Chapter 4 Genetic Inheritance Sb015

CHAPTER 4:
GENETIC INHERITANCE
(2H L + 7H T)
4.0 Genetic Inheritance
4.1 Mendelian genetics
4.2 Deviations from the Mendelian Inheritance
4.3 Genetic mapping

Learning outcomes
4.1 Mendelian genetics :
a) Define the terminologies used in genetic inheritance C1
b) State the characteristics of Mendel’s pea plants C1
c) State Mendel’s first law (Law of Segregation) C1
d) Construct genetic diagram on the monohybrid cross and include the C4
genotypic ratio (1:2:1) & penotypic ratio (3:1) of F2 generation
e) Construct genetic diagram on the monohybrid test cross and include C4
the genotypic ratio (1:1) & penotypic ratio (1:1) of F2 generation
f) State Mendel’s second law (Law of Independent Assortment) C1
g) Construct genetic diagram on Mendelian dihybrid cross and include C4
only the phenotypic ratio (9:3:3:1) of F2 generation using punnet
square.
g) Construct genetic diagram on Mendelian dihybrid test cross and C4
include the phenotypic ratio (1:1:1:1) of F2 generation using punnet
square.
INTRODUCTION
• Genetic inheritance is science of heredity

• Genetic information can be passed from parent to the offspring
• Study genetic similarities & genetic variation between parents
and offspring
• Relate with the behaviour of chromosomes during meiosis
Learning Outcomes : LECTURE
4.1 (a) Define terminologies used in genetic inheritance
Terminologies
1. Alleles 7. Heterozygous
2. Genes 8. Dominant
3. Locus 9. Recessive
4. Genotype 10. Self cross
5. Phenotype 11. Test cross
6. Homozygous
1. Allele
• One of the alternate forms of a gene
• That occupies the same location on homologous chromosome
• Causes different development of the same trait
• Eg: gene for flower colour has 2 forms or alleles; ‘purple’ & ‘white’
Gene
Alleles
Purple White Flower colour
A A Purple White
Alleles
Yellow B B Green Seed colour
Yellow Green
Alleles
Round C C Wrinkle Seed shape
Round Wrinkle
A pair of homologous
chromosome
1. Allele
• A gene usually has 2 alternative alleles
• Eg: Gene for flower colour; alleles for purple & white flower
• Alleles are usually represented by the same alphabet
• Eg: Alphabet P : Allele P ~ for purple flower
: Allele p ~ for white flower
• One individual must always has 2 alleles for each gene (can be
any combination of the 2 alternative alleles)
Individual Allelic pairs

Plant A Purple (P) Purple (P)
Plant B Purple (P) White (p)
Plant C White (p) White (p)
1. Allele – symbol of alleles
Genes Allelic pairs Genotype Observed traits
Flower colour P P PP Purple

P p Pp Purple
p P Pp Purple
p p pp White
2. Gene
• A segment of DNA that act as a unit of hereditary information

• It codes for specific protein that determines a specific character
• Eg: gene for flower colour, seed colour and seed shaped
Flower colour Seed colour Seed shape
A BD C
Gene A Gene B Gene C

3. Locus
• A location of a specific gene on a chromosome
• Alleles of a gene are located at the same locus on homologous
chromosome
Loci: Gene
Alleles
Purple White Flower colour
A a Purple White
Alleles
Yellow B b Green Seed colour Yellow Green
Alleles
Round C c Wrinkle Seed shape Round Wrinkle
A pair of homologous
chromosome
4. Genotype
• The genetic constitution of an individual

• With respect to the alleles under consideration
• The combination of alleles it has for a specific gene
• Eg: Pp
5. Phenotype
• Observable characteristic of an individual

• Which is determined by its genotype & by the interaction
between genotype & environment in which development occurs
• Eg: Genotype : Pp Phenotype : Purple flower
6. Homozygous
• A diploid organism which has 2 identical alleles for a character
at a given locus on homologous chromosome
• Eg: PP – homozygous dominant
• Eg: pp – homozygous recessive
7. Heterozygous
• Eg: Pp – heterozygous
• A diploid organism which has 2 different alleles for a character
at a given locus on homologous chromosome
8. Dominant
• Alleles which is fully expressed when it is present ; even in the

presence of another allele
• Has same character; both in homozygous and heterozygous
condition
• Symbol using capital letter (eg: allele P)
• Eg: PP ~ purple flower; Pp ~ purple flower
9. Recessive
• Symbol using small letter

• (eg: allele p) Eg: pp ~ white flower
• Alleles which express its trait only in the presence of another
identical allele (homozygous condition)
10. Self cross
• A cross between
male and female
from the same
plants or same
generation
Source from; Pollination:Self and Cross

Pollination ~ WORLD WIDE THINGS
(krishnaworldwide.blogspot.com)
11. Test cross
• A cross between a recessive homozygous eg. (tt) with an

organism to determine the genotype eg. either TT/Tt
• If all the offspring show the dominant characteristic, the
unknown organism is homozygous (TT)
• But if half show the recessive characteristic (tt), the unknown
organism is heterozygous (Tt)
Character
• A heritable feature that varies among

individuals
• Eg: flower colour & height
Trait: purple flower
Trait
• Each variant for a character of individuals

• Character: flower colour
• Traits : purple flower, white flower
Trait: white flower
4.1 (b) State the characteristics of Mendel’s pea plants
• Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk who begins to study the

inheritance of garden peas in 1856
• Mendel study genetic inheritance in pea plant (Pisum sativum)

because of 5 reasons :
1) Easy to grow in large numbers

2) Short life cycle
3) Many easily observable characteristics

⮚ 7 characteristics of pea plant
4
4.1 (b) Describe the characteristics of Mendel’s pea plants
3) Many easily observable characteristics

⮚ 7 characteristics of pea plant
7

because:
4) Pollination could be easily controlled
(Has close reproductive structure inside petals)
Male
gametes
Female (pollen)
gametes
(ovum)
Intact pea flower Flower dissected to show

reproductive structures
4.1 (b) Describe the characteristics of Mendel’s pea plants

because:
5) Have both male & female parts
(Can be manipulated; can self pollinate, cross
pollinate)
Male
gametes
Female (pollen)
gametes
(ovum)
Intact pea flower Flower dissected to show

reproductive structures
4.1 (c) State Mendel’s first law (Law of Segregation)
Mendel’s 1st Law ~ “Law of Segregation”

• Each characteristic is controlled by 2 factors (alleles) which
separate and pass into different gametes
• Gametes receive only one allele from each pair
Learning Outcomes :
4.1 (c) State Mendel’s first law (Law of Segregation) LECTURE
P P Replication
P P P P
Individual genotype : PP
Purple flower (true breed)
Meiosis I
P P P P
Meiosis II Meiosis II
P P P P
Gamete : P Gamete : P Gamete : P Gamete : P

Learning Outcomes :
4.1 (c) State Mendel’s first law (Law of Segregation)
LECTURE
p p Replication
p p p p
Individual genotype : pp
White flower (true breed)
Meiosis I
p p p p
p p p p
Gamete : p Gamete : p Gamete : p Gamete : p

Learning Outcomes :
4.1 (c) State Mendel’s first law (Law of Segregation) LECTURE
P p Replication
P P p p
Individual genotype : Pp
F1 generation (purple flower)
Meiosis I
P P p p
P P p p
Gamete : P Gamete : P Gamete : p Gamete : p

Learning Outcomes : TUTORIAL
4.1 (d) Construct genetic diagram on the monohybrid cross and include the genotypic ratio (1:2:1)
and phenotypic ratio (3:1) of F2 Generation.
Monohybrid Cross
• Only 1 characteristic is observed
• Eg: flower colour
• Involves crossing between 2 individuals (true breeding) with
different phenotypes:-
i. purple flower (homozygous dominant, PP)
ii. white flower (homozygous recessive, pp)
PP P p pp Allele P : dominant allele for purple flower

Allele p : recessive allele for white flower
X
Mendel’s Experiment
• 3 steps of Mendel’s experiment :
1) Produce P generation (true breeding)
2) Produce F1 generation
• Mendel study traits in 3 generations of pea plant
True or Pure Breed

• Organisms that are homozygous for the trait under
consideration
• When they are self fertilized, they produce offspring that has
the same phenotype as the parent; generation after
generation
• Consider only 1 specific
character, eg. flower colour
• Eg: Pure breed for white flower
colour; pp
Step 1 : Produce P generation (True breeding plants)
• Mendel select plants with 2 varieties (has different traits)

• Eg: purple flower & white flower plant
• These plants were allowed to self pollinate for several generations
Step 1 : Produce P generation (True breeding plants)
• Seeds collected from purple

flowered plants is planted
• Their offspring always
produce purple flowered Seeds from pod
are planted
plants (and white produce
white)
• These 2 varieties of true
breeding plants is known as
parental or P generation
Step 2 : Produce F1 generation
• Mendel remove the stamens

from purple flowered plant
• Pollen from white flower is
transferred to the stigma of
purple flower (cross fertilized)
• Seeds obtained is planted
RESULTS
• All offspring → purple flower
• Offspring is first filial or F1
generation
P : dominant allele for purple flower; p : recessive allele for white flower
P: PP X pp
(Purple flower) (White flower)
meiosis
G: P p
F1 : Pp (Purple flower)
F1 genotype ratio : All Pp

F1 phenotype ratio: All purple flower
F1 X F1 : Pp X Pp
meiosis
G: P p P p
F2 : PP Pp Pp pp
(Purple) (Purple) (Purple) (White)
F2 genotype ratio : 1 PP : 2 Pp : 1 pp
F2 phenotype ratio : 3 Purple : 1 White

Punnett Square
• A diagram used to show all possible combination of alleles in
gametes produced by parental generation to predict the
possible genotype of offspring
• All possible male gamete are written horizontally along the top &
all possible female gamete are written vertically
• The possible combinations of gametes are written into the grid
P : Pp x Pp
Male gamete
Female gamete
P p
P PP Pp
p Pp pp
Result of Mendel’s F1 Crosses for 7 Characteristics
Character Dominant/recessive F2 generation Ratio

trait (dominant : recessive)
1) Flower colour Purple / white 705 : 224 3.15 : 1

2) Flower position Axial / terminal 651 : 207 3.14 : 1
3) Seed color Yellow / green 6022 : 2001 3.01 : 1
4) Seed shape Round / wrinkled 5474 : 1850 2.96 : 1

5) Pod color Yellow / green 428 : 152 2.82 : 1
6) Pod shape Inflated / constricted 882 : 299 2.95 : 1
7) Stem length Tall / dwarf 787 : 277 2.84 : 1
4.1 (e) Construct genetic diagram on the monohybrid test cross and include the genotypic ratio (1:1)
and phenotypic ratio (1:1).
Test cross
• A cross between a homozygous recessive individual with an

organism of dominant phenotype but unknown genotype
• To determine the exact genotype of unknown genotype
Prediction :-
• If all offspring show dominant phenotype, genotype of
unknown parent → homozygous dominant
• If half of the offspring show dominant phenotype & another
half offspring show recessive phenotype, genotype of
unknown parent → heterozygous
Monohybrid F1 Test Cross

• Test cross :-
i. Dominant phenotype (F1 : purple flower, PP or Pp)
ii. Homozygous recessive (white flower, pp)
(Purple) (White) (Purple) (White)

F1 : PP X pp F1 : Pp X pp
G: P p G: P p p
F2 : Pp F2 : Pp pp
(Purple) (Purple) (White)
F2 phenotype ratio:- All purple F2 phenotypic ratio:- 1 purple : 1 white

Monohybrid F1 Test Cross
F1 test cross: Pp X pp
meiosis
G: P p p
fertilization
F2 : Pp pp
(Purple) (White)
F2 genotype ratio : 1 Pp : 1 pp
F2 phenotype ratio : 1 Purple : 1 White

TUTORIAL
Summary ~ Monohybrid Crossing
• F1 self cross (Pp x Pp) :-

F2 genotype ratio : 1 PP : 2 Pp : 1 pp
F2 phenotype ratio: 3 Purple : 1 White
• F1 test cross (Pp x pp) :-

F2 genotype ratio : 1 Pp : 1 pp
F2 phenotype ratio: 1 purple : 1 white

4.1 (f) State Mendel’s second law (Law of Independent Assortment)
Mendel’s 2nd Law ~ Law of Independent Assortment
• By the end of meiosis, genes on pairs of homologous

chromosomes separate independently to another pairs of
homologous chromosomes
Y : dominant allele for yellow seed; y : recessive allele for green seed
R : dominant allele for round seed; r : recessive allele for wrinkle seed
P: YYRR X yyrr
meiosis
G: YR yr
F1 : YyRr
F1 x F1 : YyRr X YyRr
G: YR Yr yR yr YR Yr yR yr
F2: Four types of gametes are produced in F1 generation

Y y Y Y y y
Replication
R r R R r r
Meiosis I
Y Y y y Y Y y y
or
R R r r r r R R
LECTURE
Possibility 1 Y Yy y Possibility 2
R Rr r
Y Y y y Y Y y y
Meiosis I
R Rr r r r R R
Y Y y y Y Y y y
R R r r r r R R
Y Y y y Y Y y y
R R r r r r R R
YR YR yr yr Yr Yr yR yR
4.1 (g) Construct genetic diagram on Mendelian dihybrid cross and include only phenotypic ratio
(9:3:3:1) of F2 generation using punnet square.
Dihybrid Cross
• 2 characteristics are observed
• Eg: 1) seed colour
2) seed shape
• Involves crossing between 2 individuals (true breeding) with
different phenotypes
i. Yellow round seed (homozygous dominant, YYRR)
ii. Green wrinkle seed (homozygous recessive, yyrr)
Y y Allele Y : dominant allele for yellow

seed
Allele R
Allele y :: dominant
recessive allele
allele for
for round
green
R r seed
seed
Allele r : recessive allele for wrinkle
seed
Mendel’s Experiment
• 3 steps of Mendel’s experiment :
1) Produce P generation (true breeding)
• Mendel study traits in 3 generations of pea plant

Dihybrid Cross
1. Produce P generation (true breeding parents)
⮚ yellow round seed (YYRR) and green wrinkle seed (yyrr)
Dihybrid Cross
2. Produce F1 generation
⮚ 2 true breeding varieties is cross fertilized
⮚ Results : All F1 offspring have yellow & round seed
F1
Dihybrid Cross
3. Produce F2 generation
⮚ F1 is self fertilized to produce F2 generation
F1 X F1
F2 generation
R : dominant allele for round seed; r : recessive allele for wrinkle seed
P: YYRR X yyrr
(Yellow round) (green wrinkle)
meiosis
G: YR yr
F1 : YyRr (Yellow round)
F1 genotype ratio : All YyRr

F1 phenotype ratio : All yellow, round seed
F1 x F1 : YyRr X YyRr
(Yellow round) (yellow round)
meiosis
G: YR Yr yR yr YR Yr yR yr
F2: Punnett square

YR Yr yR yr
YR YYRR YYRr YyRR YyRr

Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow
round round round round
Yr YYRr YYrr YyRr Yyrr

Yellow Yellow wrinkle Yellow Yellow wrinkle
round round
yR YyRR YyRr yyRR yyRr
Yellow Yellow Green round Green round
round round
yr YyRr YYrr yyRR yyrr

Yellow Yellow wrinkle Green round Green wrinkle
round
F2 phenotype ratio :-
9 (yellow round) : 3 (yellow wrinkle) : 3 (green round) : 1 (green wrinkle)
YR Yr yR yr
YR YYRR YYRr YyRR YyRr

Yellow round Yellow round Yellow round Yellow round
Yr YYRr YYrr YyRr Yyrr

Yellow round Yellow wrinkle Yellow round Yellow wrinkle
yR YyRR YyRr yyRR yyRr

Yellow round Yellow round Green round Green round
yr YyRr YYrr yyRR yyrr

Yellow round Yellow wrinkle Green round Green wrinkle
4.1 (h) Construct genetic diagram on Mendelian dihybrid test cross and include the phenotypic ratio
Dihybrid Test Cross
• The genotype RRYY, RRYy, RrYY and RrYy all have the phenotype
round and yellow. A test cross can be carried out to determine the
genotype of the plant.
• Eg:
If the double heterozygote is crossed with a double homozygous
recessive, a genotype and phenotype ratio is 1:1:1:1 is
obtained
Dihybrid Test Cross

• Test cross :-
Dominant phenotype (F1 : yellow round, YyRr)
Homozygous recessive (green wrinkled, yyrr)
F1 test cross: YyRr X yyrr
G: YR Yr yR yr yr
F2 generation: YyRr Yyrr yyRr yyrr

Dihybrid Test Cross
YR Yr yR yr
yr YyRr Yyrr yyRR yyrr

Yellow Yellow wrinkle Green round Green wrinkle
round
TUTORIAL
Summary ~ Dihybrid Crossing
• F1 self cross (YyRr x YyRr) :-

F2 phenotype ratio: 9 : 3 : 3 : 1
• F1 test cross (YyRr x yyrr) :-

F2 genotype ratio : 1 YyRr : 1 Yyrr : 1 yyRr : 1 yyrr
F2 phenotype ratio: 1 : 1 : 1 : 1
Learning outcomes
4.2 Deviations from the Mendelian Inheritance:
a) Explain briefly types of inheritance that deviate from Mendelian: C2
i) Codominat alleles: Construct the genetic diagram to show C4
codominant alleles using human MN blood group and include
phenotypic ratio and genotypic ratio (1:2:1)
ii) Incomplete dominant alleles: Construct genetic diagram to show C4
incomplete dominant alleles and include phenotypic ratio (1:2:1) and
genotypic ratio by using Antirrhinum sp. (Snapdragon) flower colour.
iii) Multiple alleles: Construct genetic diagram to show multiple allele C4
using ABO blood group.
iv) Linked genes: Ilustrate the effects on linked genes with crossing C4
over on the dihybrid test cross ratio.
v) Sex-linked genes: Construct genetic diagram to show sex-linked C4
genes using haemophilia.
vi) Polygenes/ Polygenic Inherintance: Explain polygenes/ polygenic C2
inheritance using human skin colour.
4.2 (a) Explain briefly types of inheritance that deviate from Mendelian.
Codominant Alleles
• A condition when both alleles of a pair are fully expressed in

heterozygous condition
• Heterozygous and homozygous individuals have different

phenotypes
• Eg: MN blood group in human

Incomplete dominance alleles

• A condition when dominant allele does not completely inhibit
the expression of recessive allele in heterozygous condition
• Phenotype of heterozygous individual is intermediate of both

homozygous dominant and homozygous recessive
phenotypes
• Eg: Antirrhinum sp. (Snapdragon) flower colour

Multiple Alleles
• A condition when one gene which control the same character
has more than 2 alleles
• But at a time, an individual only has a pair of alleles in a single
gene
• The phenotype of an individual is determined by the
combination of 2 alleles
• Eg: ABO blood group in human
Linked Genes
• Genes that are located on the same chromosome

• They are always inherited together
• Linked genes act as a single unit during meiosis
• They do not undergo independent assortment F f
• Do not obey the Second Mendel’s Law G G
h H
i i
Sex Chromosome
• In most species, sex is determined by sex chromosomes
• In human: 2 types of sex chromosomes:-
⮚ X chromosome (larger)
⮚ Y chromosome (smaller)
• Human have a pair of sex
chromosome & 22 pairs of
autosomes (chromosomes; other
than the sex chromosome)
• Female has 2 X chromosomes; XX
• Male has 1 X chromosome & 1 Y
chromosome; XY
• X chromosome contain many vital
genes for life
Sex-linked Genes
• Genes that are located in sex chromosomes
• Female may have heterozygous and homozygous individuals

• Female has 2 sex-linked alleles
• Male has only 1 sex-linked allele; hemizygous

• That is why males suffer from the effects of sex-linked diseases
more often than females
• Eg: haemophilia and colour blindness in human

Polygenes
• A characteristic that is controlled by many genes

• The gene exist in many different forms or allele
• A quantitative traits that exhibits continuous variation
• Influenced by many factors in environment
• Eg: height in human, body weight, skin colour, eye colour and
intelligence
4.2 (a)(i) Codominant alleles: Construct genetic diagram to show codominant alleles using human
MN blood group and include phenotypic ratio and genotypic ratio (1:2:1)
Codominant Alleles ~ MN blood group
• Determine by 2 alleles; LM and LN

• LM express antigen M; LN express antigen N
LM – allele for antigen M

LN – allele for antigen N
Antigen M
Antigen N
Genotype : LMLM LNLN LMLN

Phenotype : M N MN
4.2 (a)(i) Codominant alleles: Construct genetic diagram to show codominant alleles using human
Symbol:-
MN blood Antigen
group and M alleleratio
include phenotypic : Land; genotypic ratio Antigen
M
(1:2:1) N allele : LN
P: LMLM (M) X LNLN (N)
G: LM LN
F1 : LMLN (MN)
F1 x F1 : LMLN (MN) X LMLN (MN)
G: LM LN LM LN
F2: LMLM LMLN LMLN LNLN

(M) (MN) (MN) (N)
F2 genotype ratio : 1 LMLM : 2 LMLN : 1 LNLN
F2 phenotype ratio : 1 M : 2 MN : 1 N
4.2 (a)(ii) Incomplete dominant allele: Construct genetic diagram to show incomplete dominant
alleles and include phenotypic ratio (1:2:1) and genotypic ratio by using Antirrhinum sp.
(Snapdragon) flower colour.
Incomplete dominance alleles

Eg. Snapdragon flower colour
• Determine by 2 alleles; CR and CW
• CR express red flower; CW express white flower
CR – allele for red flower
CW – allele for white flower
Genotype : C RC R CW C W C RC W
Phenotype : Red White Pink
Symbol:-
alleles and include Red flower
phenotypic
ratioallele :
(1:2:1) andR;
genotypic ratio byWhite flower
using Antirrhinum allele : r
sp.
Symbol:-
alleles and include Red flower
phenotypic
ratioallele :
(1:2:1) andR;
genotypic ratio byWhite flower
using Antirrhinum allele : r
sp.
P: C RC R X C W CW
(Red) (White)
G: CR CW
F1 : CRCW (Pink)
F1 x F1 : CRC W X C RC W
(Pink) (Pink)
G: CR CW CR CW
F2: C RCR CRCW C RC W C W CW

(Red) (Pink) (Pink) (White)
F2 genotype ratio : 1 C RC R : 2 C RC W : 1 C W C W
F2 phenotype ratio : 1 Red : 2 Pink : 1 White

4.2 (a)(iii) Multiple allele: Construct genetic diagram to show multiple allele using human ABO blood
group.
Multiple Alleles
• Determined by 3 alleles; Genotype Phenotype
1) IA
IAIA A
2) IB
IAi A
3) i
IBIB B
IBIO B
IAIB AB
ii O
• Possible combinations: IAIA, IAi, IBIB, IBi, IAIB, ii

• Note: i is a recessive allele, IA & IB is codominant alleles
group.
Multiple Alleles
• Allele IA ~ express antigen A Antigen A
• Allele IB ~ express antigen B Antigen B
• Allele i ~ express no antigen
Genotype Antigen present Phenotype
IAIA or IAi Has antigen A only A
IBIB or IBi Has antigen B only B
I AI B Has both antigen A & AB

B
ii Has no antigen O
Symbol:- Antigen A allele : I A; Antigen B allele : I

4.2 (a)(iii) Multiple allele: Construct genetic diagram to show multiple allele using human ABO
B blood
group.
P:
IAi (Type A) X IBi (Type B)
G: IA IO IB IO
F1: IAIB IAi IBi ii
F1 genotype ratio : 1 IAIB: 1 IAi : 1 IBi: 1 ii
F1 phenotype ratio : 1 AB : 1 A : 1 B : 1 O
Symbol:- Antigen A allele : I A; Antigen B allele : I

4.2 (a)(iii) Multiple allele: Construct genetic diagram to show multiple allele using human ABO
B blood
group.
P: IAIB X IAIB
G: IA IB IA IB
F1 : IAIA IAIB IAIB IBIB
F1 genotype ratio : 1 IAIA : 2 IAIB : 1 IBIB
F1 phenotype ratio : 1A : 2 AB : 1B
group.
4.2 (a)(iv) Linked genes: Ilustrate the effects on linked genes with crossing over on the dihybrid test
cross ratio.
Linked Genes
• Involves two characteristics determined by two genes
• Eg: in fruit fly, Drosophila sp.
1) Body colour (allelic pair G & g)
Allele G : dominant allele for grey body
Allele g : recessive allele for black body
2) Wing size (allelic pair N & n)

Allele N : dominant allele for normal wing
Allele n : recessive allele for vestigial wing
• But 2 pairs of alleles located on the same homologous G g

chromosome
N n
cross ratio.
Wing size • 2 characters are considered

Body colour
• Eg: in Drosophila
Normal Vestigial
1. Body colour
2. Wing size
Grey body • Body colour : grey @ black

• Wing size : normal @ vestigial
Black body
cross ratio.
Differences between dihybrid & linked genes

• 2 pairs of alleles located • 2 pairs of alleles located on
on different homologous the same homologous
chromosome chromosome
• Undergo independent • Do not undergo
assortment independent assortment
G g G g
N n N n
Genotype: GgNn Genotype: GN/gn
Possible gametes: GN, Gn, gN, gn Possible gametes: GN, gn
If crossing over occurs: Gn, gN
TUTORIAL
Genotype GgNn Genotype GN/gn
G g G g
N n
N n
Metaphase I Metaphase I
G Gg g g gG G
G G g g
N N n n
N Nn n N Nn n
G g g G G g
N n N n
N n
GN gn gN Gn GN gn
cross ratio.
Chromosome Genotype Possible gametes
G g GgNn
GN Gn gN gn
Grey normal
N n
G g
GN/gn GN gn
N n Grey normal
G g Gn/gN
Gn gN
Grey normal
n N
g g gN/gN
gN
N N Grey normal
Symbol:- Grey body :G black body
:g Normal wing
allele :N vestigial wing allele :n
G G g g
N N n n
P: GN/GN X gn/gn
(grey normal) (black vestigial)
G g
G: GN gn
N n
GN/gn
(grey normal)
F1 generation: G g
N n
G g G g
N n N n
F1 x F1 : GN/gn X GN/gn
(grey normal) (grey normal)
G: GN gn GN gn
F2 generation: GN/GN GN/gn GN/gn gn/gn

(grey normal) (grey normal) (grey normal) (black vestigial)
G G G g G g g g
N N N n N n n n
F2 phenotype ratio : 3 grey normal : 1 black

cross ratio.
Linked Genes
P: GN/GN X gn/gn
G: GN gn
F1 generation: GN/gn
(grey normal)
F1 x F1 : GN/gn X GN/gn
G: GN gn GN gn

cross ratio.
Linked Genes
F2 phenotype ratio (for linked genes without crossing over):
3 grey normal : 1 black vestigial
NOT
F2 phenotype ratio (for dihybrid cross):
9 grey normal : 3 grey vestigial : 3 black normal : 1 black vestigial
Linked genes DO NOT OBEY Mendel’s Law

cross ratio.
Linked Genes Test Cross

F1 test cross: GN/gn X gn/gn
G: GN gn gn
F2 generation: GN/gn gn/gn

F2 phenotype ratio (for linked genes test cross w/o crossing over):
1 grey normal : 1 black vestigial
NOT
1 grey normal : 1 grey vestigial : 1 black normal : 1 black vestigial
TUTORIAL
Symbol:- Grey body :G black body
:g Normal wing
allele :N vestigial wing allele :n
G g g g
N n n n

G: GN gn gn
F2 generation: GN/gn GN/gn

G g g g
N n n n
cross ratio.
Linked Genes
• Linked genes are located on the same chromosome
• They are always inherited together
• But, linked genes can be separated during crossing over
between non-sister chromatids of a pair of homologous
chromosome during meiosis
F f
G G
h H
i i
cross ratio.
Linked Genes
G g G G g g G G g g G G g g
Replication Prophase I After crossing over
N n N N n n N n N n N n N n
cross ratio.
G G g g
N n N n
Meiosis II
G G g g
4 types of
gametes
N n N n
No crossing With With No crossing

over crossing over crossing over over
Genotype GN/gn Genotype GN/gn
G g G g
N n N n
Metaphase I Metaphase I
G G g g GG gg
N N n n N n Nn
Meiosis II
Meiosis II No crossing over No crossing over With crossing
over
G g G g G g
N n N n n N
GN gn GN gn Gn gN
cross ratio.
Linked Genes With Crossing Over

• When self cross is done on F1 offspring, if no crossing over
occurs, F2 phenotype ratio is 3:1
• When test cross is done, if no crossing over occurs, F2
phenotype ratio is 1:1
• When self cross or test cross is done on F1 offspring, if crossing
over occurs, there is NO DEFINITE phenotype ratio for F2
generation
• But generally, in F2 generation, there will be:-
✔2 large groups (with nearly equal numbers)
~ known as parental phenotypes
✔2 small groups (with nearly equal numbers)
~ known as recombinant phenotypes
cross ratio.
Differences between Mendel’s ratio and crosses that

deviates from Mendel’s ratio
Linked genes
Types of crosses Dihybrid Cross Linked genes
(without crossing
(Mendel’s ratio) (with crossing over)
over)
Self cross 9:3:3:1 3:1 4 phenotypes with

(F1 X F1) no specific ratio
Test cross 1:1:1:1 1:1 4 phenotypes with

(F1 X homozygous no specific ratio
recessive)
Obey Deviate from Deviate from
Mendel’s law Mendel’s law Mendel’s law
GG gg g gg g
N n Nn n nn n
Meiosis II
G g G g g
N n n N n
GN gn Gn gN gn
Gamete without Gamete without Gamete with Gamete with
crossing over crossing over crossing over crossing over
G g g g G g g g
N n n n n n N n
GN/gn gn/gn Gn/gn gN/gn
Parental phenotype Parental phenotype Recombinant phenotype Recombinant phenotype
cross ratio.
Linked Genes With Crossing Over (example)

• In fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, a dominant allele for grey body is
controlled by allele G, a recessive allele for black body is controlled by
allele g. Normal wings is controlled by allele N and recessive allele for
vestigial wings is controlled by allele n.
• Homozygous flies with grey body and normal wings were crossed with
flies with black body and vestigial wings. Then, F1 progeny were
crossed with homozygous recessive flies. The F2 offspring obtained
are as follows:-
⮚ Grey body, normal wings : 237
⮚ Black body, vestigial wings : 241
⮚ Grey body, vestigial wings : 44
⮚ Black body, normal wings : 48
• Draw a genetic diagram for the above crossing
cross ratio.

• In fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, a dominant allele for grey body is
controlled by allele G, a recessive allele for black body is controlled by
allele g. Normal wings is controlled by allele N and recessive allele for
vestigial wings is controlled by allele n.
Symbol:- Dominant allele for grey body :G
Recessive allele for black body : g
Dominant allele for normal wing : N
Recessive allele for vestigial wing : n
cross ratio.

Symbol:- Dominant allele for grey body :G
Recessive allele for black body : g
Dominant allele for normal wing : N
Recessive allele for vestigial wing : n
• Homozygous flies with grey body and normal wings were crossed with
flies with black body and vestigial wings.
P: GN/GN X gn/gn
G: GN gn
GN/gn
(grey normal)
• Homozygous flies with grey body and normal wings were crossed with flies with black
body and vestigial wings. Then, F1 progeny were crossed with homozygous recessive
flies. The F2 offspring obtained are as follows:-
P: GN/GN X gn/gn
G: GN gn
GN/gn
(grey normal)
G: GN gn Gn gN gn
F2 generation: GN/gn gn/gn Gn/gn gN/gn

(grey normal) (black vestigial) (grey vestigial) (black normal)
Parental phenotype Recombinant phenotype

cross ratio.

• The F2 offspring obtained are as follows:-
⮚ Grey body, normal wings : 237 Parental
⮚ Black body, vestigial wings : 241 phenotype

⮚ Black body, normal wings : 48
Recombinant
phenotype
SUMMARY:
• When there are 4 phenotypes in F2 generation :-
✔2 large groups (with nearly equal numbers)
~ known as parental phenotypes
✔2 small groups (with nearly equal numbers)
~ known as recombinant phenotypes
• This is linked genes with crossing over
TUTORIAL
Learning Outcomes :
4.2 (a)(v). Sex-linked gene: Construct genetic diagram to show sex-linked genes using haemophilia.
Haemophilia in human
■ In males, however, the Y chromosome is smaller and

cannot mirror all the genes found on the X
chromosome, so males have only one sex-linked
allele.
■ This is why males suffer from the effects of X-linked
genetic diseases more often than females.
■ Eg. Sex-linked genes
■ (i) Haemophilia - a group of diseases where blood
does not clot normally
■ (ii) Color blind
TUTORIAL
Learning Outcomes :
• Haemophilia ~ a disease when blood does not clot properly

• Lack protein ~ clotting factor, factor VIII or IX
• Symptom: bleeding; more susceptible to internal bleeding
TUTORIAL
Learning Outcomes :
Haemophilia ~ Sex-linked gene

• Determine by 2 alleles; XH and Xh
• XH ~ normal allele; Xh hemophilia allele
Genotype Phenotype
XHXH Normal female
XHXh Female carrier
XhXh Hemophiliac female
Genotype Phenotype
XHY Normal male
XhY Hemophiliac male
TUTORIAL
Mechanism of inheritance of sex-linked for
haemophilia
• .
P XHXh x XHY
carrier normal
G XH Xh XH Y
F1 XHXH XHY XH Xh XhY

normal normal carrier haemophiliac
female male female male
TUTORIAL
Symbol:- Antigen M allele : L M; Antigen N allele : L

Learning Outcomes : N
P: XHY (Normal male) X XhXh (Hemophiliac female)
G: XH Y Xh
F1 : XHXh XhY
(Female carrier) (Hemophiliac male)
F1 genotype ratio : 1 XHXh : 1 XhY

F1 phenotype : All females are carrier,
: All males are hemophiliac
TUTORIAL

P: XhY (Hemophiliac male) X XHXH (Normal female)
G: Xh Y XH
F1 : XHXh XHY
(Female carrier) (Normal male)
F1 genotype ratio : 1 XHXh : 1

XHY
F1 phenotype : All females are carrier,
: All males are normal
TUTORIAL

P: XHY (Normal male) X XHXh (Female carrier)
G: XH Y XH Xh
F1 : XHXH XHXh XHY XhY

(Nomal female) (Female carrier) (Normal male) (Hemophiliac male)
F1 phenotype : 50% females are normal & 50% are carrier,

: 50% males are normal & 50% are hemophiliac
TUTORIAL
Learning Outcomes :
TUTORIAL

P: XhY (Hemophiliac male) X XHXh (Female carrier)
G: Xh Y XH Xh
F1 : XHXh XhXh XHY XhY

(Female carrier)(Hemophiliacfemale) (Normal male) (Hemophiliac male)
F1 phenotype : 50% females are carrier & 50% are

hemophiliac
: 50% males are normal & 50% are hemophiliac
4.2 (a) (vi) Polygenes/polygenic inheritance: Explain polygenic/ polygenic inheritance
Symbol:- Antigen M allele : L ; Antigen N allele : L
Learning Outcomes : M N
using human
4.2 (a)(v). skin colour
Sex-linked gene: Construct genetic diagram to show sex-linked genes using haemophilia.
P: XhY (Hemophiliac male) X XHXh (Female carrier)
G: Xh Y XH Xh
F1 : XHXh XhXh XHY XhY

(Female carrier)(Hemophiliacfemale) (Normal male) (Hemophiliac male)
F1 phenotype : 50% females are carrier & 50% are

hemophiliac
: 50% males are normal & 50% are
hemophiliac
Learning Outcomes :
using human skin colour
Polygenes / Polygenic Inheritance
• A character is controlled by the cumulative effect of more

than one gene
CC C C
A A A A
• Occurs when one characteristic is controlled by two or

more genes at different loci on different chromosome
Learning Outcomes :
• show a bell- shaped

curve, called a normal
distribution
• Environmental factors
could affect phenotypes
of polygenic inheritance
Learning Outcomes :
Eg: skin colour in humans

the character may be
controlled by
pairs of allele (A and a, B
and b, and C and c) at
three unlinked loci.
• the capital letters (A,B and C)

represent incompletely dominant
alleles producing dark skin.
Learning Outcomes :

• •An AABBCC
person would be
very dark, while
an aabbcc
individual would
be very fair.
• An AaBbCc
person would
have skin of an
intermediate
shade.
Learning outcomes
4.3 Genetic Mapping:
a) Define genetic mapping C1
b) Calculate the genetic distance (map unit) between genes using that C4
given recombinant data.
c) Identify the position of genes or order of genes along a chromosome C4

based on recombinant DNA.
Learning Outcomes :
4.3 (a) Define genetic mapping
Genetic Mapping
• A technique used to study the relative position and sequence of

genes on a chromosome
• Can be done only to linked genes
• The distance between 2 genes is the average number of
crossovers between them
• Genes that are very close to each other usually are inherited
together, they seldom recombine
• Genes that are far from each other have higher probability that
a crossover will occur between them
Learning Outcomes :
4.3 (a) Define genetic mapping
Genetic Mapping
• Crossovers produce new combination of genes

• Offspring having new combination of genes are recombinants
• The proportion of recombinants offspring from a test cross is
used to calculate the crossing over frequency, (a.k.a as
recombination frequency)
• Crossing over frequency is used to calculate the distance

between 2 genes involved
• The lower the value, the closer the genes
Learning Outcomes :
4.3 (b) Calculate the genetic distance (map unit) between genes using the given recombination data
Dominant allele for grey body : G Recessive allele for black body : g
Dominant allele for normal wing : N Recessive allele for vestigial wing : n
• The F2 offspring obtained from F1 test cross are as follows:-

⮚ Black body, vestigial wings : 241
phenotype

⮚ Black body, normal wings
Recombinant
: 48 phenotype
Total number of recombinant offspring

Crossing over frequency =
Total number of offspring
44 + 48
= = 0.17
237+241+44+48
Learning Outcomes :
Relation between map unit to crossing over frequency
• Distance between genes is known as map unit (m.u) or

centiMorgan (cM)
• Map unit is equal to the recombination frequency written as
percentage
Total number of recombinant offspring

Crossing over frequency =
Total number of offspring
Total no. of recombinant offspring

Distance between genes = X 100
Total no. of offspring
Learning Outcomes :
Dominant allele for grey body :G Recessive allele for black body : g
Dominant allele for normal wing : N Recessive allele for vestigial wing : n
• The F2 offspring obtained from F1 test cross are as follows:-

⮚ Black body, vestigial wings : 241 phenotype
⮚ Grey body, vestigial wings : 44 Recombinant

⮚ Black body, normal wings : 48 phenotype
Total no. of recombinant offspring

Distance between g-n = X 100
Total no. of offspring
44 + 48
= X 100
237+241+44+48
= 17 map unit @ centiMorgan
Learning Outcomes :
Genetic Mapping
P : CS/CS x cs/cs
G : CS cs
F1 test cross: CS/cs x cs/cs
G : CS cs Cs cS cs
CS/cs cs/cs Cs/cs cS/cs

Number of offspring 480 480 20 20
Parental phenotype Recombinant

(no crossing over) (crossing over)
Learning Outcomes :
Genetic Mapping
Genotype Individuals
CS/cs 480
Parental phenotype
cs/cs 480
Cs/cs 20
Recombinants
cS/cs 20
c s
Total 1000 4 map unit
Crossing over frequency = 40/1000 = 0.04

Distance between c-s gene = 4 centiMorgan @ map unit
Learning Outcomes :
4.3 (c) Identify the position of genes or order of genes along a chromosome based on recombinant
data.
Genetic Mapping
• P, Q, R and S genes are linked. Crossing over frequencies are:
⮚ P and Q : 35%
⮚ P and R : 5%
⮚ R and Q : 40%
⮚ Q and S : 10%
⮚ R and S : 30%
c s
4 map unit
Find the relative position of these genes.

Tips : start with the highest crossing over frequencies (the farthest genes)
Learning Outcomes :
4.3 (c) Identify the position of genes or order of genes along a chromosome based on recombinant
data.
Genetic Mapping
• P, Q, R and S genes are linked. Crossing over frequencies are:
⮚ P and Q : 35%
⮚ P and R : 5%
⮚ R and Q : 40%
⮚ Q and S : 10%
⮚ R and S : 30%
40 map unit
5 25 10
R P S Q
35 map unit
REFERENCES
Campbell N.A & Reece, J.B., Biology, 6th ed. (2002),
Pearson Education, Inc.
Solomon E.P & Berg, L.R, Biology, 7th ed. (2005)

Thomson Learning, Inc.
Taylor, D.J, Biological Science, 3rd ed. (1997)

Cambridge University Press

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Chapter 4 Genetic Inheritance Sb015

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CHAPTER 4:

4.1 Mendelian genetics

4.2 Deviations from the Mendelian Inheritance

4.3 Genetic mapping

• Genetic inheritance is science of heredity

4. Genotype 10. Self cross

5. Phenotype 11. Test cross

Individual Allelic pairs

1. Allele – symbol of alleles

Genes Allelic pairs Genotype Observed traits

Flower colour P P PP Purple

• A segment of DNA that act as a unit of hereditary information

Flower colour Seed colour Seed shape

Gene A Gene B Gene C

• The genetic constitution of an individual

• Observable characteristic of an individual

• Alleles which is fully expressed when it is present ; even in the

• Symbol using small letter

10. Self cross

Source from; Pollination:Self and Cross

11. Test cross

• A cross between a recessive homozygous eg. (tt) with an

• A heritable feature that varies among

• Each variant for a character of individuals

• Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk who begins to study the

• Mendel study genetic inheritance in pea plant (Pisum sativum)

1) Easy to grow in large numbers

3) Many easily observable characteristics

3) Many easily observable characteristics

• Mendel study genetic inheritance in pea plant (Pisum sativum)

Intact pea flower Flower dissected to show

• Mendel study genetic inheritance in pea plant (Pisum sativum)

Intact pea flower Flower dissected to show

Mendel’s 1st Law ~ “Law of Segregation”

Gamete : P Gamete : P Gamete : P Gamete : P

Gamete : p Gamete : p Gamete : p Gamete : p

Gamete : P Gamete : P Gamete : p Gamete : p

PP P p pp Allele P : dominant allele for purple flower

True or Pure Breed

Step 1 : Produce P generation (True breeding plants)

• Mendel select plants with 2 varieties (has different traits)

Step 1 : Produce P generation (True breeding plants)

• Seeds collected from purple

Step 2 : Produce F1 generation

• Mendel remove the stamens

F1 genotype ratio : All Pp

F2 phenotype ratio : 3 Purple : 1 White

Result of Mendel’s F1 Crosses for 7 Characteristics

Character Dominant/recessive F2 generation Ratio

1) Flower colour Purple / white 705 : 224 3.15 : 1

4) Seed shape Round / wrinkled 5474 : 1850 2.96 : 1

• A cross between a homozygous recessive individual with an

Monohybrid F1 Test Cross

(Purple) (White) (Purple) (White)

F2 phenotype ratio:- All purple F2 phenotypic ratio:- 1 purple : 1 white

Monohybrid F1 Test Cross

F2 phenotype ratio : 1 Purple : 1 White

Summary ~ Monohybrid Crossing

• F1 self cross (Pp x Pp) :-

F2 phenotype ratio: 3 Purple : 1 White

• F1 test cross (Pp x pp) :-

F2 phenotype ratio: 1 purple : 1 white

Mendel’s 2nd Law ~ Law of Independent Assortment