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Modue 1
Modue 1
Module I
Slip occurs when the shear stress exceeds a critical value. Slipping of atoms along crystal planes
(atomic planesis called deformation. A given point in the body is considered safe as long as the
maximum shear stress at that point is under the yield shear stress obtained from a uniaxial tensile
test.
The concept of slip (Dislocation) and plastic deformation
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„ ‟ is the angle between the slip direction and the applied force, and „ ‟ is the angle between
the normal to the slip plane and the applied force. In order for the dislocation to move in its slip
system, a shear force acting in the slip direction must be produced by the applied force.
Fs
τr =
A
shear force Fs F cos
A = A0 / cos
F
Uniaxial stress σ =
A0
F cos cos
Shear stress, cos cos
Ao
cos cos known as the Schmid Factor)
Slip process begins within the crystal when the shear stress on the slip plane in slip direction
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reaches critical resolved shear stress τr against the uniaxial applied force
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Cutting speed refers to the speed at which the tool point of the cutter moves with respect to the
work measured in feet per minute.
In turning, it is given by the surface speed of the work piece,
V = π DoN in m/min
where Do is the diameter of the work piece in meter
N is the RPM of work or spindle speed
Feed – advancement of tool through the work piece in one rotation of spindle, (f mm/rev)
Depth of cut – distance by which tool penetrates in the work-piece (d, mm)
(Do-Df)/2
Df= dia of finished work piece
Cutting rate or MRR = volume / time
Volume of material removes = length * width * depth of the chip
In orthogonal cutting
Thickness of cut= feed
Width of cut= depth of cut
MRR = v f d
Where v = cutting speed;
f = feed;
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d = depth of cut
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Back rack: It is defined as the angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel to the base
Side rake angle: It is the angle by which the face of the tool is inclined side ways.
Front clearance angle / End relief angles: The angle between front surface of the tool & line
normal to base of the tool is known as a front clearance angle. It avoid rubbing of work piece
against tool.
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reference plane. (The reference plane is plane perpendicular to cutting velocity vector.)
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Shaping process
significant for promoting cyclic slip and crack nucleation at the material surface. The effect of
surface roughness is very important in order to minimize the cost of machining and time of
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Oblique Cutting
1. The cutting edge of the tool is inclined at an acute angle to the direction of feed or
velocity vector
2. The direction of the chip flow is not normal to the cutting edge. Rather it is at an angle to
the normal to the cutting edge.
3. It is three dimensional (3-D) cutting in nature.
4. The shear force acts on a larger area, hence the shear force per area is smaller
5. The tool life is higher than obtained in orthogonal cutting
In actual machining, majority of the cutting operations (turning, milling, etc.) are oblique cutting. 12
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Piispanen modeled the shear process of chip formation mechanism as a deck of cards where one
card at a time slides forward with cutting tool progresses as shown in figure shows down
Due to compression, shear stress develops, within that compressed region, in different
magnitude, in different directions and rapidly increases in magnitude. Whenever and wherever
the value of the shear stress reaches or exceeds the shear strength of that work material in the
deformation region, yielding or slip takes place resulting shear deformation in that region along
the plane of maximum shear stress. But the forces causing the shear stresses in the region of the
chip quickly diminishes and finally disappears while that region moves along the tool rake
surface towards and then goes beyond the point of chip-tool engagement. As a result the slip or
shear stops propagating long before total separation takes place. In the mean time the succeeding
portion of the chip starts undergoing compression followed by yielding and shear. This
phenomenon repeats rapidly resulting in formation and removal of chips in thin layer by layer.
applied load leads to the development of the crack, the fracture of the workpiece material takes
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Two plastic deformation zones, namely the primary shear zone and the secondary shear zone
have been commonly accepted.
Primary shear zone- where shearing of chip from parent materials takes place.
Secondary shear zone- chip - tool interface deformation due to friction between tool and chip.
Shear plane:
As the tool is forced into the material, the chip is formed by shear deformation along a plane
called the shear plane, which is oriented at an angle Ф with the surface of the work. Shear plane
separates the deformed and undeformed work material.
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Higher shear plane which means lower shear force which requires lower cutting forces, power,
temperature, all of which mean easier machining. The value of shear angle depends on
Work piece material
Cutting condition
Tool material
Tool geometry
When the shear angle is small, the plane of shear will be larger, chip is thick and therefore higher
cutting force is required to remove the chip and vice versa. The shear angle is determined from
the chip thickness ratio.
Chip thickness ratio
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The resultant force R is due to the cutting force applying externally through the tool. Now these
resultant force components can be resolved horizontally and vertically called cutting forces.
Fc = cutting force acting along the cutting velocity
Ft = axial feed force or thrust force indirection of feed
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2
R Fn Fs 2 F 2 N 2 Fc 2 Ft
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The circle(s) drawn taking R or R1 as diameter is called merchant circle which contains all the
force components concerned as intercepts. The two circles with their forces are combined into
one circle having all the forces contained in that as shown by the diagram called Merchant‟s
Circle Diagram. Equations can be derived to relate the forces that cannot be measured to the
forces that can be measured.
Several forces can be defined relative to the orthogonal cutting model. Based on these forces,
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shear stress, coefficient of friction, and certain other relationships can be defined.
Ft
tan( )
Fc
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Apply Ft in terms of Fc
Take derivative of the shear stress with respect to the shear angle and setting the derivative to
zero, then we get Merchant Equation:
0
45 mechant equation
2 2
rake angle
friction angle
shaer angle
The Merchant equation defines the general relationship between rake angle, tool-chip friction,
and shear plane angle.
Conclusions of merchant equation analysis
Rake angle increases, shear angle increases;
Friction decreases, shear angle increases
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The plane AC is stress free and slip lines meet AC at 450. AB is the shear plane and set of
parallel AB and another set perpendicular to AB is inclined at an angle (450-β) with the tool face.
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Power supplied = power required for shearing + power required for the chip flow along the tool
face (friction power)
P Ps Pf
Ps Fs * Vs
Pf F * Vc
Vc velocity of chip flow
Fs shear force
F frictional force
Vs velocity of shear
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Fc * V Fc * V Fc
specific cutting energy U p
MRR V * d * f d * f
Shear power Fs * Vs
specific shear energy U s
MRR V *d * f
Frictional power
specific frictional power U f
MRR
total specific energy U p U s U f
Discontinuous chips:
Discontinuous chip: when machining relatively brittle materials at low cutting speeds, the chips
often form into separated segments. Discontinuous chip formation may cause vibration, surface
roughness and reduced tool life.
Factors favourable for discontinuous chip
1. work material – brittle like grey cast iron
2. feed – large
3. tool rake – negative
4. cutting fluid – absent or inadequate
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Chip breakers:
Continuous machining of ductile metals produces continuous chips, which leads to their handling
and disposal problems. The problems become acute when ductile but strong metals like steels are
machined at high cutting velocity for high MRR.
1. becomes dangerous to the operator and the other people working in the vicinity
2. may cause damage to workpiece surface and machine tool
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The chip should be broken into small pieces for easy removal, safety and to prevent damage to
machine and work. The function of chip breakers is to reduce the radius of curvature of chips and
thus break it.
The principles and methods of chip breaking are generally classified as follows :
1. Self breaking
This is accomplished without using a separate chip-breaker either as an
attachment or an additional geometrical modification of the tool.
2. Forced chip breaking by additional tool geometrical features or devices:
Self breaking
1. By natural fracturing of the strain hardened outgoing chip after sufficient cooling and spring
back in fig 7.1 (a)
2. By striking against the cutting surface of the job, as shown in Fig. 7.1 (b), mostly under pure
orthogonal cutting
3. By striking against the tool flank after each half to full turn as indicated in Fig. 7.1 (c).
In the cases where the real area contact (Ar) is very less compared with apparent area (Aa)
contact as shown in figure and general friction laws can be used.
real area
0 laws of friction is valid
apparent area
when apparent area is equal to real area as the normal load is very high the law of friction is not valid
real area
ie 1
apparent area
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decreased to zero in the second half. The zone where both normal and the shear stress varied
was known as the “Sliding zone”. In metal cutting the normal force and shear force is variation is
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It has been observed that co-efficient of friction increases with the increase in rake angle.
If friction increases between the tool chip face, then cutting force required for metal cutting
increases. Friction conditions at the tool chip interface strongly influence the tool chip contact
length.The stresses and temperatures at tool-chip interface and around the cutting edge can be
critically high in some cutting conditions and can cause excessive tool wear or even premature
tool failure. The contact regions and the friction parameters between the chip and the tool are
influenced by factors such as cutting speed, feed rate, rake angle, etc. Also it affects the tool
wear, dimensional accuracy, vibration, build up edge formation and temperature rise etc.
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54. Name two popular metal cutting theories and describe them in brief
55. Explain the force system in milling and derive an expression for cutting power
requirement.
56. Explain the significance of shear angle theories in metal cutting
57. Present with a neat sketch the shear angle theories of merchant and Lee & Shaffer, clearly
stating its assumptions. Discuss the validity of this theory.
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What are the advantages of providing side cutting angle?
It decreases chip thickness. Small chip thickness means less cutting force and tool wear. It
also helps the gradual engagement of tool into the work which reduces chatter and bending
etc
What is the operating parameter to increase the material removal rate feed or depth of cut.
Material removal rate can be increased either by increasing the feed or depth of cut
For the increase the depth of cut, speed has to be reduced for the same tool life. Also support
and strength of work-piece should be enough. So less preferable
Increased feed rate will increase the material removal rate only with slight decrease in tool
life. So increase feed is the best method within the allowable finish. Increased feed will
reduce the surface finish.
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ASA system has limited advantage and use like convenience of inspection. But ORS is
advantageously used for analysis and research in machining and tool performance. But ORS
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does not reveal the true picture of the tool geometry when the cutting edges are inclined from
the reference plane, i.e., λ≠0. Besides, sharpening or re-sharpening, if necessary, of the tool
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Rake angles
γn = normal rake: angle of inclination angle of the rake surface from πR and measured on
normal plane, πN
αn = normal clearance: angle of inclination of the principal flank from πC and measured on
πN
αn‟= auxiliary clearance angle: normal clearance of the auxiliary flank (measured on πN‟ –
plane normal to the auxiliary cutting edge.
The cutting angles, φ and φ1 and nose radius, r (mm) are same in ORS and NRS.
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