Y11 Chemistry

Module 1: Properties and structure of matter

KNOWLEDGE WITHIN REACH.

 KNOWLEDGE. WITHIN REACH.

How do I study for Chemistry?

Here’s how. All you will need is 4hrs a week*.

• 2hrs of NEW content learning – this involves picking a few syllabus dot points to
focus on for the week (preferably early in the week) The goal is to increase your
Chemistry knowledge a little bit each week, which will add up over time. For
students who have purchased the Year 11 Chemistry Crash Course, we recommend
picking 2-4 videos to focus on for the week.

• 30 mins to 1hr of practical application – this involves applying the concepts you
have learnt earlier in the week by doing exam style questions. This could be from
textbook questions, past exam papers, or online questions. If you are struggling to
find relevant questions, check out our Year 11 Chemistry Question Bank or
Masterclass pre-work where we provide tailored questions for each concept.

• 30 mins to 1hr of revision – before you jump into learning new content, at the end
of each week, we recommend revising what you have learnt. The beauty of the
NESA syllabus is that the concepts build on each other. So… the more familiar you
are with the previous week’s work, the easier it will be to learn this week’s work.

How does this booklet fit in?

You should be using this booklet in combination with the Year 11 Chemistry Crash Course.
This combination will help maximise your study efficiency and ensure the 2hrs of NEW
content learning is high-yield. While you watch these videos, you should be taking notes
in this booklet. What you see in the videos correspond to what you see in this booklet.

For targeted application and revision resources, you should check out the Question Bank
and Masterclass options at:

www.thinktankedu.com.au/11chem

Questions?

Send us an email on hello@thinktankedu.com.au We will get back to you ASAP, so you

can get back to studying ASAP.

*Disclaimer: 4hrs a week is a rough guide on how long you should be spending on your Chemistry subject. This
excludes work you will be doing at school and hours will varying depending on student ability.

2
Last Edited: 1/2/22 Copyright © www.thinktankedu.com.au
Section 1
Properties of matter
1.1 Atomic theory

In 1802, English scientist John Dalton presented the first atomic theory of matter. Dalton prosed that
-

all matter is made up of tiny spherical particles that are indivisible and indestructible. Dalton
described matter as elements or compounds.

1.1.1 Elements
Definition 1
Elements are pure substances composed entirely of one type of atom and therefore, cannot be
decomposed into simpler substances. T

Example(s) –
Silver
oxygen , hydrogen , n SoCal etc .

02 H2 Ag Au

1.1.2 Compounds

Definition 2
Compounds are substances that contain 2 (or more) types of atoms which are chemically bonded
-
together in a fixed ratio, and therefore can be decomposed into simpler substances.

Example(s) –
acid
-
tic '
Sait - NaCl hydrochloric

water
Mz
-
O

Note: Dalton’s atomic theory of matter has since been disproven with the discovery of subatomic
particles

1
 1.1.3 Homogenous and heterogeneous mixtures

Matter can be classified as a pure substance (element or compound) or a mixture.

Definition 3
Mixture are impure substances that contain a combination of different elements and/or
compounds. In mixtures, there is no fixed ratio of substances and therefore there can be variable
composition.

Note: compounds are two or more elements chemically bonded together, mixtures are two or
more pure substances physically combined together.

Mixtures can be classified as –

1. Homogenous

Definition 4
Homogenous substances have uniform composition throughout. These substances are considered
pure.

2c%0a.se/oAr@@c0@@
e.g. 79%

+8¥
air → Nd .

Saltwater t Naa , mo

•nooooo
Coca cole
¥0
-

2. Heterogenous

Definition 5
Heterogeneous substances have non-uniform composition where there are substances or materials
of different varieties.
-

e.g.

coffee
-

-
orange
•
80@
8*00

2
 solute
[Naa
-

1.1.4 Solutions
solani ear
The most well-known homogenous mixture is a solution.
-

Definition 6
A solution has one or more solutes that are dissolved in a solvent. A solvent is a substance in
which the solute dissolves and a solute is a substance that dissolves in a solvent.

A solution can be dilute or concentrated, depending on the amount of solute in the solvent.

Water as a solvent:
-

§ Water is an excellent solvent. Almost all biological and industrial processes occur in water
– these systems are known as e aqueous environments.

§ Aqueous solutions are formed when a solid, liquid or gas is dissolved in water.

Example(s) – CO2 HCl ↳

cap , cage ,
tfkoocaep
Naa
cap

1.1.5 Suspensions and colloids

When a substance is mixed with a solvent, it does not always dissolve to form a solution. It
can form a suspension or a colloid.

Definition 7
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture, with visible distinguishable parts, that form when a
substance does not dissolve significantly.

Definition 8
A colloid is a mixture of particles that consists of smaller clusters of ions or molecules. They are
evenly dispersed throughout the solvent and do not settle on standing.

µ
uniform f-
particles
-
non -

_- - smaller

I'suffer: 7£ -
donator out .

Te -
! morgens
'
-

g
fostered • c.
← .
.

. .

Hbie RBC
soil in the blood
+
proteins
+
tho

3
1.2 Physical properties and changes of state

1.2.1 Changes of state

* in Sola
ago
Solid ie tho

98,

¥ ¥
ago

boding
gasify
Liquid -
Gas
condensate

1.2.2 Solids, liquids and gases

There are three states of mater:

Diagram 1 defined
§ arranged in

shape

vibrate about
°
particles
their position
→

+
need very compressible

Diagram 2 take of container

§ shape

not confined vibrations

by
°

€I¥¥
→ random translators

from one posihi to

another .

+
slight compression

4
 Diagram 3

Thin!
§
ananias.

'

movements
° more rapid ,

no signified face

btwn particles
t
very compressible
Note: It is harder to compress solids and liquids as the particles are quite close together, whereas it
is easy to compress gas because there are large spaces between the particles.

1.2.3 Summary

)
↳

B
peogy-tirbre.TL?Isptaeebtwnpatw
cold
BOMB

5
 how ? →
practical

why? theory
as

1.3 Separating mixtures

Since the different particles within a mixture are not all chemically bonded together, and since each
has different properties, they can be separated fairly easily by simple physical processes.

It is important that you can identify the “Difference in Properties” (D.I.P.) which allows each process
to separate the fractions of the mixture.

Theorem 1
Important points to remember when writing up a practical:

Sketehgpiagrar :
wired :

ruler directive vets

using
- -

give specific
values
-

pencil -

- lines / label done w/ ruler

f horizontal

+ touchy equipment

1.3.1 Solids of different sizes

At
Mixtures in which the particles of the different substances have different sizes can be
separated by sieving. EI
1.3.2 Separating undissolved solids and liquids
#¥#
Definition 9
Filtration is a process where liquid or solution is passed through the filtration paper whilst the
solid remains on top.

Diagram: Sand theater

fltwpT§q¥ fitter funnel D ,p=

.
particle size
solubility
( Il /
#-
conical flask

_M- fdtrete

6
 When a solid is coarser or denser, a process of sedimentation and decantation can be used.

Definition 10
Sedimentation is the process in which solids settle to the bottom of a container. Decanting and
decantation is the process of carefully pouring off the liquid and leaving he solid undisturbed at
the bottom of the container.

Diagram:
Issue?
sedehetdm M diffract to be

ohy.no
:
-

-
precise

oaf:L -1 I -

good
for royh

toad ② -
beak -
separation

1.3.3 Separating dissolved solids in liquids

When a solid is dissolved in a liquid, the mixture is called a ‘solution’ and therefore, filtration
-

techniques do not work.

The most common ways to separate a solution are:

Evaporation

Definition 11
Evaporation is a process of heating the liquid to a temperature below its boiling point so that the
liquid is slowly blown away into the air. Evaporate to dryness is when the solution is heated so the
evaporating basin has no remaining solvent.
-

Diagram:
D.IF -
BE

issues :

salt two
basin cannot obtain tho
evaporated
-

f- gauze loose our solid

easy

10$ f-
-

"
bk
spider
"

tripod
-
bunsen burner
-

7
 Distillation

Definition 12
Distillation is a method of separating two or more liquids from one another or the separation of
liquid from the solids in solution. The liquid is heated till a vapour is formed, which is then
condensed back into liquid in a different part of the apparatus, thus separating the mixture.

Dip a diff in PSP

Diagram:

rubber stopper
-

:÷÷÷l÷÷¥÷i¥¥
-

fatboy goat
-

* Able

Ei¥§£
to

turn Cl ) collect both

a condenser - ⑨ →

""
i:::÷ .

If I distillate:
-
F-
bk lover BP
MTA the

8
 Example 1

Aim: To separate a mixture of water, sand and salt.

| Decant Hutu .

I
reside
futcte

↳ dry # desired
sand
evbopoete
e
b f-
soft salt
⑨
9
destitute

9
1.4 Separating liquids
do not dissolve

Jp
1.4.1 Separating immiscible liquids
G.
tilt water
.

Definition 13

Immiscible liquids are two or more liquids that do not mix to form a homogenous liquid.

Miscible liquids are liquids which when mixed, form a homogenous liquid.

Immiscible liquids, when left to stand for a period of time will separate into two distinct
layers, one of top of another.

Therefore, immiscible liquids can generally be separated using a separating funnel.

Diagram:
a-Ha

( ft .
Inlaid
F- tho

¥918 stop cark Aap

¥-
-

dense)
tho cmon
of

Explanation:
term tap
separate fuel seethe →
→
niche into
pour
more £
stop a- dense liquid
is removed
fap

10
 1.4.1 Fractional Distillation (not important)

Definition 14
Fractional distillation is a process used to separate liquids by distillation when their boiling points
are similar; where distillation is performed several times.

This process is generally performed in industry for the separate of components of crude oil.
Crude oil consists of various hydrocarbons with different boiling points. This process is
-

carried out in a fractioning column.

BP
specific
-

Set @

←
It
-

12,41¥
truancy •

IidEs⑤→=
"

vaqzpon.se
-

host
& # Leafsarees

1.5 Separating gas (Extension)

Gas mixtures are generally separated by either using differences in boiling points or differences in
solubilities in liquids such as water.

1.5.1 Difference in solubility

Some gases dissolve in liquid like water. Therefore, gases can be separated if there is a
difference in solubility between them.

Example – Hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S) and carbon dioxide can be separated by bubbling the
gas mixture through water where the H2S is dissolved out.
DIP =
so(a¥y .

Diagram:

bk not souse
coz
TD

?€.¥TFfj
→

IMEI
in no

Has
dissed the

11
1.6 Gravimetric analysis

We talked about separating mixtures. But under certain circumstances, we want to know the
quantitative composition of mixtures, that is, the know the mass of each substance that is present in a
given quantity of mixture, or alternatively, the per cent composition of the mixture.

Definition 15

Gravimetric analysis is determining the quantities (masses) of substances present in a sample – i.e.
analysis by weight or mass.

Example –

Aim: to determine the percentage of salt in saltwater.

Method:

fsaettthow-sa.ee residue
w

Tf
=

As① weigh equipment using

electronic

basin
balance

evaporates
.

esp

cooml Semple )
② weigh sempre leg .

③ Evaporate
via setup .

④ E. Bt reside
weigh
mass
desired
⑤ % calc .
-
-
X 100

total maes

Experimental
-
errors :

error
random
.

removes
experiment
a

-
repeat
carbon
t soot prod
-
of salt
splattering
.

* a .

add extra weight

-

• no complete evaporation

q
.
not just salt present .

12
 Example 2

A team of geologists discovered a new mineral in a remote desert location; it was a mixture of
barium sulphate and magnesium sulphate. Its composition was determined as follows.

They first ground up a 3.61g sample with water; magnesium sulphate dissolves and barium
sulphate does not. The barium sulphate was filtered off, dried and its mass determined to be 1.52
g. They evaporated the filtrate to dryness to recover the magnesium sulphate, and determined its
mass to be 2.07 g. Calculate the percentage composition of the sample.

Note: the sample contains no other substances apart from barium and magnesium sulphates.

1-4*64=3.64
I Add thotfilter .

T
PPA solar

b
deported
Bosch El -

52g f
Mg ←
a a.
org

%Basoy-t.gs?ffgx' 00
= 42 " %
free to boast sf

in Qn .

57 -3% Osf )
% Nysa 237-8×00
=
=

add to 100%
Note: does not

human error
error
b/c
Comoro

13
 Example 3

A particularly keen student obtained water samples from the Dead Sea, while holidaying
in Jerusalem. He wanted to compare the percentage total salt of this seawater with that of
his hometown’s. Using school equipment, he determined the percentage of total salt in his
Dead Sea water sample. The results of his analysis is detailed below:
• mass of evaporating basin = 253.3 g
• mass of evaporating basin + seawater = 766.2 g
• mass of salt residue = 165.0 g

Calculate the percentage composition of the seawater sample. Show your working. (3
marks)

mcseaaooter) - 766*2--253.3

-
512 9
g
-

mcsalt ) E
165g .

%salt= IT x. 00
= 32-1700
-
-

512-9
-

= gz.ca -% Cest )

⇐ = 67 -

83% .
Sf)

14
 Example 4

A dry mixture of soluble potassium sulphate and insoluble manganese dioxide was analysed
gravimetrically as follows:

A weighed sample was thoroughly stirred into pure water, then filtered through a pre-weighed
filter paper. The collected residue was oven dried and weighed.
-

Meanwhile, the filtrate was boiled in a pre-weighed evaporating basin until a dry solid
formed, then weighed. -

Data collected:

Mass of mixture sample = 4.96g

& Mass of filter paper = 0.16g
Mass or
f paper + dried residue = 3.04g

A Mass of evap. basin = 28.62g

Mass of basin + dry solid = 30.70g

oxide
i. Name the substance collected in the filter paper. manganese

ii. Calculate the mass of this substance collected. 3- 04 -

o -

cog
e 2 -

88g

iii. Calculate the % of this substance in the mixture. % Mno =

t÷&xioo - 58% @ Sf)

iv. Name the substance collected in the evap. basin. K 2504

28-62
v. Calculate the mass of this substance collected. 30
70g
- = 2
08g
-
-

vi. Calculate the % of this substance in the mixture. % # Serena 7%8×00=42%02*5

vii. What evidence is there that this analysis may be quite accurate?
-

viii. Describe one technique, not mentioned in the outline above, which might have been
done instead .

Cutis % Mno * % lazso, = 00%

-

doin sedimentary Decanting

Distillate

15
 1.6.1 Percentage composition

Example 5

A 152g sample of iron(II) sulfate was analysed and found to contain 37% iron and 21% sulfur, and
the remainder was oxygen. Determine the mass of each element in the compound.

152g ⇐ Soa )
c-
↳
Te 3706×1528 I 0=4206×152
5=21%4152
E

5629g
=
63.84g
31
92g
-

Example 6

A 75g glucose solution contains 5% glucose (40% carbon, 7% hydrogen and 53% oxygen) and 95%
water (11% hydrogen and 89% oxygen). Determine the percentage composition by mass of each
element in this mixture.

75g glucose sofa

c- ↳
glucose - 56×75 wafers 95/0×75
=
3 .

75g =
71.25g .

f lo
f g.
9875g £ ↳
Ce 40%+3-95 H 0=63
4125g
-

2625g
:O
-

per w%xH -25g

= I
-5g I ¥
8375g
.

% entire goose sod

2% %µ=
0-26 37%0
%c tfxioo
=
-

75

-8%
=
to

87.2%
Too soo =
=

16
1.7 Elements and the periodic table

① '
atomic no =
p e e
-

symbol
d-

① c- atomic number

↳ round to

1.7.1 Atom structure nearest whole no , ⇒ mess

no a
pts

The atoms of different elements have different masses according to how many protons and
neutrons are in the nucleus. Different models of atom structures will be discussed later in the
Section 3.

'
M -
P

. .

:*

nucleus ⑦
A element
& I protons
.

no .

1.7.2 Atomic and Mass number

Definition 16
The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in each atom, which is also equal to
-
the numberIof electrons. ANE p se

The mass number is the number of protons plus the neutrons in the nucleus of an atom of the
species concern. M N E
p th MN n-
AN E

Note: Because the electrons have such small masses compared to a proton or neutron, for
practical purposes, the mass of electrons can be ignored.

17
 p - e pin

2 2 2

16 8 8

5 5 6

16 76 16

SO 55
35
127 53 53

18 22 18

30 35 30

The mass number is different to the atomic weight, which is the number shown on the periodic
table. However, for simplicity sake, we can round off this number to the nearest integer and take it
as the mass number for atoms of this element.

1.8 Classifying elements

Each element has its own type of atom, and its own unique set of properties. However, most
elements fall into 2 main categories.

1.8.1 Metals and non-metals

Metal Non-metals

Appearance
Shing Duk

a > = Br
O mostly #did mostly gas
State at 25 C
C, PiS I
tlg.CO
etc
except some
-
,

Conductivity low fore exe carbon

High

①
• Malleable = rolled .
Brittle

into
streets
Physical properties
into
Ismay
→
ductile -
pulled
wires
[ arranged
deter wed
by how atoms .

18
 1.8.2 Semi-metal/Metalloids
-

There is a small group of elements which do not fit into the categories of metals or non-
metals. There group is known as semi-metals or metalloids.

They include: B Si Ae , As .

, ,

Properties – glass -
like Ta appeared .
Semi conductors ,

brittle hard solids

,

Note: Hydrogen is a unique element and is not easily classified. Physically, it has properties
-

similar to non-metals, but chemically it often reacts like a metal.

1.9 Metals and non-metals on the Periodic Table

Definition 17

Periodic Table is a chart devised to organise the elements into groups with similar properties.

non
-
melds

TIE:
metals

{
a

Ba
un

Ms

Note: non-metals occur near the top right of the table. Most of the other elements are metals. A
diagonal band of semi-metals separate the metals from the non-metals.

In each group; the undergo similar reactions. As you go down the table, it gets more and more
reactive.

Main groups of elements –

(+periods, columns + transition metals non-metals)

19
 Y11 Chemistry
Module 1: Properties and structure of matter

KNOWLEDGE WITHIN REACH.

 KNOWLEDGE. WITHIN REACH.

How do I study for Chemistry?

Here’s how. All you will need is 4hrs a week*.

• 2hrs of NEW content learning – this involves picking a few syllabus dot points to
focus on for the week (preferably early in the week) The goal is to increase your
Chemistry knowledge a little bit each week, which will add up over time. For
students who have purchased the Year 11 Chemistry Crash Course, we recommend
picking 2-4 videos to focus on for the week.

• 30 mins to 1hr of practical application – this involves applying the concepts you
have learnt earlier in the week by doing exam style questions. This could be from
textbook questions, past exam papers, or online questions. If you are struggling to
find relevant questions, check out our Year 11 Chemistry Question Bank or
Masterclass pre-work where we provide tailored questions for each concept.

• 30 mins to 1hr of revision – before you jump into learning new content, at the end
of each week, we recommend revising what you have learnt. The beauty of the
NESA syllabus is that the concepts build on each other. So… the more familiar you
are with the previous week’s work, the easier it will be to learn this week’s work.

How does this booklet fit in?

You should be using this booklet in combination with the Year 11 Chemistry Crash Course.
This combination will help maximise your study efficiency and ensure the 2hrs of NEW
content learning is high-yield. While you watch these videos, you should be taking notes
in this booklet. What you see in the videos correspond to what you see in this booklet.

For targeted application and revision resources, you should check out the Question Bank
and Masterclass options at:

www.thinktankedu.com.au/11chem

Questions?

Send us an email on hello@thinktankedu.com.au We will get back to you ASAP, so you

can get back to studying ASAP.

*Disclaimer: 4hrs a week is a rough guide on how long you should be spending on your Chemistry subject. This
excludes work you will be doing at school and hours will varying depending on student ability.

2
Last Edited: 1/2/22 Copyright © www.thinktankedu.com.au
 KNOWLEDGE. WITHIN REACH.

Section 1
Properties of matter

1.1 Atomic theory

In 1802, English scientist John Dalton presented the first atomic theory of matter. Dalton prosed that
all matter is made up of tiny spherical particles that are indivisible and indestructible. Dalton
described matter as elements or compounds.

1.1.1 Elements
Definition 1
Elements are pure substances composed entirely of one type of atom and therefore, cannot
be decomposed into simpler substances.

Example(s) –

1.1.2 Compounds

Definition 2
Compounds are substances that contain 2 (or more) types of atoms which are chemically
bonded together in a fixed ratio, and therefore can be decomposed into simpler substances.

Example(s) –

Note: Dalton’s atomic theory of matter has since been disproven with the discovery of subatomic
particles

3
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 KNOWLEDGE. WITHIN REACH.

1.1.3 Homogenous and heterogeneous mixtures

Matter can be classified as a pure substance (element or compound) or a mixture.

Definition 3
Mixture are impure substances that contain a combination of different elements and/or
compounds. In mixtures, there is no fixed ratio of substances and therefore there can be
variable composition.

Note: compounds are two or more elements chemically bonded together, mixtures are two or
more pure substances physically combined together.

Mixtures can be classified as –

1. Homogenous

Definition 4
Homogenous substances have uniform composition throughout. These substances are
considered pure.

e.g.

2. Heterogenous

Definition 5
Heterogeneous substances have non-uniform composition where there are substances or
materials of different varieties.

e.g.

4
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 KNOWLEDGE. WITHIN REACH.

1.1.4 Solutions

The most well-known homogenous mixture is a solution.

Definition 6
A solution has one or more solutes that are dissolved in a solvent. A solvent is a substance in
which the solute dissolves and a solute is a substance that dissolves in a solvent.

A solution can be dilute or concentrated, depending on the amount of solute in the solvent.

Water as a solvent:

§ Water is an excellent solvent. Almost all biological and industrial processes occur in water
– these systems are known as aqueous environments.

§ Aqueous solutions are formed when a solid, liquid or gas is dissolved in water.

Example(s) –

1.1.5 Suspensions and colloids

When a substance is mixed with a solvent, it does not always dissolve to form a solution. It
can form a suspension or a colloid.

Definition 7
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture, which visible distinguishable parts, that form
when a substance does not dissolve significantly.

Definition 8
A colloid is a mixture of particles that consists of smaller clusters of ions or molecules. They
are evenly dispersed throughout the solvent and do not settle on standing.

5
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 KNOWLEDGE. WITHIN REACH.

1.2 Physical properties and changes of state

1.2.1 Changes of state

Solid

Liquid Gas

1.2.2 Solids, liquids and gases

There are three states of mater:

Diagram 1
§

Diagram 2
§

6
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 KNOWLEDGE. WITHIN REACH.

Diagram 3
§

Note: It is harder to compress solids and liquids as the particles are quite close together, whereas it
is easy to compress gas because there are large spaces between the particles.

1.2.3 Summary

7
Last Edited: 1/2/22 Copyright © www.thinktankedu.com.au
 KNOWLEDGE. WITHIN REACH.

1.3 Separating mixtures

Since the different particles within a mixture are not all chemically bonded together, and since each
has different properties, they can be separated fairly easily by simple physical processes.

It is important that you can identify the “Difference in Properties” (D.I.P.) which allows each process
to separate the fractions of the mixture.

Theorem 1
Important points to remember when writing up a practical:

1.3.1 Solids of different sizes

Mixtures in which the particles of the different substances have different sizes can be
separated by sieving.

1.3.2 Separating undissolved solids and liquids

Definition 9
Filtration is a process where liquid or solution is passed through the filtration paper whilst
the solid remains on top.

Diagram:

8
Last Edited: 1/2/22 Copyright © www.thinktankedu.com.au
 KNOWLEDGE. WITHIN REACH.

When a solid is coarser or denser, a process of sedimentation and decantation can be used.

Definition 10
Sedimentation is the process in which solids settle to the bottom of a container. Decanting
and decantation is the process of carefully pouring off the liquid and leaving he solid
undisturbed at the bottom of the container.

Diagram:

1.3.3 Separating dissolved solids in liquids

When a solid is dissolved in a liquid, the mixture is called a ‘solution’ and therefore, filtration
techniques do not work.

The most common ways to separate a solution are:

Evaporation

Definition 11
Evaporation is a process of heating the liquid to a temperature below its boiling point so that
the liquid is slowly blown away into the air. Evaporate to dryness is when the solution is
heated so the evaporating basin has no remaining solvent.

Diagram:

9
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 KNOWLEDGE. WITHIN REACH.

Distillation

Definition 12
Distillation is a method of separating two or more liquids from one another or the separation
of liquid from the solids in solution. The liquid is heated till a vapour is formed, which is then
condensed back into liquid in a different part of the apparatus, thus separating the mixture.

Diagram:

10
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Example 1

Aim: To separate a mixture of water, sand and salt.

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1.4 Separating liquids

1.4.1 Separating immiscible liquids

Definition 13

Immiscible liquids are two or more liquids that do not mix to form a homogenous liquid.

Miscible liquids are liquids which when mixed, form a homogenous liquid.

Immiscible liquids, when left to stand for a period of time will separate into two distinct
layers, one of top of another.

Therefore, immiscible liquids can generally be separated using a separating funnel.

Diagram:

Explanation:

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1.4.1 Fractional Distillation (not important)

Definition 14
Fractional distillation is a process used to separate liquids by distillation when their boiling
points are similar; where distillation is performed several times.

This process is generally performed in industry for the separate of components of crude oil.
Crude oil consists of various hydrocarbons with different boiling points. This process is
carried out in a fractioning column.

1.5 Separating gas (Extension)

Gas mixtures are generally separated by either using differences in boiling points or differences in
solubilities in liquids such as water.

1.5.1 Difference in solubility

Some gases dissolve in liquid like water. Therefore, gases can be separated if there is a
difference in solubility between them.

Example – Hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S) and carbon dioxide can be separated by bubbling the
gas mixture through water where the H2S is dissolved out.

Diagram:

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1.6 Gravimetric analysis

We talked about separating mixtures. But under certain circumstances, we want to know the
quantitative composition of mixtures, that is, the know the mass of each substance that is present in a
given quantity of mixture, or alternatively, the per cent composition of the mixture.

Definition 15

Gravimetric analysis is determining the quantities (masses) of substances present in a

sample – i.e. analysis by weight or mass.

Example –

Aim: to determine the percentage of salt in saltwater.

Method:

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Example 2

A team of geologists discovered a new mineral in a remote desert location; it was a mixture
of barium sulphate and magnesium sulphate. Its composition was determined as follows.

They first ground up a 3.61g sample with water; magnesium sulphate dissolves and barium
sulphate does not. The barium sulphate was filtered off, dried and its mass determined to be
1.52 g. They evaporated the filtrate to dryness to recover the magnesium sulphate, and
determined its mass to be 2.07 g. Calculate the percentage composition of the sample.

Note: the sample contains no other substances apart from barium and magnesium sulphates.

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Example 3

A particularly keen student obtained water samples from the Dead Sea, while holidaying
in Jerusalem. He wanted to compare the percentage total salt of this seawater with that of
his hometown’s. Using school equipment, he determined the percentage of total salt in his
Dead Sea water sample. The results of his analysis is detailed below:
• mass of evaporating basin = 253.3 g
• mass of evaporating basin + seawater = 766.2 g
• mass of salt residue = 165.0 g

Calculate the percentage composition of the seawater sample. Show your working. (3
marks)

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Example 4

A dry mixture of soluble potassium sulphate and insoluble manganese dioxide was analysed
gravimetrically as follows:

A weighed sample was thoroughly stirred into pure water, then filtered through a pre-
weighed
filter paper. The collected residue was oven dried and weighed.
Meanwhile, the filtrate was boiled in a pre-weighed evaporating basin until a dry solid
formed, then weighed.

Data collected:

Mass of mixture sample = 4.96g
Mass of filter paper = 0.16g
Mass of paper + dried residue = 3.04g
Mass of evap. basin = 28.62g
Mass of basin + dry solid = 30.70g

i. Name the substance collected in the filter paper.
ii. Calculate the mass of this substance collected.
iii. Calculate the % of this substance in the mixture.
iv. Name the substance collected in the evap. basin.
v. Calculate the mass of this substance collected.
vi. Calculate the % of this substance in the mixture.
vii. What evidence is there that this analysis may be quite accurate?
viii. Describe one technique, not mentioned in the outline above, which might have
been done instead.

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1.6.1 Percentage composition

Example 5

A 152g sample of iron(II) sulfate was analysed and found to contain 37% iron and 21%
sulfur, and the remainder was oxygen. Determine the mass of each element in the
compound.

Example 6

A 75g glucose solution contains 5% glucose (40% carbon, 7% hydrogen and 53% oxygen)
and 95% water (11% hydrogen and 89% oxygen). Determine the percentage composition by
mass of each element in this mixture.

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1.7 Elements and the periodic table

1.7.1 Atom structure

The atoms of different elements have different masses according to how many protons and
neutrons are in the nucleus. Different models of atom structures will be discussed later in the
Section 3.

1.7.2 Atomic and Mass number

Definition 16
The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in each atom, which is also equal
to the number of electrons.

The mass number is the number of protons plus the neutrons in the nucleus of an atom of the
species concern.

Note: Because the electrons have such small masses compared to a proton or neutron, for
practical purposes, the mass of electrons can be ignored.

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The mass number is different to the atomic weight, which is the number shown on the periodic
table. However, for simplicity sake, we can round off this number to the nearest integer and take it
as the mass number for atoms of this element.

1.8 Classifying elements

Each element has its own type of atom, and its own unique set of properties. However, most
elements fall into 2 main categories.

1.8.1 Metals and non-metals

Metal Non-metals

Appearance

State at 25OC

Conductivity

Physical properties

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1.8.2 Semi-metal/Metalloids

There is a small group of elements which do not fit into the categories of metals or non-
metals. There group is known as semi-metals or metalloids.

They include:

Properties –

Note: Hydrogen is a unique element and is not easily classified. Physically, it has properties
similar to non-metals, but chemically it often reacts like a metal.

1.9 Metals and non-metals on the Periodic Table

Definition 17

Periodic Table is a chart devised to organise the elements into groups with similar
properties.

Note: non-metals occur near the top right of the table. Most of the other elements are metals. A
diagonal band of semi-metals separate the metals from the non-metals.

In each group; the undergo similar reactions. As you go down the table, it gets more and more
reactive.

Main groups of elements –

(+periods, columns + transition metals non-metals)

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For online lessons explaining the content in these notes, check out:

www.thinktankedu.com.au/11chem-crashcourse

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