Eni Corporate University

G R O U P

TRAINING PROGRAM
MINISTRY OF OIL OF IRAQ

JUNIOR PRODUCTION ENGINEER

GAS PLANTS 3

Lecturer: Eng. Romano Bianco

BOOKLET N° 3

Cod.: IMG017-E-A0 Rev.: 02 date : 02/08/2004 Pages number: 87

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GENERAL INDEX

1 NATURAL GAS BOOKLET N° 1

2 NATURAL GAS PROCESSING BOOKLET N° 1

3 SURFACE WELL EQUIPMENT BOOKLET N° 1

4 COLLECTION AND TREATMENT CENTRE BOOKLET N° 1

5 TREATMENT LINE BOOKLET N° 2

6 GLYCOL DEHYDRATION SYSTEM BOOKLET N° 2

7 COOLING TREATMENT PLANT BOOKLET N° 2

8 NATURAL GASOLINE BY ADSORPTION BOOKLET N° 2

9 LPG PLANT BOOKLET N° 2

10 PROPANE DEHYDRATION BOOKLET N° 2

11 COS TREATING BOOKLET N° 2

12 MERCAPTAN TREATING BOOKLET N° 2

13 SWEETENING BOOKLET N° 2

14 SULPHUR RECOVERY PLANT BOOKLET N° 2

15 TAIL GAS TREATMENT BOOKLET N° 2

16 COMPRESSION UNITS BOOKLET N° 3

17 DEHYDRATION BY SOLID BEDS BOOKLET N° 3

18 SOUR WATER STRIPPER PLANT BOOKLET N° 3

19 FLARE SYSTEM BOOKLET N° 3

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20 NITROGEN PRODUCTION BOOKLET N°3

21 COMPRESSED AND INSTRUMENT AIR

SYSTEM BOOKLET N° 3

22 FUEL GAS SYSTEM BOOKLET N° 3

23 WATER TREATMENT SYSTEM BOOKLET N° 3

24 FIREFIGHTING SYSTEM BOOKLET N° 3

25 POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM BOOKLET N° 3

26 ALARM AND SHUT-DOWN SYSTEMS IN GAS PLANT

BOOKLET N° 3
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BOOKLET INDEX

16 COMPRESSION UNIT 5

16.1 COMPRESSION IN GAS PLANT AND ITS FUNCTION 5

16.2 SCHEME AND FUNCTIONING 6

16.3 COMPRESSORS 8
16.3.1 Structure and functioning 8
16.3.2 Reciprocating and Rotary Compressors 8
16.3.3 Dynamic Compressors 8
16.3.4 Main characteristics of a compressor 12
16.3.5 Additional information on Reciprocating Compressors 16
16.3.6 Additional information on Centrifugal Compressors 37
16.3.7 Compressor drivers 46
16.3.8 Start–up and loading of a compressor unit 49

17 DEHYDRATION BY SOLID BEDS 54

17.1 GENERAL 54
17.1.1 Scheme and Functioning 54

18 SOUR WATER STRIPPER PLANT 57

18.1 GENERAL 57

19 FLARE SYSTEM 59

19.1 DESCRIPTION SCHEME AND FUNCTIONING 59

19.2 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONING OF EQUIPMENTS 59

20 NITROGEN PRODUCTION 64

20.1 INTRODUCTION 64

21 COMPRESSED AND INSTRUMENT AIR SYSTEM 70

21.1 DESCRIPTION SCHEME AND FUNCTIONING 70

21.2 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONING OF EQUIPMENT 71

21.2.1 Air dryer 71
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22 FUEL GAS SYSTEM 75

22.1 DESCRIPTION SCHEME AND FUNCTIONING 75

22.2 EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION AND PERFORMANCE 75

23 WATER TREATMENT SYSTEM 78

23.1 DESCRIPTION SCHEME AND FUNCTIONING 78

23.2 WASTE WATER TREATMENT 78

24 FIREFIGHTING SYSTEM 84

24.1 DESCRIPTION SCHEME AND FUNCTIONING 84

25 POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM 86

25.1 DESCRIPTION SCHEME AND FUNCTIONING 86

26 ALARM AND SHUT-DOWN SYSTEMS IN GAS PLANT 87

26.1 GENERAL 87

26.2 ALARM CONDITIONS 87

26.3 SHUT DOWN SEQUENCES ANALYSIS 87

26.3.1 Production shut-down (PSD) 88
26.3.2 Emergency shut-down (ESD) 88
26.3.3 Fuse cap network 88
26.3.4 Linear heat detector line 89
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16 COMPRESSION UNIT

16.1 COMPRESSION IN GAS PLANT AND ITS FUNCTION

Compression in gas plants is one important and specific process of a gas
plant.
Compression applies to gas streams and by this it is obvious that the
description of this operation and related machines be given in this part of
the manual.
Compression means to increase the pressure of a gas, most usually by
means of a machine, although the pressure of a gas stream can be
increased by other systems, e.g. steam ejectors, but the latter are far less
common.
In gas plants, gas compressors are common and used in almost all aspects
of the gas processing. Typical examples are:
• Sales Gas compression for the delivery and transportation through
pipelines.
• Treated gas recompression after pressure let-down through valves or
turbo-expanders for valuable product recovery
• Compression of intermediate gas to feed the production reactors,
e.g. the CO2 compression in the urea plants
• Mechanical compression of the fluids in the refrigerant units
• Compression of off-gas resultant from condensate or oil stabilizer
columns or stripping operations to recycle into main streams at
higher pressure
• In existing plants, compression is added to increase the gas pressure
of the field during the depleting phase. The pressure of the gas
arriving in the plant must be increased in order to be delivered to the
distribution pipelines
• High pressure gas reinjection, to enhance the production of crude oil
or condensate
• Gas compression for gas-lift operation of oil production reservoir
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• Regeneration gas compression for its recirculation in units such as

the solid bed drying or similar
• Compression of Boil off gas from cold storage tanks , e.g. LNG, LPG,
propane, butane tanks, so as either to have nil losses or send the
compressed gas into the fuel gas network of the plant
• Air compression to provide instrument and service air
• Combustion air compression in the gas turbines
• Air compression in the units that produce nitrogen as plant utility fluid
• Air blowing through the air-assisted non-smoking flares

Gas compression is associated to the energy required and the increase of

temperature of the compressed gas. Both these aspects are depending on
the efficiency of the machines used for the compression.

16.2 SCHEME AND FUNCTIONING

Compressors are precision machines whose operation requires special
devices, in order to prevent failures or malfunctions.
The treatment of the intake gas requires special attention. This gas should
not contain any solid impurities or free liquids, so therefore the plant is fitted
with scrubbers and separators to remove them.
The gas exiting the compressor will become hotter, and to decrease its
temperature, it is necessary to install a cooling system downstream of the
compressor. Such systems usually consist of air coolers or water
exchangers.
Downstream of this, exchangers, separators will be installed to provide for
the separation of any liquid phase produced during the cooling process.
Furthermore, a recycle line from the discharge of the compressor is
provided to insure that the suction will always have enough gas to avoid
surge or vacuum pressures in the suction.
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The compressing unit, as shown in Fig. 16.1, has a set of automatic devices
that drive the process valves, controlled by a microprocessor that manages
the start up and shut down sequences of the unit.

Fig. 16 1 - Compression unit. Conceptual flow sheet

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16.3 COMPRESSORS

16.3.1 Structure and functioning

a) General
Compressors can be subdivided into two main groups.

- positive displacement compressors, that include reciprocating and

rotary compressors

- dynamic compressors, that include axial and centrifugal compressors

16.3.2 Reciprocating and Rotary Compressors

In reciprocating compressors, the pressure increase is obtained by a piston
moving inside a cylinder, sequentially in opposite directions, over a stroke
length defined by the rotating crank system connected to the driver. At the
end to the cylinder, inlet spring valve makes the gas enter during the
suction stroke and the outlet spring valve opens when the in gas has
reached the value in the downstream pressure and the gas exits the
cylinder. Due to this reciprocating operation, this type of compressor has a
typical pulsating profiles for flow rate and pressures, that can be smoothed
by means of double-effect cylinders.
The rotary compressors have particular rotating parts that by their shape
and coordinated movement obtain, from the inlet and the outlet, a reduction
of the volume so that the gas flowing inside undergoes the required
compression and is released to the downstream system.
In this type of machines the compression process is continuous and no inlet
and outlet valves are required.

16.3.3 Dynamic Compressors

These units performs the compression of gas by means of a series of
properly designed impellers and diffusers that guide the process fluid along
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the machine through a path that consists of a number of kinetik energy

increases, i.e. speed increases, via each impeller followed by a conversion
of the kinetic energy in a pressure increase, via each diffuser.
These machines are classified as:
1) Centrifugal compressors, the most common ones, where the impellers
are increasing the gas speed perpendicularly to the shaft of the compressor
and then the diffusers are so shaped as to move the gas toward the
following impeller eye.
2) Axial compressors are as above structured, but the impellers are shaped
so as to accelerate the gas axially, i.e. in the direction of the shaft .
Basically they similar to a axial turbine , of course on contrary operation,
namely to compress instead of expanding the gas.
They are the compressor with the largest flow rate and a typical application
is the air compressor of a gas turbine, Fig. 16.2, 16.3, 16.4 show examples
of these types of compressors.

The main difference between the two groups of compressors is that positive
displacements provide high compression ratios (ρ, ratio of discharge
pressure to intake pressure) at low flow rates, while dynamic, centrifugal
and axial, compressors can compress large amounts of gas but at a lower
compression ratio.
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Fig. 16.2 Screw type rotary Compressor

Fig. 16.3 Lobed impeller type rotary Compressor

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Fig. 16.4 Sliding-vane type rotary compressor

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Fig. 16.5 Screw compressor

16.3.4 Main characteristics of a compressor

Compressors, above outlined, all have some basic parameters that have to
be defined for their design and, conversely, constitute the specific features
of each type of machine.
.

Fig. 16.6 Compressor Head

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Basically , they are as follows

Compression Ratio
The compression ratio, ρ, is the ratio between the discharge and suction
pressure.

Pd
ρ =
Ps

Usually, the total required compression ratio must be sub-divided in partial

compression stages to meet the limitation at the compressor discharge.
The discharge temperature, for a given compression ratio, depends on the
nature of gas to be compressed so that one gas can require more stages
than another, due to the constraints on discharge temperature.
For example, compressing CO2 and Nitrogen is completely different and the
latter gives a much higher discharge temperature, much too high.
The limitation for the discharge temperature is more strict for reciprocating
compressors, usually 140 °C, than for centrifugal machines that can reach
200 °C . The limitation for the reciprocating compressors is due to the fact
that they are “contact” machines in the sense that the moving parts , i.e.
piston and cylinder, are subject to friction and, although lubricated or, if not
lubricated provided with low-friction material sealing rings, still the
temperature has to be limited.
So in practice, although to site testing the compressors with nitrogen would
be simple and obvious, it is almost always not feasible due to the high
temperatures that would be obtained.

Compression stages
Compressor duty is to increase the pressure of a gas stream and this often
requires to design a machine in a number of process stages, due to
limitations of discharge temperature, so as inter-stage cooling becomes
necessary.
Besides this typical process limitation, there are limitations on the size of
the cylinders or casings that can require us to design the machine with two
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or more cylinders for parallel operation, or the limitation on the number of

impellers in each casing, the centrifugal compressors are often in more than
one casing and in series.
Another consideration regarding the compression ratio is that, apart from
the limitation due to the outlet temperature, the nature of gas can further
determine the selection of the type of compressor used.
In particular, for the centrifugal compressors, there is a typical amount of
energy that each impeller can transfer to the gas and this value is
expressed typically as N*.m/kg, the usual figure is 30 000 N.m/Kg per
impeller. Another way of expressing this design feature is to use an
unconventional unit, i.e. (Kg force * m/ Kg mass) that allows us to see the
action of the dynamic compressors as a height or a Head, expressed in
“metres” (like normally used for centrifugal pumps); this way it is helpful to
figure out, in a simplified manner, how a compressor works, i.e. it creates a
sort of column of gas at discharge (Head). In practice, each impeller of a
centrifugal compressor usually can be designed to give a head of about
3000 metres of gas.
The concept of head does not apply to the positive displacement
compressors, they are basically fixed suction volume machines. Their
discharge pressure limitations depend mainly on the driver power and the
allowable mechanical loads on the different parts of the compressor, related
to the power to be transferred.
As an example of this design aspect, the following table shows data
relevant to the compression of various gas streams, typical of petrochemical
gas plants.
The common data of this example are :
• Suction Pressure : 1.2 bar abs
• Suction Temperature : 45 °C
• Discharge Pressure : 5 bar ab
• Compression ratio: 4.17
• Flow rate 1000 Nm3/h
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• Compression efficiency: 100 % (i.e. the compression is iso-entropic,

namely purely theoretical)

Gas Formula Molecularr Discharge Theoretical Gas Number of Horsepower

weight temperature (°C) Head impellers (if a (kW)
for an centrif. compr. Is
Isoentropy selected)
process
(metres)
Methane CH4 16 158 28058 9 54.7
Nitrogen N2 28 204 16770 5 57.8
Carbon CO2 44 156 10156 3 54.3
Dioxide
Hydrogen H2 2 205 236166 79 57.9

From this table, it is clear that for hydrogen the selection of a centrifugal
compressor would be not practical, and a reciprocating compressor would
be selected.
Other observations can be made on the discharge temperature that are
rather low for methane (i.e. natural gas ) and carbon dioxide, whereas for
hydrogen and nitrogen , as said earlier, the temperatures are much higher.

Performance curves
The compressors are usually defined by a compression process that is
typical of each type of machines, in the sense that the real behaviour of the
compressor is well simulated by a certain process for the gas being
compressed..
In particular:
1) For the centrifugal compressors, the real compression process usually
is simulated with a poly-tropic process i.e. a theoretical reversible
process close to an iso-entropic process but with some heat supplied to
the gas (for iso-entropic process the heat is nil) associated with an
efficiency (poly-tropic efficiency) to reproduce the real performance data.
In practice, the centrifugal compressor feature typical operating curves
that are normally prepared by the compressor manufacturer to define the
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design characteristics of the machines, based on the process

requirements.
• Poly-tropic head (usually in metres, a function of the suction
volumetric flow rates and the rotation speed
The total head , corresponding to the required discharge pressure, is
the result of the number of impellers foreseen for a given
compressor.
• Poly-tropic efficiency in function of the suction volumetric flow rates
and the rotation speed
2) For the reciprocating compressors, the real compression process usually
is simulated with an iso-entropic process associated with a efficiency to
reproduce the real performance data.

16.3.5 Additional information on Reciprocating Compressors

Basic Functioning
The scheme of a single acting reciprocating compressor is shown in Fig.
16.7.
Then, shown in Fig. 16.8, diagram can be obtained to show the values of
pressure and volume of the gas inside the cylinder; pressure readings are
shown in the vertical scale and volumes are in the horizontal scale.
This diagram shows that at point A the piston is full of gas and then the
piston starts moving.
The discharge valve in the cylinder will open when the pressure has
reached a value slightly higher than the outside downstream pressure, in
this case , the pressure is 8 kg /cm2. (point B).
Once this pressure is reached, the piston continues moving until it reaches
the maximum travel in the cylinder at point C. The volume remaining in the
cylinder is called the clearance volume.
Then, the piston starts moving to the right, allowing the clearance volume to
expand until the gas in the piston reaches the suction pressure, in this case,
2 kg/cm2 at point D, and the suction valve opens (Pa). The piston continues
to move to the right and allows the entrance of low pressure gas to be
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compressed, and the piston returns to Point A. In this example,

compression ratio is 4
The piston then has performed a complete cycle. In this way it is possible to
obtain a diagram that shows how volume and pressure change during the
cycle. Of course, a repetition of the cycle always gives the same diagram,
that is, the same COMPRESSION CYCLE.
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Fig. 16.7 Scheme for a single-acting reciprocating compressor

Fig. 16.8 P, V diagram

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Ideal cycle
The system is based on a cylinder and a piston (Fig. 16.9). The cylinder is
equipped with:
- An intake valve VA, which allows the gas entering the cylinder when
the internal pressure is lower than the PA and stops the gas flowing
in the opposite direction.
- An outlet valve VM connected to the outlet manifold and subject to
the downstream PM. This valve allows the gas passing from the
cylinder to the delivery manifold when the pressure inside the
cylinder is higher than the delivery pressure and stops the gas
flowing in the opposite direction.
If, ideally, the piston can reach, at the end of its stroke, (Shown at the left
side of Fig. 16.9), the bottom of the cylinder, then there is no residual gas
left inside the cylinder.

Suction. The piston starts its stroke from the left to the right. As the cylinder
doesn’t contain any residual gas, the following operations take place
simultaneously: The delivery valve closes, the pressure drops from PM to PA
and the suction valve opens. All these operations correspond to the straight
segment C-D.
Then, during the entire return stroke, from point D to point A, the gas enters
the cylinder from the suction manifold.

Compression stroke
Now the piston moves to the left. The gas contained inside the cylinder is
compressed, thus increasing its pressure and temperature. In the diagram
this phase corresponds to the A-B segment.

Discharge
Once the pressure in the cylinder reaches value PM, the delivery valve
opens and the gas goes into the delivery manifold, until the piston reaches
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the left side of its stroke. This phase corresponds to the straight segment B-
C. Once the piston has reached the end of its stroke, it starts a new cycle.

Theoretical cycle
The theoretical cycle (Fig. 16.10) differs from the Ideal cycle described
above for the following reasons:
a) The valves oppose resistance to the opening for their return springs.
Therefore, they do not open exactly when the pressures are exactly
the same on both sides, but rather when the upstream pressure is
slightly higher than the downstream pressure.
Therefore it is possible to observe a slight opening delay compared to
the moment in which the pressures are exactly the same upstream
and downstream. For the same reason, the valves close slightly
beforehand. As a consequence, the suction D-A, in the cylinder, will
have a pressure which is slightly higher than that of the PA pressure
and the delivery phase D-C, will have a cylinder pressure that is
slightly higher than that of the PM pressure.
b) The gas which passes through the valves causes a slight loss of load,
whose effects is added up to the previous one.
c) Contrary to what has been stated above, there’s always a certain
residual volume at the left end of the stroke between the piston and
the bottom of the cylinder. Such volume is also called CLEARANCE
VOLUME. Therefore, when the piston reaches the point C, the
cylinder still contains a quantity of hot compressed gas. When the
piston starts moving to the right, the gas gradually (and not
instantaneously) expands, following the C-D curve shown .in Fig.
16.10.
At consequence, the intake valve will open at point D, only when the
piston has already covered a fraction of its stroke to the left, with a
slight delay compared to the closing of the delivery valve.
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Real cycle
The inertia generated by the valves and the moving gas cause complex
phenomena, whose effect is the curve alteration of the theoretical cycle.
The real cycle, as we can observe in an operating compressor, is much
more similar to the curve shown in (Fig. 16.11).

Fig. 16.9 Piston/Cylinder system – ideal cycle (no clearance volume)

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Fig. 16.10 Theoretical cycle (clearance volume is considered)

Fig. 16.11 Real cycle

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Influence of the clearance volume

Due to the existence of a clearance volume, which cannot be nil, the suction
volume depends on the variation of the compression ratio with a constant
clearance volume.
With reference to Fig. 16.12 the compressed gas in the clearance volume
progressively expands when the piston starts the backward stroke and the
gas can start entering the cylinder only when the inner pressure of the
cylinder has returned to the pressure value P1. As a consequence, the
actual intake piston stroke is shorter than the total stroke. Therefore, the
actual volume of suction gas is lower than the volume generated by the
movement of the piston. Now, let’s consider a cylinder operating at different
delivery pressures P2 and P3 but with the same intake pressure P1 and
clearance volume for both pressures.
In the case of the delivery pressure P2, the compression ratio is P2/P1 for
the A-B-C-D-A cycle. While in the case of delivery pressure P3, the
compression ratio is P3/P1 for the A-B’-C’-D’-A cycle. We call the ratio
between the actual intake volume and the volume generated by the piston,
volumetric efficiency.

As we can see from the chart above, such ratio is equal to RV = DA/OA in
the first case, and to R’V = D’A/OA in the second case.
In conclusion, an increase in the compression ratio causes a decrease in
the volumetric efficiency of a cylinder, with a given clearance volume. With
a further increase in the pressure of the delivery manifold, we reach a
maximum pressure P4, at which all the gas is stored into the clearance
volume and there is no delivery of gas. In this case, the suction volume
intake will be nil because, during the backward phase of the piston, the
pressure P1 in the cylinder can only be reached at the end of the suction
stroke.
Likewise, keeping the compression ratio constant, as the clearance volume
increases the volumetric efficiency decreased.
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This indicates that a variable clearance volume can be used to control the
flow of a compressor whose compression ratio is kept constant.

Fig. 16.12 Influence of the clearance volume

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Multi-stage reciprocating compressors

If the compressor has two stages or more, the compression process is
obtained through two or more phases in different cylinders. The gas coming
out of a cylinder is cooled down to the initial temperature by means of an
inter-stage cooler before entering the other cylinder. (Figures 16.13, 16.14).
Therefore, the suction pressures of each stage, except the first one, will
correspond to a compression ratio equal to the inlet suction volume of
that stage divided by the suction volume of the previous stage; also, the
discharge pressure at each stage, except the last one, will be higher
than the suction of the next stage, depending on the pressure drop of
the inter-stage lines, cooler and suction filter.
The advantages offered by this system are:

a) The compression ratio of each cylinder represents only a portion of the

total compression ratio. Therefore, the gas temperature is lower,
resulting in an improved mechanical efficiency.

b) The thrust exerted on the piston rod and the connecting rod, due to the
pressure difference on both sides of the piston itself, is lower in multi
stage compressors.

c) We have seen that for a given clearance volume intake, when the
compression ratio increases, then the volumetric efficiency de-creases.
A multi-stage compressor is usually selected, due to the high discharge
temperature with a lower number of stages.
Multi-stage compressors are shown in the Figures 16.15, 16.16, where
inter-stage coolers are not shown.
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Fig. 16.13 Multi stage compressor with gas cooling

Fig. 16.14 P, V diagram with gas cooling

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Therefore, in the case of multi-stage compressors, there is a compression

ratio for each single stage, given the ratio between the delivery and intake
absolute pressures.

R1 =P2/PA R2 = P3/P2 R3 = PM/P3

Accordingly, the total compression ratio is given by the result of the

multiplication of the compression ratios of each stage.

RT = R1 x R2 x R3

The volume of the compressed gas only depends on the volume and
number of strokes taking place during the 1st stage, because the 2nd and the
3rd stages are forced to pump the gas coming from the 1st stage.

Compressor capacity control

Normally, the adjustment of the flow rate of a reciprocating compressor is
obtained by gas recycle from discharge, and, in addition, to save power, by
changing the number of effects in the 1st stage and locking the involved
intake valves in an open position by means of devices called un-loaders.
In this way, during the compression stage, the gas cannot generate an
increase in pressure for the opening of intake valves and is then forced
back into the intake manifold, generating an in-out motion.
Another way to change the flow of a compressor, but mainly for power
saving purposes, is to add adjustable clearance volumes to the 1st stage
cylinders. In this way, as already seen in the theoretical part, it is possible to
induce a reduction of volumetric efficiency with a subsequent reduction of
the actual handled flow rate. However, in a multistage compressor , an
additional variable clearance pocket shall be applied to all stages, that
otherwise would see change in the intermediate pressure and this is rather
impractical.
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As said earlier, the reciprocating compressors create pulsations, both acoustical

and mechanical, into the piping system, due to the specific operating mode.
A way to mitigate said pulsations, and this is normally applied, is the
addition on suction and discharge flanges, pulsation dampeners, that
basically are drums of suitable size so as to smooth the pressure peaks.

Fig. 16.15 Two stage compressor

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Fig. 16.16 Three stage compressor

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Structure
As shown in (Fig. 16.16), a reciprocating compressor is generally composed
of:
- A mono-bloc
- A crank gear
- Compression cylinders

The engine block (or casing)

Is a metal casing structure acting as a support for the cylinders of the
compressor, the crankshaft, the flywheel, the straight guides for the sliding
blocks (crosshead), as well as for the lubricating oil sump and pump for all
the inner moving parts.
For safety reasons, reciprocating compressors used for flammable gases,
are equipped with a closed chamber (Lantern) between the mono-bloc and
the compressing cylinders.
The chamber is in contact with the atmosphere through a duct, to convey all
gas leaks from the compressing cylinders outside the compressor and thus
preventing the gas from leaking into the mono-bloc, which would form an
explosive mix.

Crank gear
The crank gear is composed of a shaft fitted with a crank pin, a sliding block
that is forced to move along the axis of the compressor’s cylinder
(crosshead) by guides, and by a rod (connecting rod) with an end (big end
of the connecting rod) pivoted on the crank pin and the other end (small end
of the connecting rod) pivoted to the crosshead. In this way if one makes
the shaft rotate with an electric motor (motor-driven compressor), or a
combustion engine (engine-driven compressor) and/or turbines (multistage
centrifugal compressors), the crosshead will move with a reciprocating
rectilinear motion with a forward and reverse cycle for each round of the
compressor’s shaft.
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The alternate motion is then transmitted to the inner piston of the

compressor through a cylindrical rod (piston rod), rigidly connected to the
inner piston of the compressor.
In this way, the variable volume chamber which generates the intake,
compression and delivery stroke phases (examined in the theoretical
section) is created.

Compression cylinder
It is composed of a metal casing fitted with connecting flanges to the intake
and delivery ducts, and by a cover acting as a fixing point for the casing.
The cylinder houses the cylinder liner with the piston and the piston rod, the
intake and delivery automatic valves, the packing gland, the gas feeding
and exhaust chambers and the chambers for cooling water circulation.
Figures 16.18, 16.19, 16.20 show the delivery, intake, automated valves
and the intake automatic valve equipped with the un-loaders to keep the
suction valves in the open position
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Fig. 16.17 Reciprocating compressor

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Fig. 16.18 Delivery valve

Fig. 16.19 Intake valve

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Fig. 16.20 Intake valve with un-loader

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Figures 16.21, 16.22 show two compression cylinders equipped with the
additional clearance volumes on the NDE (Non Drive End side of the
cylinder that will allow the flow rate adjustments. The first one is fixed, while
in the second one the clearance volume changes according to the position
of the manual hand wheel.
The clearance pockets, fixed or variable, are means to save power, and not
really to control in automatic, the capacity of the compressor.

Fig. 16.21 Fixed clearance volume

Fig. 16.22 Variable clearance volume

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Fig. 16.23 Reciprocating Compressor

Auxiliary sytems
The reciprocating compressors have the following auxiliary systems:
a) Lube oil system, which consists of a crank- driven main pump, normally
running to ensure the circulation of the lube oil to the compressor carter and
the distance pieces
An auxiliary pump , electric motor driven, is also foreseen to ensure the
circulation before the machine start-up.
Finally, if the compressor is lubricated , and this means that the pistons
receive a small amount of oil inside the cylinder to ensure lubricant to the
moving pistons, then a pumping system is provided for the oil injection
inside the cylinders.

b) Cooling water
A pumping system is usually provided to circulate cooling water to the
compressor cylinder and to the oil coolers.
Usually the cooling water system is in closed circuit with cooling water
pumps, one in normal operation and the other in stand by
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16.3.6 Additional information on Centrifugal Compressors

Centrifugal compressors are so called because the gas running inside
them follows a path that is perpendicular to the rotational axis of a rotor.
The rotor is composed of an impeller with blades providing kinetic
energy (high velocity) to the gas. The diffuser placed next to the outlet
point converts most kinetic energy into pressure energy.

Functioning
The gas inside the compressor increases the pressure by means of a series
of accelerations received by each impeller though which the kinetic energy
increases and then between each impeller, in the diffusers, that are ways
cast in the stationary part of the compressor (also called diaphragms), the
gas converts the high velocity acquired into pressure that, along the
machine increases to the outlet value.

In general the higher pressure that the gas has inside the compressor while
is flowing from one impeller to the following, requires to provide sealing
systems to prevent or reduce the internal recycles along the clearances that
exist between the shaft and the diaphragms.
Usually, these back flow s are limited by means of labyrinths.
The force unbalancing on the shaft between the outlet wheel, where there
is a higher pressure gas and the inlet impeller, where the suction pressure
gas is present, is partially counter-acted by means of a balancing drum
sized so as to create an opposite force, as on the other side of this drum, by
a labyrinth, a small part of the high pressure gas can flow and enter a
chamber where a pressure close to the suction value is maintained via a
line connected to the suction and called balancing line.
Finally, the non-balanced load on the shaft is acting on the thrust bearing.
As between each couple of impellers, the gas would tend to escape from
inside the machine toward the outside environment by bleeding through the
clearances between the shaft and the casing at both ends of the shaft itself.
To prevent this leak, sealing systems are provided.
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In the past, and also currently but more and more rarely, a sealing oil
system can be adopted.
Instead of a seal oil system, nowadays, the most common system are the
dry gas seals.
These are installed at both shaft ends and consist of a couple of discs in
very tough material, one connected to the shaft and the other to the casing
and in contact each against the other so that the disc firm on the shaft
rotates with it and one face is pushed by springs against the other disc that
does not rotate.
The two discs can so rotate without any mechanical damage or immediate
drastic heating and ensure the tightness between inside the compressor to
the outside , because a small flow of gas is provided to keep the two discs
apart by a gap of the order of a few microns.
The leak between the discs is in normal conditions absolutely negligible,
whereas a still small but significant flow of seal gas enters the machine from
both ends of the shaft through labyrinths and so prevent the escape of
process gas to the gas seal parts.
In general the gas fed to the gas seals is taken from the discharge of the
compressor.
In addition, it is very common, if the process gas is flammable or toxic, to
provide a tandem gas seal arrangement, that consists of two pairs of discs
as described above, installed along the shaft at both ends.
The outer gas seal is normally supplied with a buffer gas which normally is
nitrogen.
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Fig. 16.24 Centrifugal compressor functioning

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Figure 16.25 Multi stage centrifugal compressor

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Multi-stage centrifugal compressors

The increase of the discharge temperature up to the limit value requires to
have a cooling of the gas and this needs to provide outlet for the gas on the
casings. This implies that, centrifugal compressors are multi-stage
machines.

In addition, the glossary related to the centrifugal compressors, include the

term “stage” to mean also “impeller” so that the Fig. 16.25 shows a five-
compression “stage” centrifugal compressor.

Structure
The centrifugal compressors are also subdivided as follows:
• Horizontal split casing
• Barrel type or vertically split casing
Examples of an IMPELLER and a DIFFUSER are given in Figures 16.26,
16.27.
The impeller is driven by the driver and gives a kinetic force (a motion force)
to the gas.
The diffuser is a fixed component that is designed to be able to convert
kinetic energy into pressure energy.
The increase in pressure energy between inlet and outlet points depends on
the velocity of the rotor and the diffuser shape, as well as the gas density.
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Fig. 16.26 Impeller

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Fig. 16.27 Diffuser

Surging
Surging is a physical phenomenon, typical in centrifugal compressors,
strictly due to the rotors shape and size.
Surge is a global instability in a centrifugal compressor's flow that results in
a complete breakdown and reversal of flow through the compressor. Surge
occurs just below the minimum flow that the compressor can sustain
against the existing suction to discharge pressure rise (head). When surge
occurs, both flow rate and head decrease rapidly and gas flows backward
within the compressor. Surge is a source of large dynamic forces applied to
the compressor elements and, hence, a flow phenomena that must be
avoided. Surge avoidance is essential for pipeline compressors and is
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normally achieved by recycling gas around the compressor to maintain a

flow no less than the surge control flow rate.
Surging in volumetric compressor generates pressure and flow pulsations
that destroy the compressor.
To solve this problem, during the engineering stage, an “anti-surging line” is
planned. The “anti-surging line” through an automatic control valve recycles
part of the compressed gas.

Operating limit points

On the performance curves of a centrifugal compressor, two points are
defined which typically limit the operation of this type of compressor:
• The stonewall or choking point , where the gas velocity has reached the
sonic value in some point inside the compressor.
The flow rate cannot be increased beyond this point.
• Surge point , where the minimum allowable flow rate is reached and the
compressor can undergo the unstable and uncontrollable operating
status called ”surge”, which is to be absolutely avoided.
The operation of a centrifugal compressor in surge conditions is very
harmful for the machine which can be severely damaged by the strong
vibrations and quickly repeated pressure oscillations due to the
insufficient developed head that cannot overcome the downstream
system pressure, except intermittently; as a result, the machine is so
heavily under mechanical unbalanced forces that a typical sound start to
be suddenly heard quite far away.
In essence, surge is a global instability in a centrifugal compressor flow
that results in a complete breakdown and reversal of flow through the
compressor. Surge occurs just below the minimum flow that the
compressor can sustain against the existing suction to discharge
pressure rise (head). When surge occurs, both flow rate and head
decrease rapidly and gas flows backward within the compressor. Surge
is a source of large dynamic forces applied to the compressor elements
and, hence, a flow phenomena that must be avoided.
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Surge avoidance is essential for pipeline compressors and is normally

achieved by recycling gas around the compressor to maintain a flow no
less than the surge control flow rate.
To solve this problem, during the engineering stage, an “anti-surging line”
is planned. The “anti-surging line” through an automatic control valve
recycles part of the compressed gas.
To avoid the above typical possible miss-operation, all centrifugal
compressors are provided with an anti-surge control system that includes
a recycle line from discharge back to suction, usually for each stage, with
a control valve; and a controller that performs many sophisticated actions
automatically.
The primary function is to operate the ASVs (Anti-Surge Control Valves)
so that they will open when required to provide a sufficient recycle flow
rate at the right moment.
The recycle lines normally are handling cooled gas , i.e. the gas is taken
downstream of the inter-stage cooler, but sometimes, an as short as
possible hot recycle line, and valve is also installed to ensure a very
quick spill back.

Auxiliary systems
The centrifugal compressors have the following auxiliary systems:
a) Lube oil system, which consists of a complete closed circuit with two
circulation pumps one normally in operation, whereas the other is in stand-
by. Lube oil is sent to the compressor bearings and then is recovered back
to the compressor unit tank.
To ensure that in case of a lube oil failure and subsequent unit S/D (Shut-
Down), lube oil is available during the coasting down of the compressor , oil
is available, normally an elevated tank is provided to ensure the flow for the
oil by gravity.
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b) Seal gas system.

As said earlier, the gas seals have to be continuously supplied with a gas
that usually is taken from the discharge, or from a suitable pressure stage
and then sent to filters and the control system that ensures automatically
that the gas is always at a pressure 0.5 or 1 bar higher than the suction
pressure.

c) Nitrogen is often supplied as buffer gas to the outer seals. Normally it is

filtered, controlled as pressure via a pressure regulating system and then
fed to the gas seals.
Nitrogen is often used as barrier gas also called tertiary seal, that is
installed to prevent the leak of lube inside the gas seals, that are heavily
damaged in case of oil contamination.

16.3.7 Compressor drivers

Compressors are usually operated by one of the following drivers:

- Gas or diesel engine

- Gas turbine
- Electric motor

Engine Driven Compressors

Through the expression “Engine-driven compressor”, we mean
compressors that are coupled to internal combustion engines, usually diesel
or diesel engines converted to gas. For their constructive nature, especially
due to the low speed of the engine (2.000 ÷ 3000 rpm), it is better to drive
possitive displacement compressors rather than centrifugal ones.
The routine checks to perform on these kind of machines are:
- Lubricant level in the oil sump.
- Fuel level or pressure level in case of fuel-gas.
- Coolant level and circulation.
- Head and outlet gas temperature from the compressor.
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All the malfunctions arising during the operations are shown on the control
panel, which is an integral part of the compressor.

Turbo-compressors

Through the definition of “turbo-compressor” we mean a compressor driven

by a turbine, usually gas fuelled.
The turbine is composed of:
- an axial compressor;
- combustion chambers
- turbine wheels
The axial compressor is composed of a set of blades, coupled on the
turbine axis with the purpose of compressing the ambient air so it can be
fed, at the required pressure, into the combustion chamber with the high
pressure turbine fuel. The compressed air enters inside the combustion
chambers, where it mixes with the fuel gas and is combusted.
The combustion chambers allow the air-gas mixing to burn and routes the
gases to the expander side of the turbine. Thanks to the fuel burning, the
mixture increases its temperature and its total volume. The gases enter the
expander side and impact a set of steel blades, wheel mounted in the
turbine, transforming the high energy by speed and pressure into
mechanical energy. The gas leaves the turbine at atmospheric pressure
and then to safe disposal to an exhaust stack. The gases are hot, and
sometimes heat is recovered in special exchangers using hot oil or steam.
The power generated by the expander side of the turbine is greater
than the power required by the air compressor, so the extra power can
be used for other services. Normally coupled to the turbine shaft, a
centrifugal compressor is installed, due to the high turbine speed.
The main controls are:
- Combustion air pressure
- Combustion chambers temperature (400°÷500°)
- Periodical checks to lubricate and check oil levels.
- Speed control
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Fig. 16.28 Turbo Compressor

Fig. 16.29 Turbo Compressor Assonometric view

Electrical-Driven Compressor
The last system to drive a compressor is to couple it with an electric motor.
For the high rotation velocity in our plants, we usually find electric motors
coupled with centrifugal compressors. Electric motors can also be coupled
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with positive displacement reciprocating compressors, if they are equipped

with reduction gear.
Our typical configuration is based on centrifugal compressors directly
coupled to electric motors operating at a constant speed and powered at
6000 Volts.
Electrical motor driven compressors are designed for a very low
maintenance.
The only instrument that must be checked is the amp-meter.

16.3.8 Start–up and loading of a compressor unit

The compressor unit is composed of a set of automatic valves that open
and close, thanks to a microprocessor controlling the starting sequences.
By following the various sequences we can distinguish:
:
- Washing
- Pressurisation
- Running
- Loading

Washing: When the compressor is stopped all valves are closed (suction,
discharge, loading, anti-surge). Only the vent (blow-down) valve is opened
for safety reasons because the compressor must be connected to flare. As
soon as the start signal is given by the operator, loading valves
(pressurisation) open in order to allow some gas through the compressor, to
the flare. So, inside the compressor there will be only gas. This purging
phase has a pre-set time, that will depend on the volume of the compressor
and the pipe size.
Pressurisation: As soon as the washing phase is completed, vent valves
(blow-down) are closed. This will allow the an increase of pressure inside
the compressor, because gas will flow through loading valves, (through a
small orifice) into the compressor.
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Running: As soon as the pressure inside the compressor reaches the

desired level, suction valves open (suction, discharge). As a consequence,
the compressor is ready to operate.
Loading: The compressor speed will increase because it is driven by the
motor. During this start-up phase, the anti-surge valve is opened in order to
increase the flow through the compressor avoiding surge. When the
compressor speed reaches its rated value, the anti-surge valve will close
slowly in order to increase the pressure ratio and deliver gas to the
manifold.
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Fig. 16.30 Compression unit

Conceptual flow sheet
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Fig. 16.31 High Pressure Compression

Process Flow Diagram
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Fig. 16.32 Centrifugal compressor with anti-surging line

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17 DEHYDRATION BY SOLID BEDS

17.1 GENERAL
This plant employs the same adsorbent materials used in the short cycle
solid bed plant.
The only difference between the two plants is the operating time. As a
matter of fact, using the sova-bead as an adsorbent for a short time, we find
that it adsorbs mainly hydrocarbons vapours (STRIPPING) on the contrary
with the absorption time increasing, the sova-bead mainly segregates the
water vapours, which will remove the drops of hydrocarbons that had been
previously absorbed (DEHYDRATING).

17.1.1 Scheme and Functioning

In addition to water vapour, this kind of plant can also remove traces of
hydrocarbon vapours such as C4, C5 and C6.
The equipment used for a complete gas dehydration plant of solid
absorbent is generally composed of: (Fig. 17.1)
- 2 adsorbers
- 1 heater
- 1 scrubber
- 1 heat exchanger
- various valves
In order to dehydrate a gas, the solid bed doesn’t have uniform behaviour.
The area which is first crossed by the gas adsorb much more humidity than
the other bed areas. Therefore, this area is subjected to a quick saturation.
In such conditions, there’s a “saturation front” that starts from the area next
to the gas inlet point and follows the same direction of the gas, gradually
involving the whole volume of the drying material.
It is for this reasons that when it starts, the dehydrating process shows a
high activity and a high adsorbing velocity.
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Later, as the dehydrating power decreases, the activity of the desiccant

shows a reduction in activity, up to total exhaustion when the saturation
front reaches the final area of the adsorbing bed.
After a sudden decrease due to the operations starting, the dew point of the
gas coming out of the separator slowly increases. The adsorbing capacity of
the bed decreases with time until it is completely saturated and does not
remove any more humidity. Should the operator fail to cut the flow to the
absorber before this point, the dew point of the outgoing gas would reach
the same value of the ingoing gas; signalling that the bed is saturated.
The operator should stop the flow to the unit before reaching saturation, by
knowing the time it takes to saturate and/or by humidity measurements of
the gas leaving the bed.
Once the bed is off process, the silica gel has to be regenerated. The
regeneration of the drying material is obtained by passing into the adsorber,
heated gas with a higher temperature than that of water evaporation.
(200°C). The high temperature causes the evaporation of the adsorbed
water, which is carried away, together with the regenerating gas, outside
the adsorber and sent to the heat exchanger and then on to the separator,
where it condensates and is separated.
The quantity of gas used in a regeneration cycle is usually about 5 to 15%
of the total gas coming from the dehydrating plant and it is obtained from
the main cycle, at the outlet point of the free water separator.
To avoid any interruption of the gas flow, the process must be performed by
means of double contact equipment. While one of the containers with the
dehydrating means operates in the active adsorbing phase, the other is cut
off from the main gas circuit to allow both the regeneration process and the
cooling of the exhausted adsorbent.
The purpose of the cooling process is to allow good gas dehydration during
the initial phase of the adsorbing cycle.
This alternation in the adsorbing and regeneration cycles to (which the
dehydrating material is subjected), is one of the main causes for its
efficiency reduction over the time. This phenomenon is called “ageing”.
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Fig. 17. 1 Dehydration with solid beds

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18 SOUR WATER STRIPPER PLANT

18.1 GENERAL

The sour water stripper configuration shown above is a common unit in

process plants. It processes sour water that comes from a variety of
sources and includes, process separators, glycol units, amine plants and
inlet units. The intent of the sour water stripper is to remove H2S and NH3
The effluent of the sour water treater is often stored in atmospheric tanks,
thereby eliminating the need for special vapour recovery systems.
The sour water feed stream goes through a feed/effluent exchanger, where
it recovers heat from tower bottom streams (Stripper Bottoms). This new
stream (Stripper Feed) enters a 8 tray distillation tower with a re-boiler and
total reflux condenser. The Sour H20 feed consists of the following species:

Fig. 18.1 Sour water stripper plant

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Temperature 100°F
Pressure 40 psia
Comp Mass Frac (h2s) 0,0070
Comp Mass Frac (NH3) 0,0050
Comp Mass Frac (h2O) 0,9880

The Heat exchanger specification is:

Design Heat Exchanger Model Exchanger design
(parameters) (Weighted)
Tube Side Pressure Drop 10 psi
shell Side Pressure Drop 10 psi

The column specifications are given below:

Connections No of stages 8
Inlet stream stripper Feed
Inlet Stage 3
Condenser type Full Reflux
Ovhd Vapour Off Gas
Bottoms Liquid Stripper Bottoms
Re-boiler Energy Stream Q - Reb
Condense Energy Steam Q - Cond
Pressure Profile Condenser Pressure 28.7 psia
Re-boiler Pressure 32.7

A quality specification of 10ppm wt Ammonia on the tower bottom is to be

met. A reflux ratio of 10 molar flow has been specified.
The temperature of stripper feed is not specified. Find the range of Stripper
Feed temperatures that give less than 50% water content in the Overhead
Vapours of the column.
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19 FLARE SYSTEM

19.1 DESCRIPTION SCHEME AND FUNCTIONING

In gas processing the effluents treating system can be divided in three
systems:
- cold flare
- incinerator
- emergency flare

19.2 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONING OF EQUIPMENTS

Cold Flare
Towards the cold flare all the discharges of the safety valves are collected,
especially those calculated for fire, and the depressurization discharges.
Naturally, safety valves discharges are collected on a pipe header different
from the depressurizations one. The cold flare is a vent and is designed to
discharge large amounts of gas in short periods for emergencies. (Fig.
19.1)
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Fig. 19.1 Cold flare

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Incinerator
All the continuous discharges with a sufficiently constant flow are collected
towards the incinerator.
The aim of the incinerator furnace is to incinerate vapours coming from the
glycol regeneration and gases coming from the degassing units. (Fig. 19.2).
Besides a gas burner and a manifold of automatic valves for keeping the
combustion chamber temperature at 950°C, the furnace is provided with a
flame breaker on the vapour inlet of the furnace with the function of avoiding
flame return to the plant. Suitable sensors (8 thermocouples) determine the
shutdown of the incinerator furnace in case of temperature increase.
A separator is located upstream the incinerator furnace to separate any
liquids that can cause an explosion in the combustion chamber.
A blower sends the vapours from the separator to the furnace combustion
chamber.

A pressure gauge maintains the pressure values inside the separator

slightly above atmospheric pressure. As a consequence any possible dump
valves located on the plant, once opened, do not cause the injection of air
inside the furnace vapour circuit. Pressure decreasing stops the blower and
vapours are deviated to the flare. The same thing occurs when the furnace
shuts-down.
The vapours line from the three-way valve upstream of the incinerator is
connected to the emergency flare.
The valve is normally open towards the incinerator but in case of incinerator
shutdown it re-directs vapours toward the emergency flare. (Fig. 19.3)
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Fig. 19.2 Incinerator

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Fig. 19.3 Emergency flare

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20 NITROGEN PRODUCTION

20.1 INTRODUCTION
Nitrogen, N2, is a diatomic gas which comprises 78 percent of the earth's
atmosphere.
It is colourless, odourless, tasteless, and non-toxic, nitrogen exists as a
non-flammable gas at atmospheric temperatures and pressures. A specific
gravity of 0.97 makes nitrogen slightly lighter than air. When cooled to its
boiling point of -195.8°C, nitrogen becomes a colourless liquid which can by
further cooling become a colourless, crystalline solid. It is only slightly
soluble in water and most other liquids, and is a poor conductor of heat and
electricity.
At high temperatures, as at the exhaust of gas turbines, nitrogen can
combine with oxygen to form nitrogen oxides, referred to as NOx, that as
much as possible be limited for health and environmental reasons.

The importance of nitrogen in Oil and Gas plants is related to its inert
characteristics. Practically all processing plants, e.g. from basic oil centres,
to oil refineries and gas processing plants, have nitrogen as a normal
available utility. Often, nitrogen is used on a continuous basis to ensure
blanketing of tanks containing products that must be kept from contacting
air, or to supply inert/buffer gas to the gas seals of rotating machines,
especially centrifugal compressors.
As a result, nitrogen is one of the largest volume industrial gases. The
industrial methods to produce high purity nitrogen are as follows:

- a) By cryogenic Air Fractionation, a process in which air is compressed

and cooled to cryogenic temperatures, liquefied and then, relying on
different boiling points, separated into its components in a distillation
column. This can be achieved in a co-products plant producing
nitrogen, oxygen and argon, or in a Nitrogen Plant (N-Plant) which
produces high purity nitrogen only.
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- b) By Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) on carbon molecular sieve

(MCS) re-generable beds.
- C) By air separation through membranes

The above methods can be compared as follows:

a) The Cryogenic distillation accounts for approximately 85 percent of
nitrogen production. It is the preferred supply mode for high volume and
high purity requirements. Usually the nitrogen is also stored as a liquid, in
double walled vessels to ensure high volume store and high peak flow
rates.
b) The PSA units are commonly selected when the required purity is not the
highest and the required capacity is medium to high.
c) Membrane produced nitrogen is usually lower cost than cryogenically
produced nitrogen, but it also has lower purity. Membrane systems are
often selected because of their lower operating costs and simplicity. In off-
shore applications, this is the preferred system.

Fig. 20.1 Cryogenic Nitrogen Plant (N-Plant)

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General Process Description

a) Cryogenic Air Separation

Fig. 20. 2 Cryogenic air separation

There are many variations in the air separation units, depending upon the
desired products required, i.e only nitrogen, both oxygen and nitrogen, or
nitrogen, oxygen and argon. Usually liquid storage vessels are provided.
The first process step in an air separation plant is filtering and compressing
air (most commonly, to about 90 psig, or 6 bar). The compressed air is then
cooled close-to-ambient temperature by cooling water or air. Condensed
water is removed from the air as it is compressed and cooled.
The next step is removing the remaining water vapour and carbon dioxide.
These components of air, if not removed, would freeze and plug the very
cold portions of the plant. Other contaminants, such as hydrocarbons, are
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removed as well. Most plants have a “molecular sieve” section to remove

water and CO2. Earlier practice employed “reversing” heat exchangers to
remove the water and CO2, plus cold absorbers to remove hydrocarbons.
Reversing plants are still manufactured; but the trend has been to use
molecular sieve cleanup in most new plant designs.

Additional heat transfer, in brazed aluminium plate fin heat exchangers,

cools the air to cryogenic temperature (approximately -185 °C) The cooling
is obtained by heat exchange of warm treated air with the cold product
exiting the separation process. In addition, the very low temperatures
required for the cryogenic fractionation are achieved within the system by a
refrigeration process that includes expansion of one or more internal
process streams.
Distillation columns are used to separate the air into desired products.
Nitrogen plants may have only one column Oxygen plants will have both
“high” and “low” pressure columns where the purity of the oxygen from the
high pressure column is further increased in the low pressure column.
Because the boiling points of argon and oxygen are similar, plants
producing very high purity oxygen will have an additional argon removal
column.
The cold gaseous products and waste streams that exit the air separation
columns are routed back through the front end heat exchangers.
To maximize chilling and plant energy efficiency, the pressure reduction (or
expansion) takes place inside an expander (a form of turbine). The
expander drives a compressor or electrical generator, removing energy
from the gas and reducing its temperature more than would be the case
with simple expansion across a valve.
Nitrogen is produced as a gas stream, to be sent to the plant utility
distribution system and also as a liquid to be stored in special double walled
vessels to serve as an additional source of gaseous nitrogen, via banks of
vaporizers, in case of high peak demand.
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The sections of the cryogenic air separation units that operate at very low
temperatures, i.e., the distillation columns, heat exchangers and cold
interconnecting piping, must be highly insulated. These items usually are
located inside insulated, sealed (and nitrogen purged) “cold boxes”. Cold
boxes are relatively tall structures which may be rectangular or round in
cross section. Depending on plant type and capacity, they may measure 2
to 4 meters diameter and have a height of 15 to 60 meters.

b) Nitrogen by Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA)

PSA units produce nitrogen using materials that allow the nitrogen to pass
through while selectively adsorbing other components of the air feed
stream. Nitrogen PSA use a carbon molecular sieve (CMS) material which
is similar to the molecular sieves used for the deep dehydration of the
natural gas in LNG and NGL plants.
Typical purity for nitrogen is from 95 to 99.5%.
PSA units typically contain two working vessels, although mono-bed and
multiple bed configurations are sometimes used in the standard unit, a two-
bed configuration is applied, where at any time, one of the vessels is
adsorbing, at a pressure equal to that of the nitrogen plant network system,
usually at about 8barg.Whilst the other is in the regeneration cycle, that
includes a de-pressuring to atmospheric pressure and purges the adsorbed
oxygen.
The two vessels alternate between the adsorption and regeneration modes.
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Fig. 20.3 Typical design outline of a Nitrogen PSA unit

c) Air separation through membranes

This is a non-cryogenic technology that uses hollow fibre polymer
membranes to separate gaseous nitrogen from air by selective permeability.
Membrane nitrogen has usually lower cost that cryogenically produced
nitrogen, but it also has lower purity, usually 90-95 vol.%.
A nitrogen membrane provides a low cost, highly efficient means of
separating air into its component gases. Because this technology require no
moving parts, consumes relatively little energy, it is very economical to
operate and maintain. The main expense is the energy required to provide a
stream of compressed feed air. Each system contains gas pressure control
valves, instruments, a coalescing filter, a carbon filter, (which removes
particles and liquid vapours from the feed line) and the nitrogen membrane
module.
The membrane module consists of bundles of hollow fibre, semi-permeable
membranes. Each fibre has a perfectly circular cross section and a uniform
core through its centre. The wall thickness is consistent, which contributes
to the physical strength of each membrane.
Because the fibres are so small, (about the diameter of a human hair) a great
many can be packed into a limited space, providing an extremely large membrane
surface area that can produce a relatively high volume product stream.
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Fig 20.4 Typical membrane module

21 COMPRESSED AND INSTRUMENT AIR SYSTEM

21.1 DESCRIPTION SCHEME AND FUNCTIONING

The compressed air used in the plant for instruments and maintenance
activities is produced by a dedicated compression and drying unit.
Usually, the instrument air is distributed at a pressure of about 10 barg.
The compressed air is accumulated in a separator, where any possible
condensate is separated.
The separator is provided with:

- a low pressure alarm

- a high pressure alarm
- a pressure switch to start and stop the compressor in case of low
pressure.
Two lines goes from the separator, one is air for instruments and the other
is air for services (Fig. 21.1)
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21.2 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONING OF EQUIPMENT

21.2.1 Air dryer

The instrument air collector delivers air to the drying plant and its related
filters.
The plant is usually composed of two twin vessels filled with absorbing
material (sova-bead; silica-gel). One of these is usually in a regenerating
phase at atmospheric pressure. A programmer re-pressurises the
regenerated container before switching services to maintain continuous
operation, without causing downstream pressure variations in the plants.
A programmer in the following order adjusts the plant phases: (Fig. 21.2,
21.3)
- Re-pressurisation of the regenerated container;
- Container switching services;
- Decompression of the container to be regenerated;
- Regeneration.
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Fig. 21.1 Compressed Air Compression Section

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Regeneration occurs by letting a part of the dehydrated air, flow in counter

current through the absorber bed, which is subsequently discharged to the
atmosphere.

Fig. 21.2 Dryer section

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Two filters are installed downstream of the plant with the function of
removing any possible solid impurities from the air, to avoid damaging the
plant instrumentation.

Fig. 21.3 Dryer system

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22 FUEL GAS SYSTEM

22.1 DESCRIPTION SCHEME AND FUNCTIONING

The most commonly used fuel in hydrocarbon treatment plants is natural
gas because it is locally available and therefore financially more convenient
than other fuels. Gas can be produced directly from the wells or obtained
through the treatment of raw gas.
The users can use fuel gas, only if its pressure is appropriate for the
equipment and if it doesn’t contain liquid and solid impurities.

22.2 EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION AND PERFORMANCE

The fuel gas feed comes from gas treatment pipelines or vessels containing
saturated gas and is composed of:
- various pressure reducers with several calibrating parameters;
- a separator for separating any possible liquid phase carryover and/or
condensed along the supply line;
- a Indirect fire or electric heater to avoid the formation of liquids
(water-gas oil) along the supply line during pressure reduction;
- filters provided to remove any possible solid substances present
inside the gas that could damage instruments and equipment.
The separators are usually of the scrubber type that is more efficient than
normal separators because they are provided with demisters capable of
withholding particles of liquid mist.
In the fuel gas treatment manifold the reducers are located in parallel
position to adequately respond to heavy demands when, downstream of the
reducers, several users request fuel at the same time (Fig. 22.1, 22.2).
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Fig. 22.1 - Fuel gas System

Conceptual flow sheet
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Fig. 22.2 Fuel Gas System (platform)

Conceptual flow sheet
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23 WATER TREATMENT SYSTEM

23.1 DESCRIPTION SCHEME AND FUNCTIONING

Different types of water are required by the system according to use.
Although according to plant location different design solutions are possible
(e.g. incoming drinking water from an aqueduct, use of seawater for cooling
etc.), the most common case is the use of water taken from a canal or well
and then treated to obtain the necessary characteristics.
The usual treatments necessary for the functioning of a gas plants are to
have :
- Cooling water
- Boiler feed water (BFW), if a there is a steam unit
- Service water
- Drinking water
-

23.2 WASTE WATER TREATMENT

The water outflow from the production plant generally contains oil, dissolved
gas and solid particles and has to be treated to prior to its discharging to the
environment.

Waste water collection is carried out through separated drain system and
treated suitably.
Process water is separated from the produced gas during the treatment
cycle, collected in a separator and from there are re-injected through high
pressure pumps into the reservoir.
Waste water sewers (urban sewers are gathered through a separated
drain system and sent to special treatment and are discharged in streams).
Rain water (from runoff of roads, large squares, building roofs, etc.) are
piped into a monitoring tank and, if not polluted, they are discharged in
streams.
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Oily water is collected in a special drain system and piped towards

treatment areas. Water is separated from the hydrocarbons in the
separation plants and sent to specific treatment plants which treat the water
to make it suitable for disposal in the plant’s collection network and then
outside the plant without polluting the environment.
(Fig. 23.1 and 23.2) shown two examples of a typical plant used in the
treatment of this water. The water coming from the separators is sent to a
flash separator where it is separated from the dissolved gas. The water
separated from the gas is then sent to an API skimmer.
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1. Flash separator
2. API skimmer
3. Floater plant
4. Oil recovery pumps

Fig. 23.1 Example of oily water treatment

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Fig. 23.2 Example of oily water treatment (oil skimmer)

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Description of a API skimmer (or API separator)

The API skimmer generally consists of a basin divided into communicating
compartments in which the oily water flows slowly (Fig. 23.3).
Four compartments are generally used.
The first one has the liquid inlet and separation by gravity of any solid
particles.
The second one has the separation of the water from the oil, obtained by
acting on the different density of the hydrocarbon, liquid and water.
This section generally contains lamellar layers which facilitate the contact of
the oil droplets dispersed in the water and their rising upwards.
The third compartment collects the oil and the fourth collects the oil-free
water.
While pumps recycle the oil to the production plants, the water is sent,
usually by gravity, to the discharge network.
The degree of efficiency of the API skimmers depends on the
characteristics of the incoming water (oil content and temperature of the
water) and the type of plant used.
Normally these plants are able to guarantee outgoing water with an oil
content of 20-40 ppm, starting from water with oil content of 1,000 – 10,000
ppm.
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Fig. 23.3 API skimmer

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24 FIREFIGHTING SYSTEM

24.1 DESCRIPTION SCHEME AND FUNCTIONING

The plant protection system as fire-fighting in the gas treatment is based on
the use of fire monitors, fixed equipment and the positioning in strategic
position of portable or wheeled extinguishers. If in the gas treatment plant
there are large quantities of liquid hydrocarbons a/o storage, it will be
necessary a water and foam fire-fighting system as described in the Oil
Plants booklets.
Some examples of extinguishers are given (Fig. 24.1, 24.2).

Fig. 24.1 Dry-chemical portable fire extinguisher

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Fig. 24.2 Dry-chemical wheeled fire extinguisher

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25 POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM

25.1 DESCRIPTION SCHEME AND FUNCTIONING

The production and distribution of electric energy in the gas treatment
plants, as philosophy, is practically the same as the oil treatment plants as
subsequently described.

Fig. 25.1 Power supply system

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26 ALARM AND SHUT-DOWN SYSTEMS IN GAS PLANT

(see also Oil Plants booklets)

26.1 GENERAL
Since gas treatment units can present serious risks to people and facilities
during operation (e.g. explosion, fire, wrong manoeuvres etc.), systems
making operations safe, are provided for in the design stage.
These systems are:

- Alarm system
- Shut-down system

26.2 ALARM CONDITIONS

The alarms involve thresholds which must not be exceeded during unit
operation and include:
- high level alarm
- low level alarm
- high pressure alarm
- low pressure alarm
- high temperature alarm
- low temperature alarm

26.3 SHUT DOWN SEQUENCES ANALYSIS

For example, we can take the high pressure alarm and examine its function.
We know that each component of equipment has a maximum working
pressure that can be safely used (maximum operating pressure). This
pressure must absolutely not be exceeded.
We can consider having a stabilization column with a maximum operating
pressure of 18 bars. To protect this level the following are normally
installed:
1. A high pressure alarm set at 15.5 bars (hPa)
2. A high pressure valve set at 17 bars (hPs)
3. A safety valve set at 17.5 bars (PSV)
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The plant should also have general blockage for system shut-down, i.e.:
• Production shut-down (PSD)
• Emergency shut-down (ESD)

26.3.1 Production shut-down (PSD)

PSD can occur due to mal-functioning of some equipment, i.e. one of the
causes described above: excessive level, temperature or pressure. In this
case the pneumatic valve closing is automatically triggered. These valves
have on-off functioning and are located at the inlet and outlet of the plant.
In case of PSD, all the wells are normally closed, the flares extinguished
and the levels maintained in the various equipment.

26.3.2 Emergency shut-down (ESD)

In ESD, besides the procedures provided in PSD, the entire plant is
depressurised with the pressure being expelled in the blow-down network
and to the flare.
Fire presence, gas presence, smoke presence, H2S presence are the most
important causes of triggering ESD.
This shut-down is always related to the fuse cap or heat sensitive wire
network.

26.3.3 Fuse cap network

The fuse cap network is a line consisting of about 10-12 mm where at a
distance of about 2-3 meters lead caps are installed; in case of fire the
temperature rises, melting them and unloading the air keeping the
pneumatic sectioning valves open (plant inlet and outlet and well opening).
They also trigger the opening of pneumatic valves (with closed air
functioning) that unload the portion of plant firing in the blow-down network.
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26.3.4 Linear heat detector line

The linear heat detector line consists of two wires laid along all the
equipment forming the plant. Here, too, in case of fire the wires melt due to
high temperature and trigger the pneumatic valves.
The reason for having a pair of wires is not only to avoid false shut-down
due to false alarms.
Shut-down occurs on a “2 out of 2” and not a 1 out of 2 basis, This means
that ESD does not occur in case of accidental breakage of one of the two
wires, but for alarms due to the interruption of the electric circuit alarm.