A BIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICE

EFFECTIVENESS DURING INTENSIVE SILVICULTURE AND FOREST

CHEMICAL APPLICATION

JEFFERY L. VOWELL 1∗ and RUSSEL B. FRYDENBORG 2

1 Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Forestry, Tallahassee,
FL 32399-1650, U.S.A.; 2 Florida Department of Environmental Protection
(* author for correspondence, e-mail: vowellj@doacs.state.fl.us; phone: 850 414 9935;
fax: 850 488 0863)

Abstract. A multi-year study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of Florida’s Best Man-
agement Practices (BMPs) for protecting aquatic ecosystems during intensive forestry operations
and forest chemical applications. Five silviculture sites adjacent to stream systems were selected
for study from major eco-regions of the state. Replicate stream bioassessments, using a multimetric
approach (the Stream Condition Index), were conducted as part of a ‘before-after, control-impact’
(BACI) study design. Bioassessment stations were established above and below the treatment area to
determine pre-treatment reference and test conditions. Silviculture treatments of clearcut harvesting,
intensive mechanical site preparation and machine planting were then completed, during which all
applicable BMPs were adhered to. In addition, two sites received an herbicide application and one
site was fertilized. Following the treatments, the sites were re-sampled at the same points both one
year, and two years after the first bioassessment. No significant differences in the SCI were observed
between the reference and test portions of the streams that could be attributed to the silviculture
operations using BMPs. Hence, the study showed that BMPs provided protection to adjacent stream
ecosystems, even during intensive silviculture and forest chemical applications.

Keywords: best management practices, BMP effectiveness, bioassessment, benthic macroinverte-

brates, logging, forest chemicals, intensive silviculture

1. Introduction

A study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of Florida’s silviculture Best

Management Practices (BMP) in protecting water quality following silviculture
treatments. Implementation of silviculture BMPs in Florida is non-regulatory and
compliance with these practices by forest landowners is monitored biennially by
the Florida Division of Forestry (Division of Forestry, 2002). This study was one of
the early attempts in the southeastern U.S. to evaluate BMP effectiveness using bio-
criteria, i.e., where the principal measure of water quality was the Stream Condition
Index, a bioassessment methodology developed for Florida stream ecosystems
(Barbour et al., 1996a). This method was utilized to account for the transient
nature of forestry nonpoint-source pollution and the random nature of storm driven
discharges from forestry operations. The Stream Condition Index (SCI) recognizes

Water, Air, and Soil Pollution: Focus 4: 297–307, 2004.

© 2004 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.
298 J. L. VOWELL AND R. B. FRYDENBORG

that resident aquatic biota function as a continual natural monitor of water qual-
ity, habitat quality, and overall ecosystem health. Benthic macroinvertebrates in
particular are responsive to episodic and cumulative pollution, as well as aquatic
habitat alteration, and they integrate pollutant stressors over time. For that reason,
sampling for biological data on a yearly basis is considered adequate to measure
population changes for these organisms (Plafkin et al., 1989).
One year after silviculture treatments, the Stream Condition Index (SCI)
showed that aquatic habitat, water quality, and stream biota were not adversely
affected by intensive, silviculture operations that utilized Florida’s BMPs (Vowell,
2001). However, since only one post-treatment bioassessment was conducted,
there was some question about BMP effectiveness over a longer period. Although
benthic macroinvertebrates are sensitive to changes in habitat and water quality,
the first year post-treatment bioassessment may not have been sufficient to fully
integrate all possible treatment effects and exhibit a measurable population re-
sponse. Likewise, although the study sites received several rainfall events during
the months following treatments, the timing, intensity and duration of these events
may not have encompassed a wide spectrum of possible storm conditions and
seasonal variables. For these reasons, the study was extended a year to include
an additional bioassessment, and to include additional treatments of herbicides and
fertilization. This article is a report on the second year results of the initial silvi-
culture treatments, and the results associated with the additional forest chemical
treatments.

2. Study Sites and Methods

Four sites were selected the first year of the study and one additional site (Site 5)
was selected following the first year results (Figure 1). All five sites were located
adjacent to a perennial stream and selected to represent some of the state’s higher
slope and soil erodibility conditions associated with intensive silviculture. Site 1
was located on Jack Branch in Okaloosa county, Site 2 was located on San Julia
Branch in Gadsden county, Site 3 was located on Econfina River in Taylor county,
Site 4 was located on Thomas Creek in Clay county and Site 5 was located on
the Santa Fe River in Alachua county. Prior to silviculture treatments, all five
sites were slash pine plantations less than 35 years old. Roads were present on
all sites and three sites had road crossings on the stream above the treatment area.
Physical characteristics of the study sites are summarized in Table I. Total monthly
rainfall amounts for the study period were not notably different from the National
Weather Service 30-year normals. Rainfall occurred during every month following
treatments, thus providing the mechanism for potential nonpoint-source discharges.
Prior to the bioassessments, a reference (above the treatment area) and test
(below the treatment area) section was identified for the stream at each study site.
Each reference and test section was further divided into three 100 m segments for
 TABLE I
Physical description of BMP effectiveness sites, northern Florida

Site # – stream name Treated Watershed SMZa width/ Mean slope Florida ecoregion Soil type
area (ha) (ha) Stream lengthb (%)
(m)

1 – Jack Branch 49 204 10.6/1326 4 Southern pine plains Fine, sandy,

and hills loam

2 – San Julian Branch 32 163 10.6/1426 10 Tifton upland, Loamy, fine,

Tallahassee hills sand

3 – Econfina River 26 51,446 60.9/1653 2 Gulf coastal Fine sand

flatwoods

4 – Thomas Creek 32 286 10.6/872 8 Central Florida Fine sand

ridges and uplands

5 – Santa Fe River 192 25,000 60.9/1408 4 Central Florida Fine sand

ridges and uplands

a SMZ = Special Management Zone; Primary SMZ width = 10.6 m for streams < 6.1 m wide, 22.9 m for streams 6.1–12.2 m wide, and
60.9 m for streams > 12.2 m; all Outstanding Florida Waters and Class I waters require a 60.9 m Primary SMZ regardless of stream width.
b Stream length refers to the length of the stream within the treatment area at each site.
A BIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICE EFFECTIVENESS
299
300 J. L. VOWELL AND R. B. FRYDENBORG

Figure 1. Location of BMP effectiveness study sides, northern Florida (Griffith et al., 1994.

replication of the measurements. The bioassessments were conducted within each

stream segment and consisted of an aquatic habitat assessment and stream sampling
for benthic macroinvertebrates to calculate the SCI. Pre-treatment bioassessments
were performed in February 1996 for Sites 1 through 4 and in August of 1998
for Site 5. First year post-treatment bioassessments were preformed at Sites 1,
2, and 4 in February 1997. Site 3 was postponed until March of 1997, due to
high streamflow conditions, (which prevented adherence to the sampling Standard
Operating Procedure). Second year post-treatment bioassessments were preformed
at Sites 1 thorough 4 in February 1998, and a third post-treatment bioassessment at
Sites 1 and 4 was conducted in July 1998 following herbicide application at these
two sites in May 1998. A post-treatment bioassessment for Site 5 was conducted
in November 1998 following a fertilizer application in September 1998.
Habitat assessments were based on visual observations and measurements of
physical stream attributes, specifically: substrate type and availability, water velo-
city, degree of artificial channelization, habitat smothering, stream bank stability,
riparian buffer width, and riparian buffer quality (Barbour et al., 1996b). This
procedure generated a numerical value for each stream segment, from which an
 A BIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICE EFFECTIVENESS 301

average value was computed for the reference and test section of each stream,
before and after treatments. Habitat assessment values were ranked from poor to
optimal by comparing observations to ecoregion reference conditions.
The Stream Condition Index also provided a numerical, average value for the
reference and test section of each stream before and after treatments. The SCI
values were based on benthic macroinvertebrate sampling which generated a com-
posite score for the following biological metrics: taxa richness, Florida index, EPT
index, % filter feeders, number of chironomidae taxa, % dominance, % diptera.
Sampling for benthic macroinvertebrates utilized a ‘20 dip-net sweep’ method de-
veloped specifically for the SCI (Barbour et al., 1996b). Using a D-frame, dip-net,
20 one-half meter sweeps were taken within each 100 m segment, with the sweeps
divided equally among stream habitat types. For example, habitat types at Site 1
included leaf packs, roots, woody debris and sand. Hence, five one-meter sweeps
were collected for each substrate type, within each segment of the reference and
test sections of the stream. Material collected from each 20 dip-net sweep was
preserved with formalin (10% concentration) and transported to the laboratory,
where the organisms from the samples were identified and enumerated. SCI values
were determined for each 100 m segment within the reference and test section of
each stream, then a composite index score (the SCI value) was computed for each
section. For the ecoregions in this study, SCI values of 27 or above were ranked
excellent, while those between 21 and 26 were ranked good. An SCI value below 21
would be ranked poor, and severely degraded if below 11. In addition, one segment
of the reference and test sections on each stream was grab sampled for standard
water chemistry analysis. Water samples were analyzed for dissolved oxygen, pH,
conductivity, temperature, total suspended solids, turbidity, color, nutrients and co-
liform bacteria. During the July 1998 bioassessment on Site 1 and Site 4, special
water samples were collected and analyzed for the presence of Imazapyr/Triclopyr
(Site 1), and Hexazinone/Sulfometuronmethyl (Site 4). At Site 5, periphyton was
qualitatively sampled in the Santa Fe River both prior to and after the fertilizer
application, to measure changes in algae community structure. All sampling and
laboratory analysis were conducted by the Florida Department of Environmental
Protection, Bureau of Laboratories.
The initial silviculture treatments began at Sites 1 through 4 within three weeks
after the pre-treatment sampling. Beginning with timber harvesting, treatments
were conducted on one side of the stream within the treatment area at each site.
Using tracked, mechanized harvesters, the timber was clearcut by early spring,
1996. After timber harvesting, mechanical site preparation was conducted includ-
ing roller-drum chopping, raking and burning of debris, and soil bedding (Table II).
Sites 1, 2 and 4 were machine planted with slash pine (Pinus elliotti) and Site 3 was
machine planted with longleaf pine (P. palustris). The herbicide treatment on Site
1 was a broadcast application of Imazapyr/Triclopyr at a rate of 0.77 liters/hectare,
and was aerially applied in May, 1998. Also in May 1998, Site 4 received a ground
application of Hexazinone/Sulfometuronmethyl at a rate of 0.07 liters/hectare, ap-
302 J. L. VOWELL AND R. B. FRYDENBORG

TABLE II
Chronology of sampling events and silviculture treatments by BMP effectiveness sites, north-
ern Florida, 1996–1998; planting occurred in 1997, except for Site 3 which was planted in
(Dec) 1996; all other silviculture activities occurred in 1996.

Site # Pre- Timber Chopped Burned Raked Bedded Planted Post- Post-
treatment harvest treatment treatment
Sampling Sampling Sampling
(1996) (1997) (1998)

1 Feb Mar Nov None Dec Dec Jan Feb Feb

2 Feb Mar May May July Sep Jan Feb Feb
3 Feb Apr Aug Sep Sep None Dec Mar Feb
4 Feb Mar Jun Jul Jul Sep Jan Feb Feb

plied over the top of the planted pines (banded). In September, 1998 Site 5 received
an aerial application of di-ammonium phosphate (DAP) at a rate of 280kg/hectare.
During treatments, all applicable BMPs were implemented, including a Primary
Special Management Zone (SMZ) along the treatment section of each stream. Ac-
cording to the BMP manual (Division of Forestry, 2000), roads, primary skid trails,
clearcut harvesting, mechanical site preparation, and herbicide and fertilizer ap-
plications were prohibited within the Primary SMZ to protect water quality. Also,
timber harvesting was limited to 50% of the stand within the SMZ, with no har-
vesting of trees in the streams or on the immediate stream banks. The width of the
Primary SMZ was based on stream width or special designation and ranged from
10.6 m to 60.9 m (Table I). The Primary SMZ was considered crucial for protecting
water quality and ecosystem health, particularly as measured by stream bioassess-
ments. Because benthic macroinvertebrate community structure is linked to water
quality and stream habitat, these organisms are sensitive to silviculture activities
that affect the riparian area. Specifically, harvesting timber without maintaining
a Primary SMZ would likely result in elevated water temperatures, increases in
sediment delivery and turbidity, and altered inputs of detritus and woody debris.
Special Management Zones are also considered important in minimizing or elim-
inating water quality impacts from the application of herbicides and fertilizer, on
forest lands with adjacent water resource features (NCASI, 1992). Silviculture
activities, including forest chemical applications, without effective BMPs, could
result in beneficial use impairment, even within a single storm.
The time between initial treatments and the second year post-treatment sampling
varied among sites from 14 to 23 months (Table II). Time between forest chemical
treatments and post-treatment sampling was two months (Table III). Given the
nature of the silviculture treatments and the sensitivity of the aquatic organisms
being sampled, the time allowed for treatment effects was believed adequate for
determining BMP effectiveness.
 A BIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICE EFFECTIVENESS 303
TABLE III
Chronology of sampling events forest chemical treatments by BMP effectiveness sites,
northern Florida, 1997–1998

Site# Pre-treatment sampling Chemical treatment Post-treatment sampling

1 February 1998 Imazapyr/Triclopyr – July 1998

May 1998

4 February 1998 Hexazinone/Sulfometuron- July 1998

methyl – May 1998

5 August 1998 Di-ammonium phosphate November 1998

(DAP) – September 1998

Water chemistry, aquatic habitat assessments, SCI and periphyton data were
all evaluated before and after treatments. However, the SCI was considered the
principal measure of water quality, stream ecosystem health and hence, BMP ef-
fectiveness. In that regard, statistical analyses were performed for the SCI data.
Specifically, analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine potentially sig-
nificant time effects, treatment effects, and time by treatment interactions. The SCI
data for each site were log10-transformed prior to running the ANOVA analyses
using SPlus 2000 Professional Release 2. This technique is commonly performed
for biological data to ensure a relatively consistent range of values prior to analysis.
A separate ANOVA was run for each site since they were sampled on different
days. The ANOVA tables have terms for ‘treatment’ (reference versus test), ‘time’
(each sample date), ‘treatment by time’ interaction, and error. A summary of the
results is found in Table VI.

3. Results and Discussion

Water chemistry results showed no substantial differences between pre-treatment

and post-treatment water quality at any of the study sites, and there was no detec-
tion of chemicals (detection limit was less than 0.12 micrograms/liter) associated
with the herbicide treatments (Bureau of Laboratories, 2002). Minor differences in
some water quality parameters were considered part of the natural variability of
stream conditions. Dissolved oxygen ranged from 6.2 to 9.0 mg/L, well above the
Florida Class III minimum standard of 5.0 mg/L. Likewise, temperature and pH
ranged from 11.0 to19.9 (◦ C), and 4.8 to 7.6 (SU), respectively. Turbidity ranged
from 1.1 to 3.3 (NTU) and conductivity ranged from 10 to 30 µmhos/cm, except
for Site 3 where the range was 290 to 322 µ mhos/cm. The higher conductivity at
304 J. L. VOWELL AND R. B. FRYDENBORG

TABLE IV
Average habitat assessment values by location, sample period, and site, northern Florida, 1996–1998

Site # Reference section Test section Reference section Test section

Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Pre- Post-
treat- treat- treat- treat- treat- treat- treat- treat-
ment ment ment ment ment ment ment ment
(1996) (1997) (1996) (1997) (1998) (1998) (1998) (1998)

1 129.0 136.0 121.7 126.0 N/A 134.0 N/A 136.0

(118.3) (126.0)
2 127.0 121.7 123.0 115.7 N/A 111.0 N/A 113.3
3 145.0 131.3 145.0 134.3 N/A 128.0 N/A 141.3
4 121.0 113.0 121.6 112.7 N/A 131.3 N/A 119.6
(131.3) (119.6)
5 N/A N/A N/A N/A 135.0 140.0 140.0 146.0

Values in parenthesis are associated with the forest chemical treatments.

TABLE V
Average Stream Condiiton Index (SCI) values by location, sample period, and site, northern Florida,
1996–1998

Site # Reference section Test section Reference section Test section

Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Pre- Post-
treat- treat- treat- treat- treat- treat- treat- treat-
ment ment ment ment ment ment ment ment
(1996) (1997) (1996) (1997) (1998) (1998) (1998) (1998)

1 29.7 27.0 28.3 27.7 N/A 22.3 N/A 30.3

(29.7) (28.3)
2 26.3 25.7 23.0 25.0 N/A 23.7 N/A 25.7
3 33.0 31.7 33.0 31.0 N/A 29.0 N/A 28.3
4 31.7 32.3 30.3 32.3 N/A 30.3 N/A 32.3
(32.3) (33.0)
5 N/A N/A N/A N/A 25.0 29.7 29.0 32.7

SCI values in parenthesis are associated with the forest chemical treatments.

Site 3 was attributed to the natural limestone outcroppings that dominate the stream
substrate. Nutrients levels were relatively low at all sites, including Site 5 where
the fertilization treatment was conducted. The maximum value for total phosphorus
was 0.097 mg/l, with ammonia at 0.24 mg/l, and nitrate-nitrite at 0.045 mg/l. These
and all other water chemistry parameters were within the expected range of values
 A BIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICE EFFECTIVENESS 305
TABLE VI
ANOVA results for Stream Condition Index values per site over time, northern
Florida, 1996–1998

Site # Time effect Treatment effect Time by treatment interaction

1 NS a NS NS
2 NS NS NS
3 p = 0.03 c NS NS
4 NS NS NS
5 p = 0.01b p = 0.005 b NS
a NS = not statistically significant.
b SCI in 8/98 was lower than in 11/98 and was lower at the reference than the test
site.
c There was a difference in the average SCI for each time period (33 in 2/96, 32 in
4/97, 31 in 5/98).

for unpolluted stream conditions in Florida, both before and after treatments, and
above and below the treated areas (Department of Environmental Protection, 1991).
Average habitat assessment values within the reference and test segments of
each stream were within the ‘optimal’ range (≥ 112) both before and after silvi-
culture treatments for all post-treatment samples (Table III). However, there were
notable changes in the scores for water velocity and riparian zone width. The water
velocity score changed from optimal (0.25 to 0.99 m/sec) to suboptimal (0.1 to
0.25 m/sec) at Sites 2, 3, 4 and 5, but remained optimal at Site 1. This change at
Sites 2, 3 and 4 was considered to be minor, temporal variability due to lack of
antecedent rainfall and was not attributed to the treatments. Riparian buffer width
scores changed from optimal (> 18 m) to marginal (6 to 12 m) at Sites 1, 2 and 4,
but remained optimal at Site 3 and 5. The lower scores for riparian buffer width
at Sites 1, 2 and 4 occurred because clearcut timber harvesting was allowed to
within 10.6 m of the stream. This distance is the required width of the Primary
SMZ for streams less than 6.1 m wide. The riparian buffer width score at Site 3
and 5 remained optimal after treatments because the stream was greater than 12.2
m wide and hence, required a Primary SMZ of 60.9 m.
With the exception of the reference site in February, 1998, the SCI values for
all pre-treatment, and post treatment samples at Site 1were in the excellent range
(≥ 27). There were no significant differences in SCI values between the reference
and test sections for pre-treatment or post-treatment samples (Table V). The some-
what lower score at the reference site in February, 1998, was thought to be due
to lack of sampling efficiency associated with high water conditions. At Site 2,
there also were no significant time effects, treatment effects, or time by treatment
interactions attributable to the forestry activities. Although ranked in the ‘good’
category, the SCI values at San Julia Branch were the lowest of the four sites,
306 J. L. VOWELL AND R. B. FRYDENBORG

probably due to the location of these stations at the extreme headwaters of the
stream, resulting in reduced macroinvertebrate recruitment from upstream areas.
Again, lack of significant differences between reference and test sites, both pre-
and post treatment, indicate no effect from the silviculture activities.
Mean SCI values at Site 3 were among the highest of the five study sites, ranking
in the mid to upper range of the excellent category for all samples in all sampling
periods. There was a very slight, but statistically significant (p = 0.03) decrease
in the SCI values over time, reducing from 33 in 1996, to 32 in 1997, to 31 in
1998. However, this was not a treatment effect and no significant differences in
SCI values were associated with silviculture treatments (Table VI).
Site 4 was similar to Site 3 in terms of having relatively high SCI rankings
at all stations in all samplings. All mean SCI values were in the excellent range,
and SCI values displayed no significant time effects, treatment effects, or time by
treatment interactions. Site 5 received one pre-treatment and one post-treatment
SCI sampling. This site was selected for the purpose of evaluating the BMPs
associated with forest fertilization. Prior to the study, Site 5 had been clearcut,
chopped, bedded and planted to loblolly pine (pinus taeda) in 1994. To the ex-
tent discernable, BMPs appeared to have been followed during the silviculture
treatments and were likewise followed during fertilization. The SCI values were
significantly higher during the post-treatment sampling, and the test site SCI was
significantly higher than the reference site (Table VI). It is thought that lower wa-
ter (improved sampling conditions) was responsible for the higher scores during
the post-treatment sampling. The higher SCI score at the test site may have been
associated with differences in stream channel morphology between the reference
(swampy edges) and test site (more defined banks).

4. Conclusions

The BMPs evaluated for effectiveness in this study include those associated with
clearcut harvesting, intensive mechanical site preparation, banded and broadcast
application of herbicide and aerial fertilization. Based on the water chemistry,
habitat assessment and SCI data, these BMPs were effective in protecting aquatic
habitat and water quality well beyond the initiation of the silviculture operations.
Both the first year and second year post-treatment SCI values for Sites 1 through 4
showed healthy stream ecosystems, and no evidence of impacts or impairment of
designated beneficial use of the streams.
Unlike timber harvesting, site preparation and tree planting, the forest chemical
treatments were not replicated in this study. However, these activities were part
of the total silviculture operations evaluated, and typical for industrial and non-
industrial forestlands throughout the southeastern U.S. In that regard, the healthy
aquatic habitat, plants and organisms observed in the study both before and after
the herbicide and fertilizer treatments, points to the effectiveness of BMPs - as an
 A BIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICE EFFECTIVENESS 307

overall system of practices - and to the usefulness of bioassessments in making

such determinations.

Acknowledgements

E. Livingston and Bureau of Laboratories staff with the Florida Department

of Environmental Protection, Tallahassee, provided expertise in designing and
conducting the technical aspects of the sampling and data analysis. The U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency provided funding to conduct the study. The
Champion International Corporation, St. Joseph Land and Development Company,
Gilman Paper Company, Foley Land and Timber Company, Rayonier Corporation
and the Suwannee River Water Management District provided the study sites and
performed specific silviculture treatments.

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