Electric Current:

A conducting path and a potential difference are both needed for a current to occur.

The magnitude of an electric current, denoted by I, is the rate at which the charges passes a
given point. If the net charge Q goes past in a time interval t, then the average current is
I = Q/t
Current = charge/ time interval
Unit : Ampere (A)
1 Ampere = 1 coulomb /second
The electric current is assumed to flow from the positive terminal of a battery or generator to
its negative terminal in an external circuit.

Two conditions must be met in order for an electric current to exists between two points:
1. There must be a conducting path between the two points along which the charge can
flow.
2. There must be a difference of potential between the two points. The rate flow of charge
between the two points depends on the difference of potential between them. A large
potential means a large “push” given to each charge.

A particular conducting path- for instance , a copper wire , a light bulb, an electric heater
is usually called a conductor, even though this also the name of the class of substances
through which the current flows.
Resistance of a conductor is the ratio between the potential difference V across it and
the resulting current that flows.
𝑽
R =𝑰
𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
Resistance = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
Unit: ohm (Ω)
1ohm = 1 volt/ampere

Example: A 120 V – hair dryer draws a current of 15 A. Find its resistance.

𝑽 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑽
R = 𝑰 = 𝟏𝟓 𝑨 = 8 Ω

Ohm’s Law:
Current is proportional to voltage in many substances.
In a conductor whose resistance is constant, the current is proportional to voltage.

𝑉
I= (R is constant)
𝑅

Example: A light bulb has a resistance of 9.5 Ω. Find the current in it when it is placed in
a 120- V circuit.
 𝑉 120− V
I=𝑅 = = 12.6 A
9.5 Ω

Example: The current in a coil of a 4.0 Ω loudspeaker is 0.25 A. Find the voltage across
each terminal.
V = IR
V = (0.25 A) (4.0 Ω) = 1.0 V

Resistivity:
A measure of the ability of a substance to conduct electric current.
Four different factors which affect resistance of a conductor.
1. The type of material of which the resistor is made.
2. Its length L : The longer the conductor , the greater its resistance.
3. Its cross-sectional area (A) the thicker the conductor, the less its resistance.

𝜌𝐿
R= 𝐴
Where : ρ = resistivity of a material (Ω m)
L = length
A = cross – sectional area
4. Temperature – heating a wire increases its resistance.
Temperature Variation of Resistivity
If R is the resistance of a conductor at a particular temperature , then the change ∆R
in its resistance when the temperature changes by ∆T is approximately
proportional to both R and ∆T, and therefore
∆R = 𝛼 R∆T
Rf – Ri = 𝛼 Ri ∆T
Rf = Ri + 𝛼 Ri ∆T
Rf = Ri [ 1 + 𝛼 ∆T]
Rf = Ri [ 1 + 𝛼 ( Tf – Ti )]

Where: Rf = Final Resistance

Ri = Initial Resistance
𝛼 = temperature coefficient of resistivity of the material
Tf = Final Temperature
Ti = Initial Temperature

The resistivity of the material depends on temperature:

𝜌𝑓 = 𝜌𝑖 [ 1 + 𝛼 (Tf - Ti ) ]

The 𝜌𝑓 and 𝜌𝑖 are the resistivities at temperature Tf and Ti respectively.

𝛼 = temperature coefficient of resistivity of the material
Example of Resistivity:

The instructions of an electric lawn mower suggests that a 20 -gauge extension cord
can be used for distances up to 35m, but for thicker 16 -gauge cord should be used
for a longer distances, to keep the resistance of the wire as small as possible. The
cross -sectional area of a 20 gauge wire is 5.2 x10 – 7 m2, while the 16- gauge wire is
13 x10 – 7 m2. Determine the resistance of (a) 35 m of 20 – gauge copper wire and
(b) 75 m of 16 – gauge copper wire.
Resistivity of copper wire = 1.72 x10 – 8 Ω m

𝜌𝐿
Formula : R = 𝐴
a.) 20 – gauge wire

𝜌𝐿 (1.72𝑥10− 8 𝛺 𝑚)(35 𝑚)
R= = = 1.2 Ω
𝐴 5.2 𝑥10− 7 𝑚2

b.) 16 – gauge wire

𝜌𝐿 (1.72𝑥10− 8 𝛺 𝑚)(75 𝑚)
R= = = 0.99 Ω
𝐴 13 𝑥10− 7 𝑚2

The 16 – gauge wire has less resistance than the thinner 20 – gauge wire.
It is necessary to keep the resistance low as possible in order to minimize heating
of wire, thereby reducing the possibility of a fire.

Example. The maximum resistance of a copper wire 800 ft long is to be 2.00 Ω.

What should the minimum diameter of the wire be?
𝜌 = 10.4 𝛺 𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑙 /𝑓𝑡
Note: The cross- sectional area of a round conductor is expressed in terms of a unit
circular mil (cmil). A circular mil is the area of a circle whose diameter is 1 mil,
where 1 mil = 0.001 inch. The area of a circle in cmil is equal to the square of its
diameter.
A cmil = ( dmil )2
𝜌𝐿
R= 𝐴
𝜌𝐿 ( 10.4 𝛺 𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑙/𝑓𝑡) ( 800 𝑓𝑡)
A= = = 4160 cmils
𝑅 2.00 𝛺

A cmil = ( dmil )2
dmil = √𝐴𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑙 = √4160𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑠 = 64 mils
0.001 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
d = 64 mils ( ) = 0.064 inch
1 𝑚𝑖𝑙
Temperature Variation of Resistivity:
Example: A wire of unknown composition has a resistance Ri = 35.0 Ω when immersed in
water at 200 C. When the wire is placed in boiling water, its resistance rises to 47.6 Ω.
What is the temperature of a hot summer day when the wire has a resistance of 37.8 Ω?
Given : Ri = 35.0 Ω Ti = 200 C Rf = 47.6 Ω Tf = 100 0 C
Required : 𝛼 = temperature coefficient of resistivity of the material
Tf =? When Rf = 37.8 Ω
Solution:
Formula : Rf – Ri = 𝛼 Ri ∆T
47.6 Ω - 35.0 Ω = 𝛼 (35.0 Ω) ( 100 0 C - 200 C)
12.6 Ω = 𝛼 (35.0 Ω) (800C)
12.6 Ω = (2800 Ω 0C ) 𝛼
12.6 Ω
𝛼 = 2800 Ω ⁰C = 4.5x10 -3/ 0C
To solve for Tf :
Rf – Ri = 𝛼 Ri ∆T

37.8 Ω - 35.0 Ω = (4.5x10 -3/ 0C) (35.0 Ω) ∆T

2.8 Ω =( 0.1575 Ω / 0C) ∆T
2.8 Ω
∆T = 0.1575 Ω /⁰C = 17.8 0C
Tf – Ti = ∆T
Tf = ∆T + Ti = 17.80C + 200C = 37.80 C

Electric Power

There are many uses of electric energy and energy can be transformed into
other kinds of energy which can be carried through wires.
The work that must be done to take a charge Q through the potential difference
V by definition,

W = QV

Since a current I carries an amount of charge Q = It in the time t, the work done is

W = IVt ( Electric Work)

The energy input to a device of any kind through which the current I flows when the
potential difference V is placed across it is equal to the product of the current, the
potential difference, and the time interval.
 Example :
A battery is rated according to the amount of charge it can circulate, express in
ampere- hours(A h). Thus a battery whose capacity is 80 A h can supply a current of 1A for
80 h, a current of 2A for 40 h, a current of 80A for 1h, and so forth. The less the current the
longer the time. (a) How many coulombs of charge can a 12-V, 80 A h battery transfer?
(b) How much energy is stored in the battery?
Given: V = 12-V
I = 80 A that flows for 1 hour = 3600 s
Required: Q ? W=?
Solution:
(a) Q = It = ( 80 Coul/s) ( 3600s) = 2.9x105 C
1 𝑀𝐽
(b) W = IVt = (80 A) (12 V) (3600s) = 3.5 x106 J (1𝑥106 𝐽) = 3.5 MJ

1 A = 1 C/s
1V = 1 J/C

Power is the rate at which the work is being done: P= W/t. When the work is
Done by an electric current, W = IVt, so
P = IV ( Electric Power)
Electric Power = ( current) ( potential difference)
Unit of Power is watt when I and V are in ampere and volts, respectively, P will be
watts.
Additional equivalent expression for power using the expression follow
directly upon substituting V = IR , or equivalently I = V/R into the relation P = IV

P = IV
P = I ( IR) = I2R
𝑉 𝑉2
P = (𝑅 ) V = 𝑅

Example: A solar cell 10 cm in diameter produces a current of 2.15 A at 0.45 V in bright

sunlight whose intensity is 0.10 W/cm2. Find the efficiency of the cell.

Given: diameter = 10 cm
I = 2.15 A , V = 0.45 V
Intensity of the sunlight = 0.10 W/cm2

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Required: Efficiency = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Solution:
𝜋𝑑2 𝜋(10𝑐𝑚)2
Area = == = 78.5 cm2
4 4

Power Input =( Intensity of the sunlight) ( Area) = (0.10 W/cm2) ( 78.5 cm2) = 7.85 W

Power Output = IV= (2.15 A)(0.45 V) = 0.97 W

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 0.97 𝑊

Efficiency = = 7.85 W = 0.12 = 12 %
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

Formulas valid for circuits that obey Ohm’s Law

Unknown Known Quantities

Quantity V and I I and R V and R P and I P and V P and R
V = IR 𝑃 √𝑅𝑃
𝐼
I = 𝑉 𝑃
𝑃
𝑅 𝑉 √
𝑅
R = 𝑉 𝑃 𝑉2
𝐼 𝐼2 𝑃
P = IV 𝐼2𝑅 𝑉2
𝑅

Direct Current Circuits

Resistors in Series:
1. The current in all parts of a series circuit is the same.
I = I1 = I2 = I3 =…= In
2. The voltage across a group of resistors connected in series is equal to the sum of the
voltages across the individual resistors.
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + …+ Vn
V = I1R1 + I2R2 + I3R3 +…+ In Rn
But : I = I = I1 = I2 = I3 =…= In
V = I (R1 + R2 + R3 +…Rn)
3. The total resistance of a group of conductors connected in series is equal to the sum of
the individual resistances.
V = I (R1 + R2 + R3 +…Rn)
𝑉
= R1 + R2 + R3 +…Rn
𝐼

R = R1 + R2 + R3 +…Rn
Example: The resistances of four rheostats are 10.0, 4.0, 6.0, and 5.0 Ω. These rheostats
are connected in series to a battery which produces a potential difference of 75 V across
its terminals. Find the amount of current in each rheostat and the voltage across each.

Resistors in Parallel:
1. The currents in the various resistors are different and are inversely proportional to
the resistances. The total currents is the sum of the separate currents.

𝑉 𝑉1 𝑉 𝑉
I=𝑅 I1 = I2 = 𝑅2 I3 = 𝑅3
𝑅1 2 3

I = I1 + I2 + I3

𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉
I= + + 𝑅3
𝑅1 𝑅2 3

2. The voltage across each resistor of a parallel combination is the same as the voltage
across any other resistor.
V = V1 = V2 = V3
3. The reciprocal of the total resistance of a number of resistors connected in parallel
is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the separate resistances.

𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉
I= + + 𝑅3
𝑅1 𝑅2 3

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
I= + +𝑅
𝑅1 𝑅2 3

1 1 1
I = V (𝑅 + +𝑅 )
1 𝑅2 3

𝐼 1 1 1
=𝑅 + +𝑅
𝑉 1 𝑅2 3

Since V/I = R , therefore I/V = 1/R so that

1 1 1 1
=𝑅 + +𝑅
𝑅 1 𝑅2 3

Example: A 5.0 Ω and a 2.0 Ω resistor are connected in parallel and a potential
difference of 100 volts is applied across them by means of a generator. Find (a) the
equivalent resistance of the circuit, (b) the current that flows in each resistor and the
circuit as a whole, (c) the power dissipated by each resistor, and (d) the power
dissipated by the entire circuit.
Electromotive Force
The no load voltage of a source.
The potential difference across a battery or generator , or other source of electric
energy when it is not connected to any external circuit is called its electromotive force.
Electromotive force or emf of a source is the energy per unit charged transformed in a
reversible process. In mks system, emf is measured in volts. An emf causes differences
of potential to exists between points in the circuit. There is a close relation between emf
and potential difference. An emf is associated only with reversible conversions of
energy, whereas potential differences exists not only in sources of emf but also in
resistors, which convert energy to heat irreversibly.

Electromotive force is usually referred to simply as emf and its symbol is ℰ.

V = ℰ - Ir ( Terminal voltage)
Terminal voltage = emf – potential drop within source
Electromotive force or emf of a source is the energy per unit charged
If the source is disconnected , no current flows and V = ℰ. The existence of a current
lowers the value of V by an amount proportional to I.
A battery of emf ℰ connected to a circuit whose equivalent resistance R. The total
resistance of the circuit is R plus the internal resistance r of the battery, so that the
current that flows in is

ℰ
I = 𝑅+𝑟
IR = 𝜀 – Ir
Where: R = external resistance
𝜀 = net emf of the circuit
r= internal resistance of a battery
A voltmeter placed either across the terminals of a battery or across the ends of the
resistor will read this potential difference IR. Hence the terminal potential difference of
the battery is dependent on the current. If R is very large and r and I are small, the
terminal potential difference is nearly equal to the emf of the battery. If I or r is large,
the terminal potential difference drop s accordingly by the amount Ir, called the internal
drop of the battery.
Example:
What is the terminal potential difference of the battery.
ℰ 6𝑉
I = 𝑅 + 𝑟 = 2.8 𝛺 + 0.2𝛺 = 2.0 A
V = 𝜀 – Ir = 6.0 V – (2.0 A) ( 0.2 Ω) = 5.60 V

𝜀 = 6.0 V
- +

r = 0.2 Ω
I

R = 2.8 Ω