erikson, Erik 16. Cattell, R.
7. Fromm, Erich 17. Sullivan (Finals)
8. Kohut, Heinz
9. Maslow, Abraham
10. Rogers, Carl
11. May, Rollo
Psychoanalytic Theory
(Sigmund Freud)
Outline
I. Biography
II. Basic Assumptions
III. Books
IV. Basic Concepts
A. Levels of the Mind
B. Provinces of the Mind
C. Dynamics of Personality
D. Defense Mechanisms
E. Stages of Development
Biography:
*Sigismund Freud (real name)
* March 06 or May 06, 1856(birthday)
* Jacob and Amalie Nathanson Freud(parents)
* Emanuel and Philipp(stepbrothers)
* Martha Bernays (wife)
* Jean Martin(Charcot), Oliver(Cromwell),
Ernest(Bruke), Mathilde(Frau Breur),
Sophie(Frau Paneth) and Anna (Jewish
priest)
Highlights
* hypnotic technique for treating hysteria
(Jean Martin Charcot)
* Catharsis, the process of removing
hysterical symptoms through “talking them
out”
(Josef Breuer)
* Free association technique
* Seduction Theory
Four reasons for abandoning the Seduction
Theory:
1. Failure to treat a single patient;
2. Accused of sexual perversion;
3. Unconscious mind not capable of
distinguishing reality from fiction;
4. Unconscious memories of advanced patients
almost never revealed early childhood sexual
experiences.
Books:
1. Interpretation of Dreams
2. On Dreams
3. Psychopathology of Everyday Life
4. Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality
5. Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious
Levels of Mental Life

1. Unconscious
a. unconscious proper
b. preconscious
2. Conscious
Unconscious

* contains all those drives, urges or instincts that

are beyond our awareness but that
nevertheless motivate most of our words,
feelings and actions;

* is the explanation for the meaning behind

dreams, slips of the tongue and certain kinds
of forgetting called repression;
 * a portion originates from the experiences of
our early ancestors that have been passed on
to us through hundreds of generation
(phylogenetic endowment);

* constantly strive to become conscious, many

of them succeed, although they may no
longer appear in their original form.
Preconscious
* contains all those elements that are not
conscious but can become conscious either
quite readily or with some difficulty;

* has 2 sources:
1. conscious perception
2. unconscious.
Conscious

* mental elements in awareness at any

given point in time;
* contents come from 2 different sources:
1. perceptual conscious system
2. within the mental structure:
includes non threatening ideas from
the preconscious as well as menacing but
well-disguised images from the
unconscious.
Provinces of the Mind

Id (das Es, is completely

unconscious)
Ego (das Ich, has conscious,
preconscius and unconscious
components)
Superego ( das Uber-Ich, is both
preconscious and unconscious).
Id
* is at the core of personality;
* psychical region that is completely
unconscious;
* literally means the “not-yet-owned
component of personality;
* has no contact with reality yet strives
constantly to reduce tension by
satisfying basic drives;
 * sole function is to seek pleasure without
regard for what is proper or just
(pleasure principle);
* is illogical and can simultaneously
entertain incompatible ideas;
cannot make value judgments
(no morality/amoral);
* operates through the primary process;
 * Summary: it is primitive, chaotic,
inaccessible to consciousness,
unchangeable, amoral, illogical,
unorganized and filled with energy
received from basic drives and
discharged for the satisfaction of the
pleasure principle.
Ego

* is the only region of the mind in contact

with reality;
*grows out of the id during infancy and
becomes a person’s sole source of
communication with the external world;
 *is governed by the reality principle;
*becomes the decision-making or
executive branch of personality;
*constantly tries to reconcile the blind,
irrational claims of the id and the
superego with the realistic demands of the
external world.
Superego

* represents the moral and ideal aspects of

personality;
* is guided by the moralistic and idealistic
principles;
* grows out of the ego and has no energy
of its own;
* has no contact with the outside world;
 * is unrealistic in its demands for
perfection;
* has 2 subsystems: conscience and
ego-ideal;
* conscience: results from experiences with
punishments for improper behavior and tells us what
we should not do;
* ego-ideal: develops from experiences with
rewards for proper behavior and tells us what we
should do;
 * strives blindly and unrealistically toward
perfection;
* unrealistic in the sense that it does not
take into consideration the difficulties or
impossibilities faced by the ego in
carrying out its orders;
* is completely ignorant of and
unconcerned with the practicability of its
requirements.
Dynamics of Personality

1. Drives
2. Sex
3. Aggression
4. Anxiety
Drives

*interchangeably used with the German

word Trieb, instinct, or impulse;
*operate as a constant motivational force;
differ from external stimuli in that
they cannot be avoided through flight;
 * is characterized by:
an impetus, the amount of force it
exerts;
a source, the region of the body in a
state of excitation or tension;
an aim, to seek pleasure by removing that
excitation or reducing the tension;
an object, the person or thing that serves as
the means through which the aim is
satisfied;
*can be grouped under 2 major headings:

1. sex, libido or Eros

2. aggression, distraction or Thanatos.
1. Sex
*aim is pleasure derived from the
erogenous zones, bodily parts capable
of producing sexual pleasure (genitals,
mouth and anus, etc.);
*can take many forms including:
a. narcissism
b. love
c. sadism
d. masochism
 a. Narcissism
occurs during the infancy stage when
infants are primarily self-centered
(primary narcissism), and reoccurs during
puberty when adolescents become
preoccupied with personal appearance and
other self-interests (secondary narcissism);
 b. Love
develops when people invest their
libido on an object or person other than
themselves;
c. Sadism
the need for sexual pleasure by
inflicting pain or humiliation on another
person;
d. Masochism
experiencing sexual pleasure from
suffering pain and humiliation inflicted either
by themselves or by others.
2. Aggression
* final aim is self-destruction by returning
the organism to an inorganic state-
death;
* is flexible and can take a number of
forms (teasing, gossip, sarcasm, etc.); * is
present in everyone;
* is the explanation for wars, atrocities and
religious persecution.
Anxiety
* is a felt, affective, unpleasant state
accompanied by a physical sensation that
warns the person against impending
danger;
* only the ego can produce or feel anxiety;
* serves as an ego-preserving mechanism
because it signals the coming of
danger;
 * allows the constantly vigilant ego to be
alert for signs of threat and danger;
* is also self-regulating because it
precipitates repression which in turn
reduces the pain of anxiety;
* forms of anxiety:
a. neurotic anxiety
b. moral anxiety
c. realistic anxiety
 a. Neurotic anxiety
apprehension about an unknown danger;
a result of the ego’s dependence on the id;
exists in the ego but originates from id
impulses;
b. Moral anxiety
stems from conflict between the ego and
the superego;
c. Realistic anxiety
* an unpleasant, nonspecific feelings
involving a possible danger;
* is different from fear in that it does not
involve a specific fearful object.
Defense Mechanism

Techniques such as repression, reaction

formation, sublimation and the like,
whereby the ego defends itself against
the pain of anxiety.
Stages of Development

Infantile period
oral phase
anal phase
phallic phase
male oedipus complex
female oedipus complex
Latency period
Genital period
Analytical Psychology
(Carl Jung)
Outline
I. Biography
II. Terms to be Defined
III. Basic Concepts
A. Levels of the Psyche
B. Dynamics of Personality
C. Psychological Types
D. Development of Personality
E. Conservative Principle
F. Self-realization
I. Biography
* Born on July 26, 1875 in Kesswil,
Lady Constance, Switzerland
* Parents: Johann Paul Jung
Emilie Preiswerk Jung
* Wife: Emma Rauschenbach, a young
sophisticated woman from a
wealthy Swiss family.
* Impt. patients: Sabina Spielrein
Antonia (toni) Wolff
II. Terms to be Defined

1. Attitude
2. Mandala
3. Psyche
4. Complexes
1. Attitude
> a predisposition to act or
react in a characteristic direction.

2. Mandala
> depicted as a circle within a square;
> represents the perfect self and
divinity;
> archetype of order, unity and totality.
3. Psyche
> total personality
> abstraction representing something
real that cannot be touched or felt
but that we know exists through its
effects;
> principle of opposites
> principle of equivalence
> principle of entropy
4. Complexes
> are individualized components of the
personal unconscious;
> are largely personal but may also be
partly derived from humanity’s
collective experience;
> may also be partly conscious and may
stem from both the personal and
the collective unconscious.
A. Levels of the Psyche

* Conscious
* Personal Unconscious
* Collective Unconscious
* Archetypes
1. Persona 5. Great Mother
2. Shadow 6. Wise Old Man
3. Anima 7. Hero
4. Animus 8. Self
Conscious

* images are those that are senses by

the ego;
* center of consciousness but not the
core of personality;
* takes a secondary position to the
unconscious self in a
psychologically healthy person.
Personal Unconscious

* embraces all repressed, forgotten or

subliminally perceived experiences of one
particular individual;
* contains repressed infantile memories and
impulses, forgotten events and
experiences originally perceived below the
threshold of our consciousness;
* is an emotionally toned conglomeration of
associated ideas.
Collective Unconscious

* has roots in the ancestral past of the

entire species;
* are more or less the same for people in
all cultures because they are
influenced by our primitive ancestors’
primordial experiences;
 * is responsible for people’s myths,
legends and religious beliefs;
* refers to humans’ innate tendency to
react in a particular way whenever
their experiences stimulate a
biologically inherited response
tendency;
* produces “big dreams”;
Complexes
* are individualized components of the
personal unconscious;
* are largely personal but may also be
partly derived from humanity’s
collective experience;
* may also be partly conscious and may
stem from both the personal and
the collective unconscious.
Archetypes

* are ancient of archaic images derived

from the collective unconscious;
* are similar to complexes since they are
emotionally toned collections of
associated images;
* are generalized and derived from the
contents of the collective
unconscious;
 * have biological basis but originate
through the repeated experiences of
human’s early ancestors;
* becomes activated when a personal
experience corresponds to the latent
primordial image;
* expresses itself through several modes,
primarily dreams( main source),
fantasies and delusions;
 * are always emotionally toned;
* has a life and a personality of its own;
* are the psychic counterpart to an
instinct; ( instinct: an unconscious
physical impulse toward action);
* both instincts and archetypes: are
unconsciously determined and can help
shape personality.
1. Persona

* side of personality that people show to

the world;
* originated from Jung’s experiences
with his no. 1 personality;
* we remain unconscious of our
individuality and are blocked from
attaining self-realization if we
identify too closely with our
persona.
2. Shadow

* archetype of darkness and repression;

* represents those qualities we do not
wish to acknowledge but attempt
to hide from ourselves and others;
* consists of morally objectionable
tendencies as well as a number of
constructive and creative qualities that
we are reluctant to face;
* first test of courage.
3. Anima

* Feminine side of men;

* represents irrational moods and
feelings;
* originates in the collective
unconscious, from man’s early
experiences with women;
* remains extremely resistant to
consciousness;
* second test of courage.
4. Animus

* the masculine in women;

* symbolic of thinking and reasoning;
* is capable of influencing the thinking of a
woman;
* belongs to the collective unconscious;
* originates from the encounter of prehistoric
women with men;
* appears in dreams, visions and fantasies in a
personified form.
5. Great Mother

* a derivative of the anima and animus;

* is always associated with both positive
and negative feelings;
* represents 2 opposing forces:
1. fertility and nourishment
2. power and destruction.
*fertility and power combine to form the
concept of rebirth (reincarnation,
baptism, etc.).
6. Wise Old Man

* archetype of wisdom and meaning;

* symbolizes humans’ preexisting knowledge
of the mysteries of life;
* is personified in dreams as father,
grandfather, etc.
* appears in fairy tales as the king, etc. who
comes to the aid of the troubled
protagonist;
* is also symbolized by life itself.
7. Hero

* is represented in mythology and

legends as a powerful person,
sometimes part god, who fights
against great odds to conquer evil in the
forms of dragon, etc.
8. Self

* an inherited tendency to move toward

growth, perfection and completion;
* is the archetype of all archetypes;
* pulls together the other archetypes and
unites them in the process of self-
realization;
* possesses conscious and personal
unconscious components but mostly
formed by collective unconscious images;
 * is symbolized by a person’s ideas of
perfection, completion and
wholeness;
* its ultimate symbol is the mandala ;
* represents the strivings of the
collective unconscious for unity,
balance and wholeness;
* includes both personal and collective
unconscious images;
* unites the opposing elements of the
psyche – yang and yin.
Mandala

*depicted as a circle within a square;

* represents the perfect self and divinity;
* archetype of order, unity and totality.
B. Dynamics of Personality

1. Causality
2. Teleology
3. Progression
4. Regression
1. Causality
holds that present events have their
origins in previous experiences.

2. Teleology
holds that present events are motivated
by goals and aspirations for the future
that direct a person’s destiny.
3. Progression

* adaptation to the outside world that

involves forward flow of psychic
energy;
* inclines a person to react consistently
to a given set of environmental
conditions.
4. Regression

* adaptation to the inner world relies on

a backward flow of psychic
energy;
* is a necessary backward step in the
successful attainment of a goal;
* activates the unconscious psyche, an
essential aid in the solution of most
problems.
C. Psychological Types

* grows out of a union of 2 basic

attitudes – introversion and
extraversion – and 4 separate
functions – thinking, feeling,
sensing and intuiting;
*Basic attitudes
1. Introversion
*is the turning inward of psychic energy
with an orientation toward the
subjective.

2. Extraversion
* is the turning outward of psychic
energy so that a person is oriented
toward the objective and away from
the subjective.
Functions

1. Thinking
2. Feeling
3. Sensing
4. Intuiting
1. Thinking
* logical intellectual activity that
produces a chain of ideas;
* enables a person to recognize
meaning;
a. Extraverted thinking
* people rely heavily on concrete
thoughts but may also use abstract ideas if
ideas have been transmitted from
without.
b. Introverted thinking
* react to external stimuli, but their
interpretation of an event is colored more
by the internal meaning they bring with
them than by the objective facts
themselves.
2. Feeling

* describes the process of evaluating an

idea or event;
* is the evaluation of every conscious
activity, even those valued as
indifferent.
a. Extraverted feeling

* uses objective data to make evaluations;

* are not guided so much by their subjective
opinion but by external values and widely
accepted standards of judgments;
* are likely to be at ease in social situations;
* are usually well liked because of their
sociability but may appear artificial,
shallow and unreliable.
b. Introverted feeling
* base their value judgment primarily on
subjective perceptions rather than
objective facts;
* have an individualized conscience, a taciturn
demeanor and an unfathomable psyche;
* ignore traditional opinions and beliefs and
their nearly complete indifference to the
objective world often causes persons
around them to feel uncomfortable and to
cool their attitude toward them.
3. Sensing

* receives physical stimuli and transmits

them to perceptual consciousness;
* is simply the individual’s perception
of sensory impulses;
* exist as absolute, elementary facts
within each person.
a. Extraverted Sensing
* perceive external stimuli
objectively;
* sensations are not greatly influenced
by their subjective attitude.
b. Introverted Sensing
* are largely influenced by their
subjective sensations of sight, etc.;
* are guided by their interpretation of
sense stimuli rather than the
stimuli themselves;
* give a subjective interpretation to
objective phenomena yet are able to
communicate meaning to others.
4. Intuiting

* involves perception beyond the

workings of consciousness;
* is more creative, often adding or
subtracting elements from
conscious sensation.
a. Extraverted intuition

* are oriented toward facts in the

external world;
* suppresses many of their sensations;
* are guided by hunches and guesses
contrary to sensory data.
b. Introverted intuitive

* are guided by unconscious perception of

facts that are basically subjective and
have little or no resemblance to external
reality;
* are often remarkably strong and capable of
motivating decisions of monumental
magnitude;
* often appear peculiar to people of other
types who have little comprehension of
their motives.
D. Development of Personality

* Childhood
* Youth
* Middle Age
* Old Age
Childhood

* is the early morning sun of life, full of

potential but still lacking in
brilliance;
* has 3 substages:
1. anarchic
2. monarchic
3. dualistic
…….Childhood

1. Anarchic
*is characterized by chaotic and
sporadic consciousness;
*experiences enter consciousness
as primitive images,
incapable of being accurately
verbalized.
……Childhood

2. Monarchic
* is characterized by the
development of the ego and by the
beginning of logical and verbal
thinking;
* children see themselves
objectively and often refer to
themselves in the third person.
…….Childhood

3. Dualistic
* ego is divided into the objective
and subjective;
* children now refer to themselves
in the first person and are
aware of their existence as
separate individuals.
Youth

* morning sun, climbing toward the

zenith but unaware of the
impending decline;
* a period of increased activity,
maturing sexuality, growing
consciousness and recognition that the
problem-free era of childhood is gone
forever.
Middle Age
* are capable of giving up the
extraverted goals of youth and
moving in the introverted direction of
expanded consciousness;
* must look forward to the future with
hope and anticipation, surrender
the lifestyle of youth an discover new
meaning in the middle life.
E. Conservative Principle

* desire to live in the past;

* difficulty of overcoming the natural
tendency to cling to the narrow
consciousness of childhood and
avoiding problems pertinent to the
present time of life.
F. Self – realization
* also called psychological rebirth,
individuation;
* is the process of becoming an individual or
whole person;
* is the process of integrating the opposite
poles into a single homogenous
individual;
* is dominated neither by unconscious
processes nor by the conscious ego but
achieves a balance between all aspects of
personality.
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY
(Alfred Adler)
Outline

I. Terms to be Defined
II. Basic Assumptions
III. Basic Concepts
> Safeguarding Tendencies
A. Excuses
B. Aggression
C. Withdrawal
I. Terms to be Defined

1. Creative power
2. Fictionalism
3. Final Goal
4. Style of life
5. Organ Dialect
6. Social Interest
1. Creative power
> a dynamic concept implying
movement.
2. Fictionalism
> expectations of the future.
3. Final Goal
> personal superiority or success for all
humankind.
> compensating for feelings of
inferiority or weakness.
4. Style of life
> flavor of a person’s life.
5. Organ Dialect

> body’s organs speak a language

which is usually more expressive and
discloses the individual’s opinion more
clearly than words are able to do.
6. Social Interest
> a feeling of oneness with all humanity;
> membership in the social community.
II. Basic Assumptions
1. Tenets of Adler
1. The one dynamic force behind people’s behavior
is the striving for success or superiority.
2. People’s subjective perceptions shape their
behavior and personality.
3. Personality is unified and self-consistent.
4. The value of all human activity must be seen from
the viewpoint of social interest.
5. The self-consistent personality structure develops
into a person’s style of life.
6. Style of life is molded by people’s creative power.
2. Neurotics

> underdeveloped social interest;

> tend to set their goals too high;
> live in their own private world;
> have a rigid and dogmatic style of life.
III. Basic Concepts
Safeguarding Tendencies
*protect one’s exaggerated sense of self-
esteem against public disgrace;
*enable people to hide their inflated self-
image and maintain their current style of
life;
*designed to protect a person’s present
style of life and to maintain a fictional,
elevated feeling of self-importance.
 * are self-defeating because their built-in goals
of self-interest and personal superiority
actually block them from securing
authentic feelings of self-esteem;
* aims to:
- serve as a buffer for fear of
disgrace;
- eliminate exaggerated inferiority
feelings;
- attain self-esteem.
A. Excuses
B. Aggression
1. depreciation
2. accusation
3. self-accusation
C. Withdrawal
1. moving backward
2. standing still
3. hesitating
4. constructing obstacles
A. Excuses
*most common safeguarding
tendencies;
*protect a weak – but artificially inflated
sense of self-worth;
*deceive people into believing that they
are more superior than they really
are;
* expressed in the “yes, but” or “if only”
format.
B. Aggression
* used to safeguard their exaggerated
superiority complex, to protect
their fragile self-esteem;
* forms of aggression:
B.1. depreciation
B.2. accusation
B.3. self-accusation
B.1. Depreciation

*the tendency to undervalue other

people’s achievement and to
overvalue one’s own;
* evident in such behaviors as criticism
and gossip.
B.2. Accusation

* the tendency to blame others for

one’s failures and to seek revenge,
thereby safeguarding one’s own
tenuous self-esteem;
* meant to cause the people around them
to suffer more than they do.
B.3. Self-accusation

* marked by self-torture and guilt;

* converse of depreciation, although both
are aimed toward gaining personal
superiority;
* meant to hurt people who are close to them;
* guilt – is often aggressive, self-accusatory
behavior;
* people devalue themselves in order to inflict
suffering on others while protecting
their own magnified feelings of self-
esteem.
C. Withdrawal

* running away from difficulties;

* safeguarding through distance;
* four modes of safeguarding through
withdrawal:
C.1. moving backward
C.2. standing still
C.3. hesitating
C.4. constructing obstacles.
C.1. Moving backward
* the tendency to safeguard one’s
fictional goal of superiority by
psychologically reverting to a more
secure period of life;
* attempts to return to earlier, more
comfortable phases of life;
* designed to elicit sympathy;
* may sometimes be conscious and is
directed at maintaining an inflated
goal of superiority.
C.2. Standing still

* simply do not move in any direction;

* avoid all responsibilities by ensuring
themselves against any threat of
failure.
C.3. Hesitating

* procrastinating, an attempt to waste

time;
* allows neurotic individuals to preserve
their inflated sense of self-esteem.

C.4. Constructing obstacles

* the least severe of the withdrawal

safeguarding tendencies.
Object Relations Theory
(Melanie Klein)
Outline

I. Biography
II. Basic Assumptions
III. Basic Concepts
A. Psychic Life of the Infant
B. Positions
C. Psychic Defense Mechanisms
D. Internalizations
I. Biography
* Date of birth: March 30, 1882
* Parents:
Dr. Moriz Reizes
Ms. Libussa Deutsch Reizes
* Siblings:
Emilie, Sibonie, Emmanuel
* Husband: Arthur Klein
* Children: Melitta, Hans and Erich
II. Basic Assumptions

Object Relations Theory

> was built on careful observations of

young children;
> stressed the importance of the first 4 to
6 months after birth;
> is an offspring of Freud’s instinct
theory.
 Instinct Theory vs. Object Relations
Theory
Instinct Theory ORT
Drive emphasis on consistent patterns of
biological drives; interpersonal
relationships;
Source Paternalistic – Maternalistic –
power and control intimacy/ nurturing
from father; of mother
Motivation sexual pleasure human contact and
relatedness
III. Basic Concepts

A. Psychic Life of the Infant

1. Fantasies
2. Objects

B. Positions
1. Paranoid-Schizoid Position
2. Depressive Position
C. Psychic Defense Mechanisms
1. Introjection
2. Projection
3. Splitting
4. Projective identification
D. Internalizations
1. Ego
2. Superego
3. Oedipus Complex
A. Psychic Life of the Infant

1. Fantasies
* Infants, even at birth, possess an active
fantasy life;
* Are psychic representations
of unconscious id instincts
represented in images of good and bad.
2. Objects

* If infants have drives, they must have

objects also;
* Infants relate to these external objects
both in fantasy and in reality;
* Earliest object relations are with the
mother’s breast.
B. Positions

* ways of dealing with both internal and

external objects;
* they alternate back and forth and are
not periods of time or phases of
development through which a person
passes.
1. Paranoid-Schizoid Position
* 3 – 4 months of life;
* a way of organizing experiences that
includes both paranoid feelings of being
persecuted and a splitting of internal and
external objects into the good and the bad;
* ego’s perception of the external world is
subjective and fantastic rather than
objective and real;
* persecutory feelings are paranoid – not
based on any real or immediate danger.
2. Depressive Position

* 5th or 6th month;

* feelings of anxiety over losing a loved
object coupled with a sense of guilt
for wanting to destroy it;
* recognizes that mother is an
independent person who can be both
good and bad;
* realizes that mother might go away
and be lost forever;
Ego maturity:

1. tolerates destructive feelings rather

than projecting them outward;
2. realizes that it lacks the capacity to
protect the mother, experiencing
guilt for its previous destructive
urges towards mother.
 * Is resolved when children fantasize
that they have made reparation for
their previous transgressions and
when they recognize that their mother
will not go away permanently.
C. Psychic Defense Mechanisms

* Children adopt several defense mechanisms

to protect their ego against the anxiety
aroused by their own destructive
fantasies.
1. Introjection
2. Projection
3. Splitting
4. Projective Identification
1. Introjection

* infants fantasize taking into their body

perceptions and experiences that
they have with the external object,
originally the mother’s breast;
* begins with an infant’s first feeding
when there is an attempt to
incorporate the mother’s breast into
the infant’s body.
2. Projection

* infants alleviate the unbearable anxiety

of being destroyed by dangerous
internal forces by attributing one’s own
feelings and impulses to another
person.
3. Splitting
* Keeping apart incompatible impulses.

4. Projective Identification
* infants split off unacceptable parts of
themselves, project them onto
another object and finally introject
them back into themselves in a
changed or distorted form.
D. Internalizations

* Person takes in (introjects) aspects of

the external world and then
organizes those introjections into a
psychologically meaningful
framework;
1. Ego
2. Superego
3. Oedipus complex
1. Ego

* one’s sense of self;

* reaches maturity at a much earlier
stage than Freud had assumed;
* is mostly unorganized at birth;
* is strong enough to feel anxiety, to use
defense mechanisms and to form early
object relations in both fantasy and reality;
* evolves with the infant’s first experience
with feeding.
2. Superego

* emerges much earlier in life;

* is not an outgrowth of the Oedipus
complex;
* is much more harsh and cruel.
 Freud vs. Klein’s Oedipus Complex

FREUD KLEIN
begins during the earliest positive feelings toward
months of life both parents during the
oedipal years
overlaps with the oral and establish positive attitude
anal stages with the good gratifying
object and avoid the bad
object.
reaches its climax during
the genital stage
Psychoanalytic Social Theory
(Karen D. Horney)
Outline:
* Basic Hostility
* Basic Anxiety
* Reactive Hostility
* 4 ways of protecting one’s self
* 10 categories of neurotic needs
* neurotic trends ( attitudes)
* Intrapsychic conflicts
 *If the parents do not satisfy the child’s
needs for safety and satisfaction, the child
develops feelings of basic hostility.
* Repressed hostility leads to basic anxiety
– profound feelings of insecurity and a
vague sense of apprehension.
* Children who feel threatened by their
parents develop reactive hostility in
defense of that threat.
Basic Assumptions
1. Social and cultural conditions are largely
responsible for shaping personality.
2. Man is ruled by 2 guiding principles:
safety and satisfaction.
3. Competitiveness and basic hostility
brings about feelings of isolation which
in turn leads to needs for affection.
4. Normal people will spontaneously move in
any of the 3 directions while neurotics will
compulsively stick to 1 direction.
Basic Anxiety

* a feeling of being isolated and helpless

in a world conceived as potentially
hostile;
* is the nutritive soil out of which a definite
neurosis may develop at any time;
* is constant and unrelenting;
* permeates all relationships with others and
leads to unhealthy ways of trying to
cope with people.
 4 ways of protecting one’s self
1. Affection – purchase love with self-effacing
compliance, material goods or sexual
favors;
2. Submissiveness – submitting one’s self in order
to gain affection;
3. Power, prestige or possession – tendency to
dominate others, to humiliate or deprive
others;
4. Withdrawal – developing an independence from
others by becoming emotionally
detached.
Neurotic trends (attitudes)

1. Moving toward people

2. Moving against people
3. Moving away from people
Moving toward People

* A neurotic need to protect oneself

against feelings of helplessness;
* Desperately strive for affection and
approval of others or they seek a
powerful partner who will take
responsibility for their lives;
* also referred to as morbid dependency
or codependency.
Moving against People

* Appears to be tough and ruthless;

* Are motivated by a strong need to exploit
others and use them for their own
benefit;
* Seldom admit their mistakes and are
compulsively driven to appear perfect,
powerful and superior.
* Include the need to receive recognition,
prestige, admiration and achievement.
Moving away from People

* An expression of needs for privacy,

independence and self-sufficiency;
* Becomes neurotic when people try to
satisfy them by compulsively
putting emotional distance
between themselves and other people.
 Intrapsychic Conflicts

I. Idealized self-image
A. Neurotic search for glory
A.1. need for perfection
A.2. neurotic ambition
A.3. drive toward vindictive
triumph
B. Neurotic claims
C. Neurotic pride
II. Self- hatred
I. Idealized self-image

* response to the need to acquire a

stable sense of identity brought about
by feelings of alienation, isolation and
inferiority;

* 3 aspects of the idealized self-image:

A. neurotic search for glory
B. neurotic claims
C. neurotic pride
A. Neurotic Search for Glory
* A comprehensive drive toward
actualizing the ideal self by
incorporating everything into all
aspects of their lives;
* Includes 3 other elements:
A.1. need for perfection
A.2. neurotic ambition
A.3. drive toward a vindictive
triumph
A.1. Need for Perfection

* refers to the drive to mold the whole

personality into the idealized self;
* Achieve perfection by erecting a
complex set of “shoulds” and
“ should nots”;
* also referred to as the tyranny of the
should.
A.2. Neurotic Ambition
* Compulsive drive toward superiority.

A.3. Drive toward a Vindictive Triumph

* chief aim: to put others to shame or
defeat them through one’s very
success.
B. Neurotic Claims
* Proclaim that they are special and
therefore entitled to be treated in
accordance with their idealized view of
themselves.
C. Neurotic Pride
* A false pride based on a spurious image of
the idealized self;
* Is usually loudly proclaimed in order to
protect and support a glorified view of
one’s self.
II. Self –Hatred

*When they realize that their real self

does not match the insatiable
demands of their idealized self, they
begin to hate and despise themselves;
* Is expressed in 6 major ways.
1. Relentless demands on the self
2. Merciless self – accusation
3. Self-contempt
4. Self-frustration
5. Self – torment or self – torture
6. Self-destructive actions and impulses
 Interpersonal Theory
(Harry Stack Sullivan)
Outline:
1. Personality
2. Tension
3. Energy transformation
4. Dynamism
5. Self-system
6. Security Operations
7. Personification
8. Levels of Cognition
9. Stages of Development
1. Personality
- a system with energy that can exist as
either:
2. Tension (potentiality for action)
3. Actions (energy transformations)
2. Tension
- is a potentiality for action that may or
may not be experienced in awareness;
- two types:
2.1. needs – usually results in
productive actions;
2.2. anxiety – leads to nonproductive
or disintegrative behaviors.
2.1. Needs

- are tensions brought on by biological

imbalance between a person and the
physiochemical environment, both inside
and outside the organism;
- are episodic
- 2 types:
2.1.1. general – concerned with the
overall well being of the person;
2.1.2. zonal – arises from a particular
area of the body.
2.2. Anxiety
- is disjunctive, more diffuse, vague and
has no consistent actions for its
relief;
- is transferred through the process of
empathy;
- is the chief disruptive force blocking
the development of healthy
interpersonal relations;
 - produces behaviors that:
1. prevent people from learning
from their mistakes;
2. keep people pursuing a childish
wish for security;
3. generally ensure that people will
not learn from their
experiences.
 Anxiety vs. Fear
Anxiety Fear
1. stems from complex 1. is more clearly
interpersonal discerned and
situations and is its origins more
only vaguely represented easily pinpointed.
in awareness;
2. does not lead to 2. leads to profitable
profitable actions; actions.
3. blocks the satisfaction 3. sometimes helps
of needs; people satisfy certain
needs.
3. Energy transformation

- are tensions transformed into actions,

either overt or covert.

4. Dynamism
- similar to traits or habit patterns;
- are behavior patterns that characterize
a person throughout a lifetime.
 - are of 2 major classes:

1. those related to specific zones of the

body;
2. those related to tensions and has 3
categories:
2.1. disjunctive (malevolence)
2.2. isolating (lust)
2.3. conjunctive (intimacy)
2.1. Disjunctive dynamism
- include those destructive patterns of
behavior that are related to the
concept of malevolence;
2.2. Isolating dynamism
- include those behavior patterns (lust)
that are unrelated to interpersonal
relations;
2.3. Conjunctive dynamism
- include beneficial behavior patterns
such as intimacy and self-system.
Malevolence

- is the disjunctive dynamism of evil and

hatred characterized by the feeling living
among one’s enemies;
- originates around ages 2 or 3 years when
children’s actions that earlier had
brought about maternal tenderness are
rebuffed, ignored or met with anxiety and
pain;
- takes the form of timidity, mischievousness,
cruelty or other kinds of asocial or
antisocial behavior.
Lust

- is an isolating tendency, requiring no

other person for its satisfaction;
- manifests itself as autoerotic behavior
even when another is the object of
one’s lust.
Intimacy
- grows out of the earlier need for tenderness
but is more specific;
- involves a close interpersonal relationship
between two people who are more or
less of equal status;
- is an integrating dynamism that tends to
draw out loving reactions from the other
person thereby decreasing anxiety and
loneliness;
- is a rewarding experience that most healthy
people desire.
5. Self-system
- a consistent pattern of behaviors that
maintains people’s interpersonal
security by protecting them from
anxiety;
- primary task is to protect people
against anxiety with the help of the
security operations.
6. Security operations
- objective is to reduce feelings of
insecurity or anxiety;
- two types:
6.1. dissociation – includes those
impulses, drives and needs that
a person refuses to allow into
awareness;
6.2. selective inattention – is a
refusal to see those things that
we do not wish to see.
7. Personification
- are acquired images of one’s self and others;
- may be relatively accurate or grossly
distorted;
- 3 basic types:
1. Bad-mother
2. Good-mother
3. Me personification
3.1. bad me
3.2. good me
3.3. not me
4. Eidetic personificaiton
8. Levels of Cognition
- refer to ways of perceiving, imagining
and conceiving;
- 3 types:
1. Prototaxic – are impossible to
communicate;
2. Parataxic – are personal, prelogical and
communicated only in
distorted form;
3. Syntaxic – is meaningful interpersonal
communication.
9. Stages of Development

1. Infancy
2. Childhood
3. Juvenile Era
4. Preadolescence
5. Early adolescence
6. late Adolescence
Psychosocial Theory of
Development
(Erik Erikson)
Outline

I. Terms to be Defined
II. Basic Assumptions
III. Most Significant Contributions
IV. Significant Books
V. Basic Concepts
I. Terms to be Defined

1. Ritualizations
> are playful and yet culturally patterned
ways of doing or experiencing
something in the daily interplay of
individuals.

2. Ritualisms
> rigid and perverted ritualizations.
II. Basic Assumptions

1. Epigenetic principle

> anything that grows has a ground plan

and out of this ground plan the
part arise, each part having its time of
special ascendancy, until all parts
have arisen to form the functioning
whole (1968, p.92).
II. Basic Assumptions

2. Stage theory
> there are more or less clearly defined
ages at which new forms of
behavior appear in response to new
social and maturational influences.
 III. Most significant contributions

1. a psychosocial theory of development

from which emerges an expanded
conception of the ego;
2. psychohistorical studies that exemplify his
psychosocial theory in the lives of
famous individuals.
 IV. Significant books

1. Childhood and Society

2. Identity: Youth and Crisis
3. Insight and Responsibility
4. Toys and Reasons
A. Psychosexual stages and modes
B. Psychosocial crises
C. Radius of significant relations
D. Basic strengths
E. Core-pathology/basic antipathies
F. Related principles of social order
G. Binding ritualizations
H. Ritualism
Parameters Infancy Early Childhood

1.Psychosexual Oral-respiratory, Anal-urethral, muscular

stage/mode sensory-kinesthetic (retentive- eliminative)
(incorporative modes)

2. Psychosocial crises basic trust vs. basic Autonomy vs. shame and
mistrust doubt
3. Radius of significant maternal person parental persons
relations
4. Basic strengths hope will
5. Core- pathology/ withdrawal compulsion
basic antipathies
6. Related principles of cosmic order law and order
social order
7. Binding ritualizations numinous judicious
8. Ritualism idolism legalism
Parameters Play Age School Age

1.Psychosexual Infantile-genital, latency

stage/mode locomotor
(intrusive, inclusive)
2. Psychosocial crises initiative vs. guilt industry vs. inferiority

3. Radius of significant basic family neighborhood, school

relations
4. Basic strengths purpose competence
5. Core- pathology/ inhibition inertia
basic antipathies
6. Related principles of ideal prototypes technological order
social order
7. Binding ritualizations dramatic formal (technical)
8. Ritualism moralism formalism
Parameters Adolescence Young Adulthood

1.Psychosexual puberty genitality

stage/mode
2. Psychosocial crises identity vs. identity intimacy vs. isolation
confusion
3. Radius of significant peer groups and partners in friendship,
relations outgroups; models of sex, competition,
leadership cooperation

4. Basic strengths fidelity love

5. Core- pathology/ repudiation exclusivity
basic antipathies
6. Related principles of ideological worldview patterns of cooperation
social order and competition
7. Binding ritualizations ideological affiliative
8. Ritualism totalism elitism
Parameters Adulthood Old Age

1.Psychosexual procreativity generalization of sensual

stage/mode modes
2. Psychosocial crises generativity vs. integrity vs. despair
stagnation
3. Radius of significant divided labor and share mankind; my kind
relations household

4. Basic strengths care wisdom

5. Core- pathology/ rejectivity disdain
basic antipathies
6. Related principles of currents of education and wisdom
social order tradition
7. Binding ritualizations generational philosophical
8. Ritualism authoritism dogmatism
Humanistic Psychoanalysis
(Erich Fromm)
Biography:
Date of Birth: March 23, 1900
Place of Birth: Frankfurt, Germany
Parents:
Naphtali Fromm
Rosa Krause Fromm
Wife:
Frieda Reichmann
Humanistic Psychoanalysis

Assumes that humanity’s separation

from the natural world has produced
feelings of loneliness and isolation, a
condition known as basic anxiety.
Factors that Influenced Fromm’s Theory

1. Early experiences with the Talmudic

scholar;
2. Distaste for war;
3. Puzzlement over the suicide of a young
female artist.
Personality

totality of inherited and acquired

psychologic qualities which are
characteristic of one individual and
which makes the individual unique.
Basic Assumptions:

1. Human Dilemma

Humans have the ability to reason but

lack powerful instincts needed to adapt
to a changing world.
2. Existential Dichotomies
a. Self-awareness and reason tell us that
we will die but we try to negate this
dichotomy by postulating life after death.
b. Humans are capable of
conceptualizing the goal of complete
self-realization but we are also aware that
life is too short to reach that goal.
c. People are ultimately alone, yet we cannot
tolerate isolation.
Fromm’s Basic Concepts

A. Human Needs
B. Mechanism of Escape
C. Character Orientation
D. Personality Disorders
A. Human Needs/Existential Needs
*emerged during the evolution of human
culture in an attempt to explain
one’s existence;
* 5 kinds:
1. relatedness
2. transcendence
3. rootedness
4. sense of identity
5. frame of orientation
1. Relatedness
*drive for union with another person
or other persons;
* 3 basic ways:
a. submission
b. power
c. love
2. Transcendence
* the urge to rise above a passive and
accidental existence into the realm of
purposefulness and freedom;
* can be pursued by either creating life or
destroying it;
* to create means to be active and to care
about that which we create;
* malignant aggression - to kill for reasons
other than survival.
3. Rootedness

* the need to establish roots or to feel at

home again in the world;
* fixation – a tenacious reluctance to
move beyond the productive
security provided by one’s mother.
4. Sense of Identity
* the capacity to be aware of ourselves
as separate entities.

5. Frame of Orientation
* a road map enabling people to
organize the various stimuli that
impinge on them.
B. Mechanisms of Escape
* are techniques/mechanisms used in an
attempt to flee from the freedom
that is producing a frightening sense
of isolation and aloneness;

* 3 primary mechanism:
1. Authoritarianism
2. Destructiveness
3. Conformity
1. Authoritarianism

* tendency to give up the independence

of one’s own individual self and to
fuse one’s self with somebody or
something outside oneself in order to
acquire the strength which the
individual is lacking
2 forms:

a. Masochism
> results from basic feelings of
powerlessness, weakness and
inferiority;
> is aimed at joining the self to a
more powerful person or
institution;
 b. Sadism

> is more neurotic and more

socially harmful;
> is aimed at reducing basic
anxiety through achieving unity
with another person/s;
 > 3 kinds:
1. the need to make others dependent on
oneself and to gain power over
those who are weak;
2. the compulsion to exploit others for
one’s benefit/ pleasure;
3. the desire to see others suffer.
2. Destructiveness

> is rooted in the feelings of aloneness,

isolation and powerlessness;
> seeks to do away with other people;
> restores lost feelings of power by
destroying people and objects
(perverted isolation);
3. Conformity (automaton conformity)

> giving up one’s individuality and

becoming whatever other people
desire them to be;
> seldom express their own opinion,
cling to expected standards of
behavior and often appear stiff and
automated.
C. Character Orientation

* Character
> the most important of the
acquired qualities, it is the
relatively permanent system of all
non-instinctual strivings
through which man relates himself to
the human and natural world;
* Productive Orientation

> has 3 dimensions: working, love and

reasoning;
> work is valued as a means of creative
self-expression;
> productive love is characterized by 4
qualities: care, responsibility, respect and
knowledge;
> productive thinking is motivated by a
concerned interest in another person or
object.
2 ways of relating to the world

1. assimilation
> acquiring and using things;
2. socialization
> relating to self and others;
*Non-productive Orientation

1. Receptive
2. Exploitative
3. Hoarding
4. Marketing
1. Receptive Character

> feels that the source of all good lies

outside themselves;
> the only way they can relate to the world is
to receive things, love, knowledge, etc.
> are more concerned with receiving than with
giving;
> negative qualities: passivity, submissiveness
and lack of self-confidence;
> positive traits: loyalty, acceptance and trust.
2. Exploitative Character

> believe that the source of all good is outside

and they aggressively take what they
desire;
> are likely to use cunning or force;
> prefer to steal or plagiarize rather than
create;
> negative qualities: egocentric, conceited,
arrogant and seducing;
> positive traits: impulsive, proud, charming
and self-confident.
3. Hoarding

> seek to save that which they have already

obtained;
> tend to live in the past and are repelled by
anything new;
> are excessively orderly, stubborn and
miserly;
> negative qualities: rigidity, sterility,
obstinacy, compulsivity, lack of
creativity;
> positive traits: orderliness, cleanliness and
punctuality.
4. Marketing

> see themselves as commodities with their

personal value dependent on their ability to sell
themselves;
> must see themselves in constant demand;
> must make others believe that they are
skillful and salable:
> negative qualities: aimless, opportunistic,
inconsistent, wasteful;
> positive traits: changeability,
open-mindedness, adaptability, generosity.
Self Psychology
(Heinz Kohut)
Major Theoretical Works:

1. The Analysis of the Self

2. The Restoration of the Self
3. How Does Analysis Cure
4. Self-Psychology and the Humanities
 Freud’s Libido Theory
Source Sexual and aggressive instincts
Pathological Frustration and repression of
behavior sexual and aggressive instincts
Kohut’s Self Psychology
People’s basic need for human
relatedness
Threats and damage to the self
 Concepts and Principles

1. Self Psychology
2. Internal objects
3. Nuclear Self
4. Primary Narcissism
5. Grandiose Self
6. Optimal Frustration
7. Transmuting Internalization
8. Disturbances to the Self
9. Typology for Narcissistic and Behavior
Disorders
1. Self Psychology

*focuses primarily on:

a. understanding and
explaining the development of the self
and
b. its impact on the person’s
mental health
c. within a context of human
interaction.
2. Internal Objects

* are other people;

* are mental representations of people or
things that exist within the self;
* are called self-objects because the
individual experiences them as an
integral part of the self;
* generally denote psychologically
important people who support the
cohesion of the self.
3. Nuclear Self

* is developed through a positive

interactive process between the
child and the parents within the
first 2-3 years of life;
4. Primary Narcissism

* a state of self-love that is perfect and

blissful;

5. Grandiose Self

*involves the unconscious belief of the

child that he or she is great and
perfect.
6. Optimal Frustration

* mother handles the immature,

exhibitionistic needs of her child by
adopting a calming, soothing and
loving attitude as she makes clear the
unrealistic nature of the child’s
strivings, rather than by acting
aggressively toward the child.
7. Transmuting internalization

*process whereby individuals learn

more realistic and effective ways of
thinking, feeling and behaving as a
consequence of interactions with
empathic parents.
8. Disturbances to the Self
* when the nuclear self is in a state of
functional chaos;
* subgroups:
8.1. Psychosis
8.2. Borderline states
8.3. Narcissistic Personality
Disorders
8.4. Narcissistic Behavior
Disorders
8.1. Psychosis

a pathological state brought about by

serious permanent damage to the self in
the absence of defense mechanisms that
can effectively cover the defects.
8.2. Borderline States
* are psychotic-like conditions that
typically do not collapse into the
mass deterioration of a psychosis
because the individual employs
various protective defenses.
* subgroups:
A. schizoid personality disorders
B. paranoid personality disorders
A. Schizoid Personality Disorder
* achieves emotional distance from others by
showing emotional coldness and flatness;
* protects themselves from serious breakup or
distortion of self;
* appears to lack a desire for intimacy;
* seems indifferent to opportunities to develop close
relationships;
* does not derive much satisfaction from being part of
a family or other social group;
* prefers being alone and engage most often in
solitary activities or hobbies.
B. Paranoid Personality Disorders
* distances themselves from others by
being hostile and suspicious;
* assumes that other people will exploit,
harm or deceive them;
* reluctant to confide in others or to
become close to them -- fear that any
information they share will be used
against them;
* reads hidden meanings that are
demeaning and threatening.
8.3.Narcissistic Personality Disorder

*individuals with:

a. grandiose styles of
thinking,
b. hypersensitivity to criticism and
c. overreactions to failure that
interfere with effective
interpersonal functioning
* 4 types:
1. understimulated self
2. fragmented self
3.overstimulated self
4. overburdened self
1. Understimulated Self
* results from prolonged lack of
stimulating responsiveness on the part of
the parents;
* experience themselves as:
* boring
* apathetic
* resorts to any kind of stimulation in
their attempts to ward off feelings
of lethargy and deadness.
2. Fragmented Self

* results from a lack of parental

responsiveness;
* inability to respond adequately may
focus on a single aspect of the
child’s total self.
3. Overstimulated Self

*results from excessive responsiveness

to the child’s grandiose and idealizing
needs;
* grandiose fantasies of greatness and
unrealistic goals are constantly
reinforced by parents;
* child moves into adulthood with only a
weak separation between the fantasy
selves and the realistic, but weak, nuclear
self.
4. Overburdened Self

* results from the child’s lack of an

opportunity to merge with the calmness of
omnipotent self-objects (parents);
* views the world as hostile and dangerous;
* quickly responds with irritability and `
hostility to even minor frustrations;
* reactions rapidly subside once the frustrating
event has passed.
8.4. Narcissistic Behavior Disorder

* individuals who act out their grandiose

fantasies by engaging in perversions and
delinquent behavior

* 5 types:
1. Mirror-hungry personalities
2. Ideal-hungry personalities
3. Alter-ego-hungry personalities
4. Merger-hungry personalities
5. Contact-shunning personalities
1. Mirror-hungry personalities
* continually searching for self-
objects who will admire and nurture
their famished selves;
* raised in families where the parents gave
them insufficient mirroring
attention;
* impelled to display themselves, to show
off, to evoke the attention of others as
a means of counteracting their own lack
of self-esteem.
2. Ideal-hungry personalities
* as a child, needs to idealize and
admire various self-objects were
frustrated;
* continually in search for others
whom they can admire for their
intelligence, power, beauty or moral
stature;
* experience themselves as worthwhile only
for as long as they can continue their
admiration of these idealized figures.
3. Alter-ego hungry personalities

* can only experience themselves as real

and worthwhile when they are in
relationships with self-objects who will
conform to their opinions, beliefs,
values and behavior.
* probably stems from severe frustration
of their mirroring and idealizing
needs during early childhood.
4. Merger-hungry personalities

* have self structures that are seriously

defective;
* continue to seek primitive self-objects
to fulfill their desperate need for
self structure;
* feel intolerant of the actual idealized
figure’s independence.
5. Contact-shunning personalities

* tremendous yearning for an all-

encompassing union with idealized figures;

* avoids social contact and become isolated;

* avoids others because their need for them is
so great;
* fears rejection by the adored figures;
* apprehension that their weakened self
structure would be completely
swallowed up by these figures if their
union occurred.
Self-Actualization Theory
(Abraham Maslow)
Sets of Needs

1. Basic/deficiency needs

2. Growth/meta needs
1. Basic/deficiency needs

A. Physiological needs
B. Safety needs
C. Belongingness and love needs
D. Esteem needs
D-love:
a selfish love wherein the individual is
more concerned with receiving
love and gratifying his/her needs than
with giving love to another;

B-love:
a mature form of love wherein the
person is more concerned with
giving love to benefit others than in
receiving love from others.
Esteem needs

1. respect for our own competence,

independence and
accomplishment;

2. others’ evaluation.
2. Growth/meta needs

* Jonah Complex

* Desacralizing attitude

* Peak Experience
Jonah’s complex

Fear that exercising our abilities to the

maximum will bring with it
responsibilities and duties we will be
unable to handle;
Desacralizing attitude

tendency to be disrespectful, cynical and

mistrustful causing the person to
overlook the virtues and strengths of
the perceived;
Peak Experience

Intense, mythical experience

wherein an individual exists in a
temporary state of joy and
wonderment.
* Expressive behavior

* Coping behavior
Person-Centered Theory
(Carl Rogers)
Outline:
I. Biography
II. Basic Assumptions
III. Basic Concepts
IV. Barriers to Psychological
Health
1. Conditions of Worth
2. Incongruence
a. vulnerability
b. anxiety and threat
3. Defensiveness
a. Distortion
b. denial
4. Disorganization
I. Biography

Born on: January 08, 1902

Died on: February 04, 1987
Parents: Julia Cushing Rogers
Walter Rogers
Wife : Helen Elliott
Children : David Rogers
Natalie Rogers
II. Basic Assumptions

1. Formative Tendency

2. Actualizing Tendency

a. Need for maintenance

b. Need for enhancement
Basic Assumptions...

1. Formative Tendency
> tendency for all matter, both organic and
inorganic, to evolve from simpler to
more complex forms;
Basic Assumptions...

2. Actualizing Tendency
> tendency within all humans to move
toward completion or fulfilment of
potentials;
> the only motive people possess.
> the whole person’s conscious and
unconscious physiological and
cognitive self;
> refers to organismic experiences of the
individual.
Basic Assumptions...

a. Need for maintenance

> similar to Maslow’s basic needs;
> includes the tendency to resist
change and to seek the status quo;
b. Need for enhancement
> need to become more, to develop and to
achieve growth;
> expressed in a variety of forms
( curiosity, playfulness, etc) to
achieve psychological growth.
* Conditions necessary for
Actualization Tendency

1. authentic or congruent partner

2. empathy
3. unconditional positive regard
III. Basic Concepts
> Self actualization
1. Self concept
2. Ideal Self
> Awareness
* Levels of awareness
> Becoming a Person
* Positive regard
* Positive self-regard
> Self – Actualization

> tendency to actualize self as perceived in

awareness;
> desire of the perceived self to reach
fulfilment.
* Subsystems
1. Self – concept
> includes all those aspects of one’s
being and one’s experiences that are
perceived in awareness by the individual.
2. Ideal self
> one’s view of self as one wishes to
be;
> contains all those attributes usually
positive, that people aspire to possess.
> Awareness

> symbolic representation of some portion

of our experience;
> synonymous with consciousness and
symbolization;
* Levels of Awareness

1. Events experienced below the threshold

of awareness and are either ignored or
denied.
2. Experiences accurately symbolized and
freely admitted to the self-structure.
3. Experiences perceived in a distorted
form.
> Becoming a Person
* positive regard
the need to be loved, liked or
accepted by another person;
* positive self-regard
experiences of prizing or valuing
one’s self;
*The source of positive self-regard lies in the
positive regard we receive from others, but
once established, it is autonomous and
self-perpetuating.
IV. Barriers to Psychological Health

1. Conditions of Worth
2. Incongruence
3. Defensiveness
4. Disorganization
1. Conditions of Worth

> parents, peers or partners love and accept

us only if we meet their expectations
and approval;
> external evaluations are our perceptions
of other people’s view of us.
2. Incongruence

> is the source of psychological disorders;

> results when there is psychological

disequilibrium between organismic
experiences ( actualization) and self-
experiences (self-concept).
a. Vulnerability
People are vulnerable when they
are unaware of the discrepancy between
their organismic self and their
self-experiences.

b. Anxiety and Threat

Anxiety
> a state of uneasiness or tension
whose cause is unknown;
Threat
> awareness that our self is no longer
whole or congruent.
3. Defensiveness

> objective: to keep our perception of our

organismic experiences consistent with
our self-concept;
> how: by distortion or denial of
experiences inconsistent with it;
> 2 chief defenses:
a. distortion
b. denial
a. Distortion
> misinterpret an experience in order to fit
it into some aspect of our self-
concept;
b. Denial
> refuse to perceive an experience in
awareness or at least keep some aspect
of it from reaching symbolization.
4. Disorganization

> disorganized or psychotic behaviour

results when:

a. There is a discrepancy between people’s

organismic experiences and their
view of self; and
b. Defenses fail to function.
EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY
(ROLLO MAY)
Outline

I. Biography
II. Existentialism
III. Basic Assumptions
IV. Basic Concepts
V. Personality Development
I. Biography

Born on: April 21, 1909

Died on: October 22, 1994
Parents : Mattie Boughton
Earl Tittle May
Wives : Florence DeFrees
Ingrid Kepler Scholl
Georgia Lee Miller Johnson
Children: Robert, Allegra & Carolyn
II. Existentialism

> the endeavor to understand man by

cutting below the cleavage
between subject and object which has
bedeviled Western thought and science
since shortly after the
Renaissance (Ryckman, p. 478).
III. Basic Assumptions

1. Existence takes precedence over essence.

2. Existentialism opposes the split between
subject and object.
3. People search for some meaning to their
lives.
4. Existentialists hold that ultimately each of
us is responsible for who we are and
what we become.
5. Existentialists are basically antitheoretical.
Difference between Existence and Essence

Existence Essence
1. To emerge or to 1. Static immutable
become substance

2. Suggest process 2. Refers to a product

3. Associated with 3. Signifies stagnation

growth and change and finality
IV. Basic Concepts
1. Being in the world vs. nonbeing
2. Anxiety
2.1. normal anxiety
2.2. neurotic anxiety
3. Guilt
4. Intentionality
5. Care, love and will
5.1. union of love and will
5.2. forms of love
6. Freedom and destiny
1. Being-in-the-World

* Dasein:
to exist in the world
unity of self and world
*3 modes of Dasein:
1. Umwelt: environment around us
2. Mitwelt: our relations with other
people
3. Eigenwelt: our relationship with our
self
 Healthy people live in umwelt, mitwelt and
eigenwelt simultaneously;

Unhealthy people suffer from isolation and

alienation and manifest this in 3 areas:
1. separation from nature
2. lack of meaningful interpersonal relations
3. alienation from one’s authentic self.
2. Anxiety

* the subjective state of the individual’s

becoming aware that his/her
existence can be destroyed, that he can
become nothing;
* a threat to some important value;
* is the “dizziness of freedom”.
2.1. Normal Anxiety (constructive anxiety)

* that which is proportionate to the

threat, does not involve repression and
can be confronted constructively
on the conscious level;
* is felt whenever values are threatened;
2.2. Neurotic Anxiety (sick anxiety)
* reaction which is:
a. disproportionate to the
threat,
b. involves repression and other
forms of intrapsychic conflict, and
c. is managed by various kinds of
blocking-off of activity and
awareness;
* is experienced whenever values become
transferred into dogma.
3. Guilt

* arises when people deny their potentialities;

* fail to accurately perceive the needs of
fellow humans; or
* remain oblivious to their dependence on the
natural world;
* is used in reference to the nature of one’s
being;
* arises from a lack of awareness of one’s
dasein;
* Three forms of Guilt:
3.1. Separation guilt (umwelt):
people’s undiscerning reliance on
others for the satisfaction of their
needs;
3.2. Inability to perceive accurately the
world of others (mitwelt);
3.3. Denial of our own potentialities or with
our failure to fulfill them
(eigenwelt/jonah complex).
*Normal Guilt

> develop a healthy sense of humility;

> improve our relations with others;
> creatively use our potentialities.
* Neurotic Guilt
> leads to nonproductive or neurotic
symptoms such as sexual
impatience, depression, cruelty to others
or inability to make choices.
4. Intentionality

* structure that gives meaning to

experience and allows people to
make decisions about the future;
* implies action and vice versa;
* makes it possible for us to see and
understand the outside world;
* partially bridges the gap between
subject and object.
5. Care

* active process;
* opposite of apathy;
* state in which something does matter;
* manifested by recognizing the other
person as a fellow human being;
* is the source of love and will.
5. Will

* capacity to organize one’s self so

that movement in a certain
direction or toward a certain goal may
take place;
* when seen as will power, it becomes
self-serving and lacking in
passion;
* there is no care, only manipulation.
5. Love

* a delight in the presence of the other

person and an affirming of that
person’s value and development as
much as one’s own;
* when seen as sex, it becomes
temporary and lacking in
commitment;
* there is no will, only wish.
* Forms of Love

5.1. Sex
5.2. Eros
5.3. Philia
5.4. Agape
5.1. Sex

* biological function that can be satisfied

through sexual intercourse or some
other release of sexual tension;
* power of procreation;
* drive which perpetuates the race;
* source at once of the human being’s most
intense pleasure and his most pervasive
anxiety;
* physiological need that seeks gratification
through the release of tension;
5. 2. Eros

* psychological desire that seeks

procreation or creation through an
enduring union with a loved one;
* the wish to establish a lasting union;
* forever transcending all techniques;
* built on care and tenderness;
* can be regarded as the salvation of sex;
* built on the foundation of philia.
5.3. Philia
* intimate nonsexual friendship between
2 people;
* takes time to grow, to develop, to sink its
roots;
* does not require us to do anything for the
beloved except to accept him, be with
him and enjoy him;
* friendship in the simplest, most direct
terms;
* necessary requisite for healthy erotic
relationships during early and late
adolescence;
* makes eros possible and needs agape.
5.4. Agape

* esteem for the other, the concern for

the other’s welfare;
* love of God for man;
* altruistic love;
* a kind of spiritual love that carries
with it the risk of playing God;
* does not depend on any behaviors or
characteristic of the other person.
6. Freedom and Destiny

* individual’s capacity to know that he is

the determined one;
* comes from an understanding of our destiny;
* flexible, ready to change for the sake of
greater human values;
* entails being able to harbor different
possibilities in one’s mind even though it is
not clear at the moment which way one must
act;
* openness, a readiness to grow.
* Forms of Freedom

1. Existential freedom

2. Essential freedom
1. Existential Freedom

> freedom of action;

> freedom of doing;
> freedom to act on the choices that one
makes.
2. Essential Freedom
> freedom of being;
> Destiny

> the design of the universe speaking

through the design of each one of
us;
> can choose how we shall respond, how
we shall live out our talents which
confront us.
* Stages of Consciousness

1. Innocence (infancy)
2. Rebellion ( childhood/adolescence)
3. Ordinary consciousness of self
4. Creative consciousness of self
1. Innocence (infancy)

> has no consciousness of self;

2. Rebellion (childhood/adolescence)

> seek to establish our inner strength;

> is defiance, an active rejection of
parental and societal rules;
> is automatic, rigid and reflexive.
3. Ordinary Consciousness of Self

> understanding some of our errors;

> recognizing some of our prejudices;
> learning from our mistakes; and
> assuming responsibility for our
actions.
4. Creative Consciousness of Self

> signifies maturity;

> are able to see the truth without
distortion;
> Maslow’s peak experiences.
 PSYCHOLOGY of
PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS
(George Kelly)
Outline

I. Biography
II. Definition of Terms
III. Personal constructs
* basic postulate
* supporting corollaries
IV. Human Disturbance
I. Biography

Born on: April 28, 1905

Died on: March 06, 1967
Parents: Elfleda M. Kelly
Theodore V. Kelly
Wife : Gladys Thompson
II. Definition of Terms
1. Constructive Alternativism

> The piece-by-piece accumulation of facts

does not add up to truth; it assumes that facts
can be looked at from different
perspectives.

2. Personal Constructs
> are ways of construing the world;
> are what enables people to chart a
course of behaviour.
3. Role
> pattern of behavior that results from a
person’s understanding of the constructs of
others with whom that person is engaged
in a task.
4. Core role
> we define ourselves in terms of who we
really are ( sense of identity).
5. Disorder

> any personal construction which is used

repeatedly inspite of consistent
invalidation.
6. Threat
> the awareness of imminent comprehensive
change in one’s core structures.
7. Fear
> is more specific and incidental.
8. Anxiety
> the recognition that the events with
which one is confronted lie outside the range
of convenience of one’s construct system.
9. Guilt
> the sense of having lost one’s core role
structure.
Basic Postulate

> A person’s processes are psychologically

channelized by the ways in which that
person anticipates events.
Supporting Corollaries

1. Construction corollary
2. Individuality corollary
3. Organization corollary
4. Dichotomy corollary
5. Choice corollary
6. Range corollary
7. Experience corollary
8. Modulation corollary
9. Fragmentation corollary
10. Commonality corollary
11. Sociality corollary
1. Construction corollary

> Similarities among events

> A person anticipates events by
constructing their replication
> people see similarities among events and
use a single concept to describe the
common properties.
2. Individuality corollary

> Differences among people

> Persons differ from each other in
their construction of events
> Substance and form of constructs made
may be different.
3. Organization corollary
> Relationships among constructs
> People characteristically evolve for
convenience in anticipating events, a
construction system embracing ordinal
relationships between constructs
> emphasizes that different people organize
similar events in a manner that
minimizes incompatibilities and
inconsistencies.
4. Dichotomy corollary

> Dichotomy of constructs

> A person’s construction system is
composed of a finite number of
dichotomous constructs
> a construct is an either-or proposition
> in its minimum context a construct is a
way in which at least two elements are
similar and contrast with a third.
5.Choice corollary
> Choice between dichotomies
> People choose for themselves that
alternative in a dichotomized construct
through which they anticipate the greater
possibility for extension and definition of
future constructs
> people choose those actions that are most
likely to extend their future range of
choices.
6.Range corollary

> Range of convenience

> A construct is convenient for the
anticipation of a finite range of events only
> concept includes all elements having a
common property and excludes those that
do not have that property.
7.Experience corollary

> Experience and learning

> A person’s construction system varies as
he/she successively construes the
replication of events
> experience consists of the successive
construing of events
> events themselves do not constitute
experience – it is the meaning we attach
to them that changes our lives.
8.Modulation corollary

> Adaptation to experience

> The variation in a person’s construction
system is limited by the permeability
of the constructs within whose range of
convenience the variants lie
> the extent to which people revise their
constructs is related to the degree of
permeability of their existing
constructs.
9. Fragmentation corollary

> Incompatible constructs

> A person may successively employ a
variety of constructive subsystems which
are inferentially incompatible with each
other.
10.Commonality corollary

> Similarities among people

> To the extent that one person employs a
construction of experience which is similar
to that employed by another, processes are
psychologically similar to those of the other
person
> similar to Bandura’s collective efficacy
> it is the individual, not society, who has
varying levels of high or low collective
efficacy.
11.Sociality corollary

> Social processes

> To the extent that people accurately
construe the belief system of others, they
may play a role in a social process
involving those other people
> role
> peripheral role
> core role
 Psychological disorders exist in the
present; they are caused neither by
childhood experiences nor by future events.
Four common elements in human disturbance

1. Threat
2. Fear
3. Anxiety
4. Guilt
1. Threat

> is experienced when people perceive that

the stability of their basic construct is
likely to be shaken;
> involves a comprehensive change in a
person’s core structures.
2. Fear

> demands an incidental restructuring;

> psychological disturbance results when
either threat or fear persistently
prevents a person from feeling secure.
3. Anxiety

> pathological anxiety exists when a

person’s incompatible constructs can no
longer be tolerated and the person’s
construction system breaks down.
4. Guilt

> people feel guilty when they behave in

ways that are inconsistent with their
sense of who they are.
Field Theory
(Kurt Lewin)
Outline

I. Biography
II. Definition of Terms
III. Structure of Personality
IV. Dynamics of Personality
I. Biography

* Born on: September 09, 1890

* Died on: February 12, 1947
* his theory is also sometimes referred to
as vector psychology.
 Principal characteristics of Field Theory
1. Behavior is a function of the field that
exists at the time the behavior occurs.
2. Analysis begins with the situation as a
whole from which the component parts
are differentiated.
3. The concrete person in a concrete
situation can be represented
mathematically.
II. Definition of Terms
1. Behavior
* is a function of the life space;
* B = f(L)

2. Field
* the totality of coexisting facts which are
conceived of as mutually
interdependent.
3. Life space
* contains the totality of possible facts that
are capable of determining the
behavior of an individual.

4. Locomotion
* movement that takes place when two
regions are closely connected,
accessible to one another and mutually
influential;
* takes place when force with sufficient
strength acts upon a person.
5. Needs
* principal facts of the inner-
personal region.
6. Permeability
* resistance of a boundary.
7. Process
* psychological means by which tension
becomes equalized.
8. Psychical energy
* kind of energy that performs
psychological work.
9. Quasi-need
* equivalent to a specific intention.
10. Tension
* state of the person; state of an inner-
personal region relative to other
inner-personal regions.
11. Valence
* conceptual property of a region of the
psychological environment.
III. Structure of Personality

1. Life space
2. Differentiation
3. Connections between Regions
4. Number of Regions
1. Life Space
n n
o o
n n
p p
s s
y y
c c
h E E
P h
o o
l l
o o
g g
i i
c c
a a
l (P + E = Life space, L) l
 * Whole of psychological reality

* Facts that exist in the region outside and

adjacent to the boundary of the life
space, known as the foreign hull of the life
space, can materially influence the
psychological environment
 * The boundary between the life space and
the outer world is endowed with the
property of permeability
* Environmental facts can influence the
person (P = f(E)
* Personal facts can influence the
environment (E = f(P)
* includes everything that has to be known
in order to understand the concrete
behavior of an individual human being in a
given psychological environment at a
given time
2. Differentiation

p
p
p
c p
p c c
c p
p Pc PPPPPP
c
c p
p
p p
Differentiation

* outer part represents the perceptual-

motor region (P-M), the central part
represents the inner-personal region
* cells adjacent to the perceptual-motor
region are called peripheral cells (p)
* cells in the center of the circle are called
central cells, (c)
3. Connections between Regions
* two regions are connected when the facts
of one region are accessible to the
facts of another region
* extent of influence or accessibility
between regions:
3.1. nearness-remoteness dimension
3.2. firmness-weakness dimension
3.3. fluidity-rigidity dimension
3.1. Nearness-remoteness dimension

* place the regions close together when the

influence of one upon the other is
great
* place them far apart when the influence
is weak
* influence decreases as the number of
intervening regions increases
3.2. Firmness-weakness dimension

* permeability of the boundary is

represented by the width of the
boundary line
* very thin line represents a weak
boundary
* very thick line represents an
impermeable boundary
3.3. Fluidity-rigidity dimension

* medium of a region is its floor or surface

quality
* fluid medium is one that responds
quickly to any influence that is
brought to bear upon it, is flexible and
pliant
* rigid medium resists change, is stiff and
inelastic
4. Number of Regions

* determined by the number of separate

psychological facts that exist at any given
moment of time
IV. Dynamics of Personality

1. Energy
2. Tension
3. Need
4. Valence
5. Force or vector
1. Energy

* Psychical energy is released when the

psychic system ( the person) attempts
to return to equilibrium after it has been
thrown into a state of disequilibrium.
* Disequilibrium is produced by an
increase of tension in one part of the
system relative to the rest of the
system.
2. Tension
* counterpart of Jung’s principle of
entropy;
* property of an inner-personal system
3. Need
* causes an increase of tension or the
release of energy in an inner-personal
region
* motivational concept equivalent to
motive, wish, drive and urge
4. Valence

* kinds of value: positive and negative

* region of positive value: contains a goal object
that will reduce tension when the person enters
the region
* positive valence attract, negative repel
* variable quantity: may be weak, medium or
strong depending upon the strength of the need
plus all of the nonpsychological factors
* not a force: does not supply the motive power
for the locomotion
5.Force or Vector

*exists in the psychological environment

*always drawn on the outside of a
person and never inside because
psychological forces are properties of the
environment
* need releases energy, increases tension,
imparts value and creates force
* Conceptual properties of force:
1. direction ( where the arrow is
pointing;
2. strength (length of the vector);
3. point of application (tip of the
arrow impinging upon the outer
boundary).
* Development is a continuous process and
therefore, it is difficult to recognize
discreet stages.
PERSONOLOGY
(Henry Murray)
Outline

I. Definition of Terms
II. Structure of Personality
III. Dynamics of Personality
IV. Development of Personality
Overview:

> A single segment of behavior is not to be

understood in isolation from the rest of the
functioning person;
> Environmental context of behavior must be
thoroughly understood and analyzed
before an adequate account of individual
behavior is possible;
> Emphasized the coexisting and functionally
linked physiological processes that
accompany all psychological processes.
I. Definition of Terms
1. Aim
* represents the specific goal adopted by
the person as an expression of the need;
* ex. Need for dominance: specific aim –
to be elected as mayor
2. Complex
* enduring integrate that determines
(unconsciously) the course of later
development
3. Fixation
* need is firmly attached to an unsuitable
object and is customarily considered
pathological
4. Fusion
* outcome of different needs is
behaviorally the same
5. Need
* construct representing a force which
organizes perception, apperception,
intellection, conation and action in such a
way as to transform in a certain
direction an existing, unsatisfying
situation
6. Need integrate
* a well-established thematic disposition –
a need for a certain kind of
interaction with a certain of person or
object.
7. Ordination
* higher mental process which includes
plan making and its outcome – an
established program or schedule
8.Personality

* series of events that ideally span the

person’s lifetime
* reflects the enduring, recurring, novel
and unique elements of behavior
* organizing or governing agent of
the individual
* No brains, no personality
9. Prepotency
* needs become prevailing with the
greatest urgency if they are not satisfied
* ex. Hunger vs. Sleep
10. Press
* property/attribute of an environmental
object/person that facilitates or
impedes the efforts of the individual to
reach a given goal
11. Proceedings
* things which we observe and try to
represent with models and explain, the
things which we attempt to predict, the
facts against which we test the adequacy
of our formulations
12. Schedules
* represent devices for reducing conflict
among competing needs and goal objects
by arranging for expression of these
tendencies at different times
13. Serials
* directionally organized intermittent
succession of proceedings
14. Serial programs
* orderly arrangements of subgoals that
stretch into the future perhaps for months
or years and if all goes well, will lead
eventually to some desired end state
15. Subsidiation
* one need operates in the service of
another
* when one need is merely instrumental to
the gratification of another, the first
need is subsidiary to the second
16. Thema
* molar and interactive behavioral unit
that includes the press ( instigating
situation) and the need that is operating
17. Unity-thema
* a single pattern of related needs and
press derived from infantile
experience that gives meaning and
coherence to the largest portion of the
individual’s behavior.
 Functions of Personality

1. To integrate the conflicts and constraints

to which the individual is exposed;
2. To satisfy the individual needs; and
3.To make plans for the attainment of
future goals.
II. Structure of Personality

1. Proceedings
2. Serials
3. Serial Programs
4. Schedules
5. Ordination
1. Proceedings

* subject-object interactions, subject-

subject interactions, of sufficient
duration to include the significant
elements of any given behavioral
sequence
* duration is determined by:
1. the initiation
2. completion of a dynamically
significant pattern of behavior
Proceedings ....
> classified into:
1. internal – day dreaming, problem
solving, planning in solitude;
2. external – interacting with persons or
objects in the environment:
a. Subjective experiential aspect
b. Objective behavioral aspect
2. Serial

* no one proceeding in the serial can be

understood without reference:
a. to those which have led up to it; and
b. to the actor’s aims, expectation and his
design for the future.
3. Serial Programs

* ex. Becoming a medical doctor requires

one to have a set of subgoals to reach
the ultimate goal.
4. Schedules
* one has to be efficient at constructing
schedules to greatly diminish the
quantity and intensity of one’s conflicts.
5. Ordination

* Aim is for a complete conceptual

understanding of the environment.
III. Dynamics of Personality

1. needs
2. press
3. tension reduction
4. thema
5. need integrate
6. unity-thema
7. regnant processes
8. vector-value scheme
1. Need
* manifests itself by leading the organism
to search for or to avoid encountering
or, when encountered, to attend and
respond to certain kinds of press;
* characteristically accompanied by a
particular feeling or emotion and
tends to use certain modes to further its
trend;
 * can be inferred on the basis of:

1. the effect or end result of the

behavior;
2. the particular pattern or mode of
behavior involved;
3. the selective attention and response to
a particular class of stimulus objects;
4. the expression of a particular emotion or
affect; and
5. the expression of satisfaction when a
particular effect is achieved or
disappointment when the effect is not
achieved.
Types of Needs

> Primary vs. Secondary needs

> Overt vs. Covert needs
> Focal vs. Diffuse needs
> Proactive vs. Reactive needs
> Process activity, modal needs and
effect needs
Primary needs
> viscerogenic needs linked to characteristic
organic events;
> typically refer to physical satisfaction;
> need for air, water, etc.
Secondary needs
> psychogenic needs presumably derived from
the primary needs;
> are characterized by a lack of focal
connection with any specific organic
processes or physical satisfaction.
> need for acquisition, achievement, etc.
Focal needs
> closely linked to limited classes of
environmental objects;

Diffuse needs
> so generalized as to be applicable in
almost any environmental setting.
Proactive needs
> is largely determined from within;
> becomes spontaneously kinetic as the
result of something in the person rather
than something in the environment;
Reactive needs
> are activated as a result of or in response
to, some environmental event;
Process activity
> the random, uncoordinated,
nonfunctional operation of various
processes that occurs from birth on;
Modal needs
> involves doing something with a certain
degree of excellence or quality;
Effect needs
> needs that lead to some desired state or
end result.
2. Press

* represents the effective or significant

determinants of behavior in the
environment;
* press of an object is what it can do to
the subject or for the subject --- the power
that it has to affect the well- being of the
subject in one way or another.
*cathexis of an object is what it can
make the subject do.
 * kinds of press:

2.1. Beta press

significance of environmental objects
as they are perceived or interpreted by the
individual;
2.2. Alpha press
properties of those environmental
objects as they exist in reality or as
objective inquiry discloses them.
3. Tension reduction

* man learns to respond in such a manner

as to reduce tension and experience
satisfaction;
* he/she also learns to respond in such a
manner as to develop tension so that it
can later be reduced, thereby
enhancing the amount of pleasure (medical
school).
4. Thema

* deals with the interaction between needs

and press;
* permits a more global and less segmental
view of behavior;
* is used to define both signle behavioral
episodes and to characterize
individuals.
5. Need integrate

* takes place when instrumental acts

integrate the need and the image or
thought of the environmental object;
* it is an internal constellation which
establishes a channel through which a
need is realized.
6. Unity-Thema

* operates largely as an unconscious force;

* key to one’s unique nature.

7. Regnant processes

* mutually dependent processes that

constitute dominant configurations in the
brain;
* a concept designed to keep and highlight the
brain-personality identity.
8. Vector-value scheme

* behavioral tendencies are presented in

terms of vector that represent broad
physical or psychological directions of
activity;
* values that the vectors serve are
represented by a series of value
concepts.
IV. Development of Personality

* Infantile complexes
* Socialization process
 Five highly enjoyable conditions

1. secure, passive and dependent existence within

the womb;
2. sensuous enjoyment of sucking good
nourishment from the mother’s breast;
3. free enjoyment of the pleasurable sensations
accompanying defecation;
4. pleasant sense impressions accompanying
urination;
5. thrilling excitations that arise from genital
friction.
Five complexes

1. claustral complex
2. oral complex
3. anal complex
4. urethral complex
5. castration complex
1. Claustral complex
* represents residuals of the uterine or
prenatal experience of the individual;
* three specific types of claustral complex:
1.1. complex constellated about the
wish to reinstate the conditions similar to
those prevailing before birth;
1.2. complex that centers about the
anxiety of insupport and helplessness;
1.3. complex that is anxiously directed
against suffocation and confinement.
Manifestations:
1. Reinstatement of uterine conditions
* characterized by cathexis for claustra
(womblike enclosures), nurturant or
motherly objects, death, the past, resistance
to change, needs for passivity,
harmavoidance, seclusion and succorance;
* overall picture is of a passive, dependent
person who is oriented toward the past
and generally, resistant to change.
Manifestations ....
2. Fear of insupport complex
* fear of open spaces, falling, drowning,
earthquake, fire and family insupport;

3. Egression complex
* concerned with escaping or departing;
* cathexis for open spaces and fresh air,
need to move and travel, change,
clasutrophobia and a strong need for
autonomy.
2. Oral complex

* represents derivatives of early feeding

experiences;

* three specific types of oral complexes:

2.1. oral succorance complex
2.2. oral aggression complex
2.3. oral rejection complex
2.1. Oral succorance complex

* involves oral activity in combination

with passive and dependent
tendencies;
* inferred from oral automatisms
suck as sucking, cathexis for words and
oral objects such as the nipple, breast or
thumb, compulsive eating and drinking,
etc.
2.2. Oral aggression complex

* combines oral activity with aggression;

* manifested in oral automatisms such as
biting, cathexis for solid oral objects,
strong aggressive needs, ambivalence
toward authority figures, projection of oral
aggression, need for
harmavoidance, phobia for biting objects
and stuttering;
2.3. Oral rejection complex

* involves spitting out and disgust over

oral activities and objects;
* manifested in negative cathexis for
certain foods, low need for food, feal of
oral infection or injury, need to reject,
need for seclusion and autonomy and
dislike for nurturant objects.
Overt needs
> manifest needs that are permitted more or
less direct and immediate expression;
> usually express themselves in motor
behavior;
Covert needs
> latent needs that are generally restrained,
inhibited or repressed;
> usually belong to the world of fantasy or
dreams;
> is in large part the outcome of the
development of internalized structures
(superego) that define proper or acceptable conduct.
3. Anal complexes

* derived from events associated with

the act of defecating and bowel
training;
* two specific types:
3.1. anal rejection complex
3.2. anal retention complexs
3.1. Anal rejection complex

* includes diarrhea and cathexis for feces;

* involves need for aggression, particularly
involving disorder and dirtying or
smearing;
* associated with the need for autonomy
via seeking independence/freedom and
anal sexuality.
3.2. Anal retention complex
* involves an underlying cathexis for feces
under the guise of an apparent
disgust, prudishness and negative reaction
to defecation;
* associated wit anal sexuality, need for
autonomy via resistance to
suggestion, need for order and
cleanliness and need to retain
possessions.
4. Urethral complex

* involved bedwetting, urethral soiling and

urethral erotism;
* also known as the Icarus complex;
* displays cathexis for fire, a history of
enuresis, a craving for immortality, strong
narcissism, and a lofty ambition that
dissolves in the face of failure.
5. Castration complex

* anxiety evoked by the fantasy that the

penis might be cut off;
* usually comes as a resultant of the
fantasies associated with infantile
masturbation.
Socialization process

> process whereby one’s own impulses are

compromised by demand of other
people represented collectively by
institutions and cultural patterns to which
the individual is exposed.
Psychology of the
Individual
(Gordon Allport)
Outline
I. Biography
II. Definition of Terms
III. Assumptions
IV. Requirements for Psychological
health
V. Structure of Personality
VI. Theory of Motivation
VII. Morphogenic Science
I. Biography
> Born: November 11, 1897
> Died: October 09, 1967
> Parents:
John E. Allport
Nellie Wise
> Wife:
Ada Lufkin Gould
> Child:
Robert
II. Definition of Terms:

1. Personality
2. Common Traits
3. Proprium
4. Functional Autonomy
1. Personality
* dynamic organization
within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that
determine his characteristic
behaviour & thought.
2. Common traits
* general characteristics;
* means by which people within a given
culture can be compared to one
another.
3. Proprium
* behaviors and characteristics
regarded as warm, central and
important in their lives;
* important to a sense of self-identity
and self- enhancement;
* includes a person’s values as well as
that part of the conscience that is personal
and consistent with one’s adult beliefs.
4. Functional Autonomy
* acquired system of motivation
wherein tensions involved are not
of the same kind as the
antecedent tensions from which the
acquired system developed.
* Levels of Functional Autonomy

4.1. Perseverative Functional Autonomy

* tendency of an impression
to leave an influence on
subsequent experience;
4.2. Propriate Functional Autonomy
* self-sustaining motives that are
unrelated to the proprium.
Not Functionally Autonomous:
1. Biological drives
2. Motives directly linked to the
reduction of basic drives
3. Reflex actions
4. Constitutional equipment
5. Habits in the process of being formed
6. Patterns of behavior that require primary
reinforcement
7. Sublimations that can be tied to childhood
sexual desires
8. Some neurotic or pathological symptoms
III. Assumptions:

1. Psychologically mature people are

characterized by proactive behavior.

2. Mature personalities are motivated by

conscious processes allowing them to be
more flexible and autonomous.
IV. Requirements for Psychological Health

1. An extension of the sense of self

2. Warm relating of self to others
3. Emotional security or self-acceptance
4. Realistic perception of their
environment
5. Insight and humor
6. Unifying philosophy of life
V. Structure of Personality

1. Personal dispositions
* generalized neuropsychic structure
with the capacity to render many
stimuli functionally equivalent,
and to initiate and guide consistent
forms of adaptive and stylistic
behavior.
2. Levels of Personal Disposition

2.1. Cardinal
2.2. Central
2.3. Secondary

3. Characteristics of Personal Disposition

3.1. Motivational
3.2. Stylistic
2.1. Cardinal disposition
* an eminent characteristic or
ruling passion so outstanding
that it dominate one’s life.

2.2. Central disposition

* less dominating characteristics around
which a person’s life focuses;
* guide much of a person’s adaptive and
stylistic behavior.
2.3. Secondary disposition

* less descriptive of an individual

but occur with some regularity
and are responsible for much of
one’s specific behaviour.
3.1. Motivational disposition

* strongly felt dispositions that

receive their motivation from
basic needs and drives;
* initiate action;
* Maslow’s coping behavior;
3.2. Stylistic Disposition

* personal disposition that is

less intensely experienced;
* guide action;
* Maslow’s expressive behavior.
VI. Theory of Motivation
(requirements)

1. Acknowledges the contemporaneity

of motives
2. Allows for motives of many types
3. Ascribes dynamic forces to cognitive
processes
4. Allows for concrete uniqueness of
motives
Motivation

1. motivated by present drives

rather than by past events;
2. are aware of what they are doing and
have some understanding why
they are doing it.
Peripheral motives

> those that reduce a need;

Propriate strivings
> seek to maintain tension and
disequilibrium.
VII. Morphogenic Science
* scientific approach where
patterned properties of the whole
organism are studied thereby
allowing intraperson comparison.
1. Nomothetic
* seeks general laws
2. Idiographic
* peculiar to a single case
* does not suggest
structure/pattern;
 Structure-Based
Systems Theory
(Raymond Bernard Cattell)
Outline

I. Definition of Terms
II. Concepts
1. Structure-based systems theory
2. Inductive-hypothetico-deductive
Spiral
3. Factor Analysis
4. Multiple Abstract Variance
Analysis (MAVA)
5. Econetic Model
I. Definition of Terms
1. Personality
2. Subsidiation
3. Traits
3.1. Constitutional traits
3.2. Environmental-mold traits
3.3. Ability traits
3.4. Temperament traits
3.5. Dynamic traits
3.6. Surface traits/source traits
1. Personality

* that which tells what a person

will do when placed in a given
situation.
* R = f(S, P)
R = behavioral response
S = situation
P = personality
2. Subsidiation

* process whereby certain dynamic

traits are subsidiary to or
dependent on other traits.

3. Traits
* relatively permanent and broad
reaction tendencies;
* serve as building blocks of
personality.
Traits..........

3.1. Constitutional traits

* determined by biology;

3.2. Environmental-mold traits

* determined by experience;
* interactions with the environment.
Traits..........

3.3. Ability traits

* person’s skill in dealing with
the complexity of a given situation

3.4. Temperament traits

* stylistic tendencies
3.5. Dynamic traits
* person’s motivation and interests;
* subdivided into:
3.5.a. attitudes
3.5.b. sentiments
3.5.c. ergs
Traits..........
3.5.a. Atttitudes
* specific interests in particular courses
of action toward certain objects in
a given situation;
3.5.b. Sentiments
* large, complex attitudes;
* incorporate a host of interests,
opinions and minor attitudes;
3.5.c. Ergs
* innate motives that influence
behavior;
* innate drive triggered by environmental
stimuli and ceases when its goal is
reached.
* food seeking, mating , gregariousness,
parental protectiveness, exploration,
escape to security, self-assertion,
narcissistic sex, pugnacity,
acquisitiveness.
Traits ...............

3.6. Surface traits

* collection of trait elements, of greater or
lesser width of representation which
obviously “go together” in many
different individuals and
circumstances;
3.6. Source traits
* underlying factor that controls the
variation in the surface cluster.
II. Concepts

1. Structure-based Systems Theory

* personality is a system in relation to
the environment;
* explains the complicated transactions
as they produce change/growth;
* traits are often genetically based but
subject to modification by learning
experiences;
2. Inductive-hypothetico-deductive spiral

* begins with empirical

observation/description;
* generate tentative rough hypothesis;
* empirically test hypothesis thru
experiments;
* experimental results used to generate more
precise hypothesis;
* deduce new experiment to test hypothesis;
* cycle starts all over again.
3. Factor Analysis

* highly complicated statistical procedure

used to isolate and identify a limited
number of factors that underlie a larger group
of observed, interrelated variables;
3.1. R technique
3.2. factor loading
3.3. P technique
Factor Analysis..............

3.1. R Technique
* Giving large groups of study participants
a variety of personality tests and then
intercorrelating their scores;

* Variables that are strongly intercorrelated

are considered to be measuring the same
entity or factor;
Factor Analysis..............

3.2. Factor Loading

* Degree of association between each
surface variable and its underlying
factor;

3.3. P Technique
* designed to discover the unique trait
structure of a single individual;
4. Multiple Abstract Variance Analysis

* assesses the degree to which

various traits are determined
genetically or environmentally;

* allows researchers to make more precise

determinations of the contributions of
genetic and environmental factors to the
development of traits.
5. Econetic Model

* human behavior is the result of a

complex and subtle interplay
between traits and situations.