Revisiting Previous Classes

Ideas / Philosophy

Virtues

Traits
Behaviors

Situations
Contingency or Situational Theory (1960s)

 The theory was developed in the

late 1960’s

 It focuses on leadership in
situations

 Different situations demand

different kinds of leadership

Dr Paul H. Hersey Kenneth Hartley  It is also called “Life Cycle Theory

(1931-2012) Blanchard (1931) of Leadership”
• Behavioral scientist and entrepreneur

• Published Management of Organization Behavior

• Established the Center for Leadership Studies

Contingency or Situational Theory (1960s)

 In the 1960s, it became apparent that there is no one best leadership

style in all situation. Leader need to adopt different leadership style to
different situation".

 Thus the leadership paradigm shifted to contingency or situational

theory.

 This theory attempts to explain the appropriate leadership style based

on leader, followers and situation.

 There are several names and categories of theories. The most

important theories are:
 Chronological Evolution of
Conventional Leadership Theory
Contingency or Situational Theory (1960s)

Fielder Contingency Model

Hersey and Blanchcard’s Situational Theory

Path – Goal Model

Leader Participation Model

 Contingency or Situational Theory (1960s)

Fielder Contingency Model

 Developed in the mid 1960s by Fred Fielder, a scientist who studied

the personality and characteristics of leaders

 The model states that there is no one best style of leadership. Instead,
a leader’s effectiveness is based on the situation.

 This is the result of two factors – “leadership style” and “situational

favorableness”
 Contingency or Situational Theory (1960s)

Factors of the Fielder Contingency Model

According to Fred Fielder effectiveness and leadership depend on a

number of factors including the situation and the personal characteristics
of the leader. Fielder distinguished the following factors:

 Make up of the group

 Nature of the task

 Power of the leader

 Contingency or Situational Theory (1960s)

Leadership Style – Fielder Contingency Model

 Fielder believed that leadership style is fixed and it can be measured

using a scale he developed called Least-Preferred Co-Worker (LPC)
Scale

 The scale asks you to think about the person who you have least
enjoyed working with. This can be a person who you have worked with
in your job or in education or training.

 You then rate how you feel about this person for each factor and add
up your scores.

 If your total score is high, you are likely to be a relationship-oriented

leader. If your total score is low, you are more likely to be task-oriented
leader.
Least–Preferred Co–Worker (LPC) Scale

Unfriendly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Friendly
Unpleasant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Pleasant
Rejecting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Accepting
Tense 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Relaxed
Cold 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Warm
Boring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Interesting
Backbiting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Loyal
Uncooperative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cooperative
Hostile 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Supportive
Guarded 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Open
Insincere 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Sincere
Unkind 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Kind
Inconsiderate 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Considerate
Untrustworthy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Trustworthy
 Contingency or Situational Theory (1960s)

Least – Preferred Co – Worker Scale

 Task-oriented leaders usually view their LPCs more negatively

resulting in a lower score.

 These low LPC-leaders are very effective at completing tasks. They

are quick to organize a group to get jobs done. Relationship-building is
a low priority.

 Relationship-oriented leaders usually view their LPCs more positively

giving them a higher score.

 These high LPC-leaders focus more on personal connections and they

are good at avoiding and managing conflict. They are better able to
make complex decisions.
 Contingency or Situational Theory (1960s)

Situational Favorableness

Next, determine the “situational favorableness” of your particular situation.

It depends on three distinct factors:
 Leader – Member Relations: It is the level of trust and
confidence that the team members have in their leader. A leader
who is more trusted and has more influence with the group is in a
more favorable situation than a leader who is not trusted.
 Task Structure: It refers to the type of task you are doing.
Unstructured tasks where the team and leader have little
knowledge of how to achieve them, are viewed unfavorably.
 Leader’s Position Power: This is the amount of power you have
to direct the group and provide reward or punishment. The more
power you have, the more favorable your situation.
 Contingency or Situational Theory (1960s)

Critiques on the Fielder Contingency Model

 Fielder believed that our natural leadership style is fixed and the most
effective way to handle situations is to change the leader. He did not
allow for flexibility in leaders.
 If a low-LPC leader is in charge of a group with good relations and
doing unstructured tasks and he has a weak position, then, according
to the model, the best solution is to replace him with a high-LPC leader,
instead of asking him to use a different leadership style.
 If a leader falls near the middle of the scoring range, then it is unclear
which style of leader he is.
Contingency or Situational Theory (1960s)
 Hersey and Blanchard’s Theory

Effective leadership is:

 Task relevant

 Leaders adapt their leadership style to the maturity

 Ability to take responsibility for the task

 Relevant education or an experience of an individual or group for the

task
 Hersey and Blanchard’s Theory

Two Fundamental Concepts:

 Leadership styles:

o Task behavior

o Relationship behavior

 Maturity levels of individual or group

Hersey and Blanchard’s Theory

Concern for Employees

Behaviors of
Leadership
Style

Maturity Levels of the Group

 Hersey and Blanchard’s Theory

Participating Selling (S2):

(S3): leader & provides
follower share supportive
in decision instructions to (M1): Basic
(M4): The group is followers
making incompetence or
ready, willing and able
Telling (S1): unwillingness in doing
to do the task Delegating (S4): the task
leader provides Defines own
specific & close roles & tells
(M3): Competent to do
direction or followers what, (M2): Inability to do the
but do not think they personal support to where, how & task but willing to do so
can followers
when to do

Maturity Levels of the Group

 Hersey and Blanchard’s Theory

Participating Selling (S2):

(S3): leader & provides
follower share supportive
in decision instructions to
(D4): High Competence making followers (D1): Low Competence
and High Commitment Telling (S1): and High Commitment
Delegating (S4):
leader provides Defines own
specific & close roles & tells
(D3): High Competence direction or followers what, (D2): Some Competence
and Low Commitment personal support to where, how & and Low Commitment
followers
when to do

D4 D3 D2 D1
 Hersey and Blanchard’s Theory

Four Behavior of Leadership Style:

 Telling (S1) : The leader defines the roles needed to do the job and
tells followers what, where, how and when to do the tasks

 Selling (S2) : The leader provides followers with supportive

instructions but is also supportive

 Participating (S3): The leader and followers share in decision making

about how best to complete a high quality job

 Delegating (S4) : The leader provides little specific, close direction

or personal support to followers
 Hersey and Blanchard’s Theory

Four Maturity Levels of the Group:

 M1 : Basic incompetence or unwillingness in doing the task

 M2 : Inability to do the task but willing to do so

 M3 : Competent to do the task but do not think they can

 M4 : The group is ready, willing and able to do the task

 Hersey and Blanchard’s Theory

Four Development Levels – Competence and Commitment:

 D1 : Low competence and high commitment

 D2 : Some competence and low commitment

 D3 : High competence and low commitment

 D4 : High competence and high commitment

 Hersey and Blanchard’s Theory

Four Development Levels Match to the

Four Corresponding Styles of Leadership
 Hersey and Blanchard’s Theory

D1 – Low Competence & High Commitment

S1 – Directing / Telling

 Need to be shown how to do something

 Are enthusiastic and committed

 Willing to accept direction

 Need direction and supervision

 Hersey and Blanchard’s Theory

D2 – Some Competence & Low Commitment

S2 – Coaching / Selling

 Need direction and supervision

 Need support and praise

 Involvement in decision making

 Hersey and Blanchard’s Theory

D3 – High Competence & Low Commitment

S3 – Supporting / Encouraging

 Competent but who still lack of confidence or

motivation

 They do not need much direction

 Need support and encouragement

 Hersey and Blanchard’s Theory

D4 – High Competence & High Commitment

S4 – Delegating / Empowering

 High levels of both competence and commitment

 Both able and willing to work by themselves with

little supervision or interventions
 Hersey and Blanchard’s Theory

The Key Characteristics of Effective Leadership:

 Assess the situation correctly

 Select the Goal

 Apply the appropriate style

 Continuously review your choice

 Hersey and Blanchard’s Theory

Analysis:

In reality, leadership situations are less clear-cut

than four quadrants suggest. Research evidence for
the situational model has been mixed. A major
concern is that there are few leadership situations in
which a high-task, high-relationship orientation does
not produce the best result, Robert P. Vecchio
conducted a comprehensive test of this model, result
was mixed, suggesting that the model may hold for
only certain types of employees".
Contingency or Situational Theory (1960s)
 Path Goal Model
Robert House developed the path goal theory. Currently one of the most
respected approaches to understanding leadership is path goal theory,
which states that it's the leader's job to assist his or her followers in
attaining their goals and provide the direction or support needed to ensure
that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or
organization. The term path-goal is derived from the belief that effective
leader clarifies the path to help their followers. Leader will also clarify from
where they should start to achieve their work goals and how to make the
journey along the path easier by reducing roadblocks and pitfalls.
 Path Goal Model
 The path-goal theory can best be thought of as a process in which
leaders select specific behaviors that are best suited to the employees’
needs and their working environment so that they may best guide the
employees through their path in the obtainment of their daily work
activities (goals).

 The theory argues that leaders will have to engage in different types of
leadership behavior depending on the nature and the demands of a
particular situation. It is the leader’s role to assist employees in
attaining goals and to provide the direction and support needed to
ensure that their individual goals are in concert or compatible with the
organization’s goals.
 Path Goal Model

Styles of Path Goal Model

 The goal is to increase an employee’s motivation, empowerment, and

satisfaction so they become a productive member of the
organization. Employee satisfaction is contingent upon the leader’s
performance as both a facilitator and coach and rewards their
employees for effective performance. The original Path-Goal theory
identifies achievement-oriented, directive, participative,
and supportive leader behaviors rooted in four (4 styles).
 Path Goal Model

The Four Styles

 The directive leader: It refers to situations where the leader lets

employees know what is expected of them and tells them how to
perform their tasks. The theory argues that this behavior has the most
positive effect when the employees’ role and task demands are
ambiguous and intrinsically satisfying.

 The achievement-oriented leader: It refers to situations where the

leader sets challenging goals for employees, expects them to perform
at their highest level, and shows confidence in their ability to meet this
expectation. Occupations in which the achievement motive were most
predominant were technical jobs, sales persons, scientists, engineers,
and entrepreneurs.
 Path Goal Model

The Four Styles (Cont….)

 The participative leader: It involves leaders consulting with

employees and asking for their suggestions before making a decision.
This behavior is predominant when employees are highly personally
involved in their work.

 The supportive leader: It is directed towards the satisfaction of

employees’ needs and preferences. The leader shows concern for the
employees’ psychological well-being. This behavior is especially
needed in situations in which tasks or relationships are psychologically
or physically distressing.
 Path Goal Model
Path–Goal theory assumes that leaders are flexible and that they can
change their style, as situations require. The theory proposes two
contingency variables, such as environment and employee (subordinate)
characteristics, that moderate the leader behavior-outcome relationship.
Environment is outside the control of the follower-task structure, authority
system and work group. Environmental factors determine the type of
leader behavior required if the employee outcomes are to be
maximized. Follower characteristics are the locus of control, experience,
and perceived ability. Personal characteristics of employees determine
how the environment and leader are interpreted. Effective leaders clarify
the path to help their employees achieve goals and make the journey
easier by reducing roadblocks and pitfalls. Research demonstrates that
employee performance and satisfaction are positively influenced when the
leader compensates for the shortcomings in either the employee or the
work setting.
The Path-Goal theory is useful because it reminds leaders that their
central purpose as a leader is to help employees define and reach their
goals in an efficient manner.
Path Goal Model
 Path Goal Model

Analysis:

A contribution of the path-goal theory is that it highlights the importance of

achievement-oriented leadership, which is becoming more important in
high- technology organizations. Despite the theory's potential
contributions however, the criticism of Fiedler's contingency theory apply.
Path-goal theory contains so many complexities that it has attracted little
interest from managers or leaders.
Contingency or Situational Theory (1960s)
 Leader Participation Model

Another early contingency model, developed in 1970 by

Victor Vroom and Philip Yelton was the leader participation
model which is related to leadership behaviors and
participation to decision making. This model is a sequential
set of rules (norms) that leader followed in determining the
form and amount of participation in decision making as
determined by different situations.
 Leader Participation Model

A General Analysis on Contingency or Situational Theory:

 One aspect of this research is to discover the extent to which

managerial work is the same or different across different type of
organizations levels of management, and cultures. But a general
criticism made of contingency or situational leadership is that it
concerns management rather than true leadership. The various
models deal more with conducting transactions with group members
than with inspiration and influence".
 Leader Participation Model

A General Analysis on Contingency or Situational Theory:

 But today's leader or manager have evolving role: Successful

managers use truly democratic form of leadership. Manager must be
able to lead as well as manage". Thus they must continue to manage
and focus on leading to be successful. Researcher found that the
followers of some leaders are willing to work so hard and make
personal sacrifices to achieve the group and organizational
objectives, and such leader can influence the human behavior of their
followers. But stereo-type management concern leadership theories
are not enough to develop such kind of leadership. Thus, leadership
paradigm shifted to integrate or tie theories.
Thank You