I.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

 Process that describes how the structure of a

biological community changes over time.
 Two different types of succession: Primary
Succession, Secondary Succession

  
Primary Succession
Primary succession begins in a virtually lifeless area.
For example. New volcanic island or rubble.
1. Bare rock
2. Appearance of pioneering species (e.g. lichens
and mosses)
3. Weathering leads to the formation of soil
4. Appearance of intermediate species
5. Formation of climax community
Phytoplankton Stage
 Algal spores are brought in the body of water.
 Bacteria, Algae, and Planktons are the pioneering
colonizers.
 Growth activities of the colonizers and their death
add nutrients to soil and water.
Submerged Stage
 A loose layer of mud is formed on the bottom of the
pond.
 The submerged aquatic vegetation develops.
 Ex. Elodia, Potamogeton, Myriophyllum, and
Ranunculus.
 Accumulation of organic materials.
    
Floating Stage
 Depth of water reaches about 4 to 8 feet.
 Submerged plants start to disappear; floating plants
make their appearance.
 The most tolerant species in the area are able to
reproduce and perpetuate.
 Floating plants
 Chemical and physical modifications.

Reed-Swamp Stages
 The ponds and lakes become too shallow.
 Occupied by amphibious plants.
 For example: Bothriochloa, Typha, & Phragmites
(Reed)
 Detritus pile up at the bottom.
  
   Sedge Marsh or Meadow Stage
Secondary Succession  Filling process results in the formation of marshy
Recolonization of an area after a major disturbance. Soil soil.
must be intact.  Plants that are able to tolerate large amount of
water thrives.
 The plant modify the habitats making it drier
 Increase transpiration
 Accumulation of plant and soil materials
  
Woodland Stage
 Shrubs and later medium sized trees form the
vegetation.
 Habitat is drier.
  
Climax Forest
 Ecosystem reaches climax community.
 Much drier habitat predominantly covered by woody
trees.
Hydrosere  Trees are dominant and they have control over the
 Succession occurring in the aquatic environment. entire vegetation.
Spores are carried by wind and animals.   
 Stages of aquatic succession: Ecological Succession
 Phytoplankton  The early arrivals may facilitate the appearance of
 Submerged the later species.
 Floating  The early species may inhibit establishment of the
 Reed-Swamp later species.
 Sedge Marsh  Tolerate conditions created early in succession.
 Woodland   
Human Disturbance
 Climax forest
  Driving force of ecological succession. ➢ Rocks are close enough to their melting point that they are
 For example. Illegal logging, and Trawling. easily deformed
   ➢ Because of too much pressure and heat the rocks can
Biodiversity flow like a liquid
 Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace - Animal life is ➢ Allows lithosphere to “float” on top
more diverse and abundant in the tropics compared
to other places.
REPITTI DISCONTINUITY
 Evolutionary history and climate paterns ->
abundance of species. ➢ Transition zone between the upper and lower mantle
 Latitudinal Gradient - Equatorial regions received ➢ Named after William C. Repetti, investigated the boundary
more sunlight -> more energy for plants to make with seismological method as part of his doctoral degree
food -> many organisms thriving in an area.
 Area - Species richness increases with area. MESOSPHERE: LOWER MANTLE
 Migration or Extinction - Island equilibrium model: ➢ 56% of the Earth’s total volume
number of species on an island based on the ➢ Roughly 660 km below the Earth’s surface
immigration and extinction rates of species on that
➢ Magma circulation (source of magma)
island.
GUTTENBURG DISCONTINUITY
II. LITHOSPHERE
➢ Boundary between the mantle and the outer core
CRUST ➢ Named after Beno Guttenburg
➢ Outermost layer ➢ Reflects change from a solid to a liquid phase and a
➢ Layer exposed to weathering (i.e. wind, rain, snow, change in composition (seismic wave velocity discontinuity)
tornadoes etc.,)
➢ Thinnest of all layers CORE
DIVIDED INTO: ➢ Very hot, dense center of the planet
➢ Continental crust ➢ Accounts for 1/6 of Earth’s volume and1/3 of its mass
➢ Oceanic crust ➢ 2,900 km below Earths’ surface
➢ The rocky outermost layer of the lithosphere. ➢ Radius: 3,485 km
➢ Density: 5.6 – 9.9 g/cm3
CONTINENTALCRUST ➢ Temperature: 4000°C and 7000°C
➢ 20 to 70 km thick DIVIDED INTO:
➢ Predominantly granitic rocks ➢ Outer core (liquid state)
➢ Less dense, 2.7 g/cm3 ➢ Inner core (solid state)
OCEANIC CRUST
➢ 7 – 10 km thick OUTER CORE
➢ Predominantly dark volcanic ➢ About 2,200 km thick, mostly composed of liquid iron and
basalt overlain with sediments nickel
➢ Experiences intense heat and pressures of the mantle ➢ Very hot, between 4,500°C and 5,500°C
compared to the continental crust ➢ Very low viscosity, easily deformed and malleable
➢ Dense, 3 g/cm3 ➢ Site of violent convection which creates and sustains
Earth’s magnetic field
LITHOSPHERE
➢ Solid and rigid outer layer of the earth LEHMANN DISCONTINUITY
➢ crust + upper most solid part of the mantle = lithosphere. ➢ Hottest part, about 6,000°C - as hot as the surface of the
TYPES OF LITHOSPHERE: sun
➢ Oceanic lithosphere ➢ Boundary between the outer and inner core
➢ Continental lithosphere ➢ Discovered by Inge Lehmann through careful
measurement of seismic waves
MOHOROVICIC DISCONTINUITY
➢ Boundary between the Earth’s crust and mantle INNER CORE
➢ Hot, dense ball of mostly iron
➢ 5 – 10 km thick below the ocean floor
➢ Radius of about 1,220 km
➢ Average of 20 – 90 km beneath the continents
➢ Temperature is about 5,200°C
➢ Discovered by a Croatian seismologist Andrija
Mohorovicic in 1909. ➢ Pressure is nearly 3.6 million atm
➢ Pressure and density are simply too great for the iron
atoms to move into a liquid state – solid
MANTLE
➢ The lithosphere is divided into large plates called tectonic
➢ Located below the lithosphere
plates that are constantly moving
➢ Bulk of the Earth’s interior – 84% of
➢ Solid land mass called Pangea then broke into smaller
Earth’s total volume
tectonic plates = individual continents
➢ Approx. 2,900 km thick The major plates include:
➢ Composed dense rocks made up of the mineral olivine ➢ Pacific plate
DIVIDED INTO:
➢ Antarctic plate
➢ The upper mantle or aesthenosphere
➢ North America plate
➢ Lower mantle
➢ Indo-Australian plate
➢ Eurasian plate
AESTHENOSPHERE
➢ South American plate
➢ Soft, weaker layer
➢ African plate
 ➢ Naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a definite
TECTONIC PLATES chemical composition and an ordered internal structure
➢ The place where the tectonic plates meet are called ➢ Over 4000 minerals known
boundaries ➢ Not always large crystals
➢ Movement of these plates are made possible by the ➢ Mineralogy is the study of minerals and their properties
thermal energy from the mantle part of the lithosphere
TYPES OF PLATE TECTONIC BOUNDARIES
MINERALS
➢ Convergent – where plates collide (i.e. volcanoes
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
and mountains, earthquakes, and tsunamis)
1. Naturally occurring
➢ Transform – where plates slide past one another 2. Inorganic – formed through inorganic processes
(i.e. earthquakes and tsunamis) 3. Solid – ex. Ice formed in the glaciers
➢ Divergent – where plates move apart (i.e. 4. Definite chemical composition – should have exact
fissures, cracks, rifts, and sea floors spreading) chemical formula with the elements and compounds in
specific ratios
CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES 5. Ordered internal structure – organized in a regular,
➢ Plates are moving towards one another repetitive geometric structure
➢ It has two phenomenon
COMPOSITION OF MINERALS
a) a zone called the subduction zone where the
heavier plate dives under the other plate.
➢ Pacific Ring of Fire – active ring of volcanoes
encircling the Pacific Ocean
b) Plates will be lifted-up or folded forming
mountains
➢ Himalayas, Mountain Everest
➢ An increase in the underground Pressure resulting into
earthquake

TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES
➢ Plates are sliding past each other in opposite direction
resulting to a crack called fault line
➢ Friction of the two plates → build up of pressure →
released → earthquake
➢ San Andreas fault system – largest transform
boundaries in the world

DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES IDENTIFICATION BY INSPECTION

➢ Plates are moving away from one another ➢ simple observations made by looking
➢ Space between the two plates wide resulting into a rift or
crack
➢ Ex. East African Great Rift Valley
➢ If under the ocean: magma oozes up → fills spaces →
sea floor spreading
➢ Ex. Mid-Atlantic Ridge

CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

➢ Proposed by Alfred Wegener in the early 1990’s COLOR
➢ The continental landmasses (Pangea) were “drifting” 1. impurities change mineral’s colors
across the Earth, sometimes plowing through oceans and 2. mineral’s colors are similar
into each other. He called this theory as the Continental Drift 3. colors change/react in air
Theory
➢ Wegener’s theory are the basis of the modern-day Plate LUSTER
Tectonics Theory
➢ This theory states that Earth’s outer layer mechanical
layer, lithosphere, is divided into large plates that are
constantly moving (~1-2 inches per year)

EVIDENCES OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

1. Continents seemed to fit together. Ex. West coast of Africa
→ East coast of South America
2. Ancient fossils of the same species found in rocks of the
same age on separate continent.
3. Identical rock types and ages found on both sides of the
Atlantic Ocean CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
4. Mountain ranges with identical rock type, age, and
structure found on the opposite of the Atlantic Ocean
5. Grooves and rock deposits left by ancient glaciers are
found on different continents very close to the equator

MINERALS
➢ Dependent on the chemical composition of the mineral ➢Texture:
➢ Outer form of the mineral’s inner order ▪ Aphanitic
▪ Glassy
▪ Vesicular
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
▪ Porphyritic
FRACTURE OR CLEAVAGE
➢ Tendency of the minerals to breaks along plates of PYROCLASTIC
weakness ➢ Formed due to lithification of erupted volcanic materials
➢ minerals split along flat surfaces, some do not cleave but ➢ Distinguished by particle component
they break
Based on Composition
➢Identified through color index:
❖Felsic (light colors)
❖Intermediate (equal parts of light and dark colors)
❖Mafic or Ultramafic (dark colors)

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
➢ Formed from the compaction and cementation of
STREAK sediments and/or biological materials
➢ color of a mineral’s powder by rubbing a mineral on TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
unglazed white tile ➢ Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
➢ Colorless to Light streak – non-metallic mineral ➢ Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
➢ Dark streak – metallic mineral ➢ Bioclastic Sedimentary Rocks
CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
HARDNESS ➢Formed through lithification of rock and mineral fragments:
➢ minerals resistance to being scratched ❖ Quartz
❖ Feldspar
DENSITY ❖ Clay
➢ measured by specific gravity ➢Based on sizes:
❖Clay (1/16 mm)
ACID TEST
➢ weak acid will release bubbles of CO2 ❖Silt (1/16 mm)
✓ calcium carbonate fizzes in acid (HCl) ❖Sand (bet. 1/16 & 2 mm)
❖Gravel (> 2mm)
CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
OTHER PROPERTIES
➢Formed by precipitation out of solution
SPECIAL PROPERTIES ❖ Dolomite
➢ double diffraction – calcite/Iceland par splits images into 2 ❖ Calcite
➢ phosphorescence – glows even after ultraviolet off ❖ Halite
➢ smell – Sulphur (gives off foul odor) ❖ Gypsum
BIOCLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
➢Formed from the accumulation of organic material or
ROCKS
biologic activity
➢ Naturally-occurring, coherent aggregate of minerals
❖ Plants
and/or solid materials
CLASSFICATION OF ROCKS ❖ Corals
➢Igneous Rocks ❖ Shells
➢Sedimentary Rocks ❖Fossil fragments
➢Metamorphic Rocks
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
➢ Formed from the exposure to intense heat and/or
IGNEOUS ROCKS
pressure
➢ Formed from the cooling and solidification of magma or • Contact Metamorphism
lava • Regional Metamorphism
TYPES IGNEOUS ROCKS ➢Mostly composed of index minerals
➢Crystalline Igneous Rocks Intrusive or Plutonic TYPES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
rocks Extrusive or Volcanic rocks ➢Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
➢Pyroclastic Igneous Rocks
➢Non-foliated Metamorphic Rocks
CRYSTALLINE INTRUSIVE / PLUTONIC
FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS
➢Slowly cooled and solidified magma
➢Caused by regional metamorphism
➢Have large crystals because of slow
➢ (platy) mineral alignment and banding
cooling
▪ Slaty
➢ Texture: ▪ Phyllitic
▪ Phaneritic ▪ Schistose
▪ Pegmatitic ▪ Gneissic
➢ Longer cooling time = larger mineral crystals NON - FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS
CRYSTALLINE EXTRUSIVE / VOLCANIC ➢ Caused by contact metamorphism
➢Rapidly cooled and solidified lava ▪ Crystalline
➢Has small or no crystals because of fast
cooling
ROCK CYCLE ➢ Silt (0.002-0.005 nm)
➢ Clay (<0.002 nm) - smallest
➢ Gravel and rock (>75 nm)
➢ Loam – ideal soil for agriculture
➢ Soil texture triangle determines soil type based on particle
size
SOIL PROFILE
➢ Product of soil formation creating zones or soil horizons
➢ Each horizon has distinct physical, chemical, and
biological characteristics
WHAT IS A SOIL? ➢ Vary depending on the factors of soil formation
➢Complex mixtures of minerals, water, air, organic matter, SOIL HORIZONS
and countless organisms that are decaying remains of once- ➢ Represented by the letters O, A, B, C, and E
living things. ➢ Three major horizons
➢Forms the pedosphere – foundation of terrestrial life on ➢ A horizon
earth ➢ B horizon
➢Pedon “soil” & sfaira “sphere” ➢ C horizon
➢Skin of the Earth ➢ O: organic horizon – loose partly decayed organic matter
THE COMPOSITION OF SOIL (humus)
➢Soil is made from portions of the four spheres. ➢ A: surface horizon – mineral matter with dark organic
➢It is generally composed of: humus (zone of leaching)
➢45% Mineral (gravel, sand, silt, and clay) ➢ B: subsoil – accumulated clay and other nutrients above it
➢25% Air (zone of salt accumulation)
➢25% Water ➢ C: substratum – partially altered parent material
➢5% Organic matter (humus, roots, and dead and decaying ➢ E: - significant loss of minerals (eluviation) and leaching
organisms) ➢ R: bedrock (regolith – superficial material covering the
SOIL FORMATION bedrock)
➢Weathering may result from physical or chemical changes. TYPES OF SOIL
➢Soil formation may be a slow or rapid process, depending 1. GELISOLS: frozen soils found in the coldest region on
on the different factors. earth
FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION 2. HISTOSOLS*: high organic content and no permafrost
➢Composition of parent material 3. SPODOSOLS: sandy and acidic soils found in moist
climates
➢Climate
4. ANDISOLS*: volcanic ash
➢Topography 5. OXISOLS*: very weathered
➢Biological factors and common in tropical climates
➢Time 6. VERTISOLS*: clay like soil that shrink and swell
1. PARENT MATERIAL 7. ARIDISOLS: very dry soils in arid regions
➢ Important in soil formation – chemistry and type will 8. ULTISOLS*: weathered soils
determine the soil formed 9. MOLLISOLS*: deep and fertile soils
Residual soil 10. ALFISOLS*: moderately weathered productive soils
➢ Parent material is the bedrock Transportedsoil found in temperate and humid regions
11. INCEPTISOLS*: slightly developed, young soils found on
➢ Parent material has been carried from elsewhere and
steep slopes and mountain ranges
deposited
12. ENTISOLS*: newly-formed soils found in steep rocky
2. CLIMATE
lands
➢ Temperature and precipitation
➢ Indirect controls (e.g., types of plants) HUMAN IMPACTS ON THE EARTH’S LITHOSPHERE
➢ Weathering rates ➢ Agriculture - fertilizers, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides
➢ greater rainfall amount→higher rate of weathering and and insecticides = soil contamination
erosion ➢ Deforestation - damaging quality of land
3. TOPOGRAPHY ➢ Overgrazing - reduces the usefulness, productivity and
➢ Ground slope and elevation biodiversity of the land
➢ Downslope transport of soil is a function of slope: ➢ Mining - contaminates the water, the soil, increases
➢ The steeper the surface slope, the more likely any eroded erosion, massive sinkholes and deforestation
material is to be transported out of the system ➢ Urbanization - reduce the beauty of nature
4. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS ➢ Oil drilling - build up of pollutants
➢ Animals & MOS mix soil through burrowing ➢ Desertification - loss of bodies of water and plant life
➢ Plants aid in weathering process, and stabilizes soil ➢ Dryland salinity – erosion and nutrient loss
profiles ➢ Microorganisms aid in nutrient and chemical
exchanges III. ATMOSPHERE
➢ Humans and animals increases erosion  atmos – vapor
5. TIME  spheros – sphere
➢ Important in all geologic processes
➢ The longer a soil has been forming, the thicker it becomes Nirogen – 78%
SOIL TEXTURE Oxygen – 21%
➢ Refers to the proportions of different
particle sizes – sand, silt, and clay *Aerosoles – dust, pollens, etc
➢ Sand (0.005-2.00 nm) – largest - small particles that are floating in the atmosphere
LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE CLIMATE TYPES
Troposhpere  Tropical
- closest to the Earth  Dry
- about 7-15km from the surface  Temperate
- thickest at the equator; thinner in north and south  Continental
poles  Polar
- heaviest (5,600 tons)
- where weather occurs WEATHER
- contains 75% of all the gases of the atmosphere  Air Pressure
including water vapor that produce clouds  Humidity
- Tropopause - lowest at the poles, highest near the  Wind
equator  Cloudiness
Stratosphere  Temperature – determined by the sun’s rays and
- altitude of approx. 50km the gases trapped in the atmosphere (mean annual
- high concentraion of ozone (protection from UV temp: 26 degrees Celsius)
rays)
- Stratopause
Mesosphere
- 85km aboe the Earth’s surface
- temperature decreases. might reach about 90
degrees Celsius
- very thin
- Mesopause
Thermosphere
- 600km
- where solar radiation is very hot, reaches about
2000 degrees Celsius caused by the absorption of
UV rays and x rays coming from the sun
Ionosphere
- energetic solar radiation turns the ions with a
positive charge
Exosphere
- uppermost later
- in the outer space
- minimal amount of gravitational pull

AURORA POLARIS – (in the ionosphere) charged ions from

the sun’s corona strikes the earth’s atmosphere that the
eletrons move to a higher energy state then release photons
(light)
 Aurora Borealis – northern hemisphere
 Aurora Ostralis - southern hemisphere
*particles are deflected towards the Earth