PROTOPLASM – THE
BASIS OF LIFE
(By: Archaela camba facundo bsn 1-a-2)
ORIGIN OF LIFE
 There is no knowledge of life except on earth.
 Man has tried to learn when, how and where life
originated.
 A number of theories have been proposed to
account for the origin of life.
THEORIES OF LIFE
1. Spontaneous generation or abiogenesis
- that life originated from non-living things
2. Biogenesis
- A Process of reproduction or biogenesis
explains that new life comes only from a
pre-existing life.
- It affirms the genetic theory of the origin
of life.
3. Cosmozoic theory
- This theory maintains the simple living
forms might have reached the earth
accidentally from some other sources
in the universe.
- the extreme temperatures and the
radiations of the interstellar space
would not allow life to survive:
4. Naturalistic or physico-chemical theory
- It states that when the conditions of the
early earth became suitable to life,
organic molecules like amino acids
aggregated.
- These organic molecules were derived
from the atmosphere.
- In the course of evolution protoplasmic
particles developed and gave rise to
living organisms.
- This concept on the origin of life gained
support from the recent studies on
viruses
- Several viruses crystallize like
inorganic substances, but they behave
like living organisms by reproducing:
5. Special creation theory
- Human reason cannot fully explain the
beginning of life; hence life has been
presumed to have been created by
some supernatural power either once
or at successive intervals.
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS OR
ORGANISMS
Organization
- a living organism, be it plant or animal
is composed of one or several cells
- The cell is defined as the fundamental
unit of structure and function of a living
organism.
- It is capable of independent existence
and exhibits all the characteristics of
life in case of multicellular organisms,
the cells combine together and act in a
coordinated manner to perform
processes essential to life.
Irritability or sensitivity
- living organisms react to physical and
chemical changes in the environment
- Changes in the environment constitute
the stimuli
- These stimuli which may be external or
internal are effective in producing
response.
Movement
- All living organisms have the ability to
move.
- This is made possible by the streaming
of the protoplasmic mass in cells called
cyclosis.
- Movement of animals is more obvious
than that of plants.
- The animal body moves maybe as a
result of muscular contraction, of the
beating of the cilia or flagella or of the
amoeboid motion of the cellular
protoplasm.
- Movement characterized by change in
position is locomotion.
Growth
- Refers to increase in size or in the
amount of the protoplasm of the body
- Plants and animals grow by
development from within, which is by
intussusception
- Non-living things if they increase in
size, undergo external addition which is
called accretion
- Growth may occur throughout the life
span the organism
- In animals, growth is limited by its
specific and characteristic size
Reproduction
- Each living organism is capable of
duplicating itself in kind.
- This is done by using materials within
the body to insure survival or
perpetuation of the species.
Metabolism
- All living organisms carry on various chemical
processes
- This aids in observing the occurrence of most of
these chemical reactions
- The rate of metabolism is influenced by many
factors like temperature, age, sex , hormones,
nutrition and general health
TWO PHASES OF METABOLISM
1. Anabolism – Which forms more complex
substances from simpler ones, resulting in the
storage of energy and production of new cellular
materials.
2. Catabolism – Which breaks down complex
substances to release energy.
 Adaptability
- Ability of a living organism to adapt or adjust
itself to its environment in order to survive WATER
MAJOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANTS AND - Water makes up about 80-90% of the
ANIMALS protoplasm
It consists of:
PLANTS ANIMALS A. free water
Mode of autotrophic Heterotrophic B. bound water
nourishment
Extent of Indeterminate Determinate Free water – 99% of the total cellular water, is miscible
Growth with the cytoplasm, serving as the chief solvent for the
solutes and dispersion medium of the protoplasm.
Cell wall Cellulose, rigid, inert Absent
Bound water – 4-5% of the cellular water, tied to
Nervous Absent Present in most polypeptide chains of protein molecules by hydrogen
System bonds.
Mobility Immobile Mobile
IMPORTANCE OF WATER: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Primary food Starch & Glycogen and 1. Solvent power – acts as the universal solvent
reserve unsaturated oils Saturated fats of mineral ions and substances
2. Capacity to absorb heat – due to its high
Waste Oxygen from Carbon Dioxide specific heat it can prevent drastic temperature
Products photosynthesis & Nitrogenous changes efficiently
waste 3. Ionization power – easily dissociates into H
Carbon dioxide from and OH ions
metabolism 4. Its function as an indispensable medium in
chemical reactions
THE PROTOPLASM 5. Its capacity for dispersions for the colloidal
structures of protoplasm
- Living substance of the cell. 6. Its function as the agent in absorbing,
- It possesses properties which include physical, dispensing and transporting of substances
chemical and physiological properties.
PHYSIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
Properties of Protoplasm
A. Physical Properties 1. Dissolves or holds in suspension the materials
B. Chemical properties of the protoplasm
2. Furnishes medium for some vital processes
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PROTOPLASM 3. Moistens surface for gas diffusion
4. Regulates body temperature
1. Heterogeneous 5. Helps in functions of the sense organs
2. Colloidal – has been described as emulsoid, 6. Serves as lubricant for movable surfaces
reticular, granular, fibrillar, alveolar or foam-like 7. Serves as cushion for the brain and spinal cord
3. Translucent, colorless, slimy, viscous fluid
Carbon Dioxide
4. Viscosity – ability of absorbing and eliminating
water accounts for its continuous changes  Source of carbon and oxygen
5. Exhibits brownian movement  Key element in the organization of all organic
6. Yndall effect compounds.
 It is directly and indirectly essential to life

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PROTOPLASM INORGANIC ACIDS AND BASES

1. Composed of elements such as carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, magnesium,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, sulfur,
chloride, sodium, iron, copper, zinc, cobalt,
manganese
2. Elements may form compounds which may be
classified as inorganic or organic.
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
- Which are found in living and non-living bodies
are more numerous than the organic parts of the
organisms.
1. Water
2. Salts
3. Gases
 Important roles in the living systems
 When dissolved in water, acids release
hydrogen ions; bases releases hydroxyl ions
 When an acids reacts with a base, the hydrogen
ions unite with the hydroxyl ions to form water
 The hydrogen ion concentration is expressed in
terms of pH ( potential hydrogen )
o Neutral solution has a pH of 7
o Acids have pH ranging from 1-6
o Bases have pH ranging from 8-14
o Any considerable change in pH affects the life of
the cell or the organism
Salts
 Inorganic compounds formed when an acid is
neutralized by a base
Importance:
1. Considered as inorganic buffers
2. Important role in some vital processes like
irritability of muscles and nerves
SOME OF THE MINERAL IONS FOUND IN THE
PROTOPLASM
1. Calcium ions – found in circulating blood, in
parts of the cells, in bones and calcified
cartilages, combined with phosphates and
carbonates
2. Phosphate ions – occur in blood and tissue
fluids as free ions, but much are bound to
organic substances like phospholipids,
nucleotides, phosphoproteins.
3. Chloride ions – circulate in the blood and
intercellular fluids as free ions; found in small
quantities in the cells and component of gastric
juices.
- With sodium, chlorides maintain globulins in
solution and osmotic equilibrium of cells.
4. Phosphorus ions – present in high
concentration within the cell protoplasm as in
muscle and red blood cells
- important in nerve conduction and muscle
contraction
5. Iron ions – found in hemoglobin and in the
cytochromes in the un-ionized form.
6. Sulfur – in the organic form found in amino
acids like cysteine, cystine, methionine where it
is bound to carbon
- It is present in the amino acid linkages in
protein.
- Essential constituents of many enzymes and co-
enzymes
Gasses
- Is a state of matter where the molecules are
widely dispersed in a highly disordered fashion
Two gasses present in the protoplasm:
1. Oxygen – needed for biological oxidation to
release energy
2. Carbon dioxide – waste product of oxidation
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Proteins
4. Nucleic Acids
CARBOHYDRATES
 Organic compounds containing carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen.
 The hydrogen and oxygen are present in
approximately the ratio of 2:1.
 It includes simple sugars, starches, gums,
celluloses and resins.
 It is the main source of energy in the body.
Classification of Carbohydrates
1. Monosaccharides – simple sugars with formula
C6H12O6
Example: glucose, dextrose, galactose, fructose
or levulose
2. Disaccharides – double sugars. Formed by the
linkage of two molecules of simple sugars with
the loss of a molecule of water.
- Formula is C12H22O11
3. Polysaccharides – complex sugars made up of
several molecules of simple sugars
- The formula is ( C6H10O5 ) n
- Where n represents the unknown number of
simple sugar molecules combined
Example: starch, glycogen, cellulose
MONOSACCHARIDES
 Important source of energy for the cells
A. Glucose – blood sugar or dextrose
B. Fructose – fruit sugar
C. Galactose – milk sugar
DISACCHARIDE
 2 monosaccharides bonded together
 Principle sugar transported throughout the
bodies of land plants
A. Lactose – milk sugar: glucose + galactose
B. Maltose – malt sugar: glucose + glucose
C. Sucrose: table sugar: glucose + fructose
POLYSACCHARIDE
 Complex sugar
 Many monosaccharide (usually glucose) bonded
together
A. Starch energy storage in plants
B. Glycogen – energy storage in animals
C. Cellulose – structural material in plants
LIPIDS
 Fat soluble compounds contain carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen.
 Make up about 3% of the protoplasm.
 Greasy texture or oily consistency.
 Insoluble in water.
 Soluble in organic acids such as ether, benzene
or chloroform.
 Some are liquid or fluid at ordinary temperature
but others are solid.
 Few are firm waxes
 It furnish fuel of high energy fuel
Classification of Lipids
1. Simple lipids – contain glycerol and fatty acids
- Alcohol esters of fatty acids
- Examples: fats, oils and waxes
 2. Complex lipids – simple lipids plus other
substances
- Examples: phospholipids and cerebrosides
Complex or Compound Lipids
A. Lipoproteins – with protein
B. Glycolipids – with carbohydrates
C. Phospholipids – with phosphoric acid
3. Steroids – solid alcohols which are not
chemically related to fat but they are included
among lipids because they exhibit-fat like
properties.
- Examples: sex hormones, adreno-cortical
hormones, vit. D, bile acids and cholesterol
(common component of membranes of
eukaryotic cells)
THREE MAJOR TYPES OF LIPIDS EXIST IN
PROTOPLASM
1. Triglycerides – fatty acids ( 3 hydrocarbon
chains ) when bounded through their glycerol
become neutral fats.
- That provides insulation and energy reserves
2. Phospholipids – two fatty acids linked by a
glycerol molecule to phosphate containing
water-soluble components
- Fundamental to formation of cell membranes
3. Steroid – composed of four interlocking rings of
carbon atoms
PROTEINS
 15% of the protoplasm.
 Most abundant constituent of the protoplasm.
 C, H, O, N with Sulfur, Phosphorus and Iodine.
 Colloidal in nature.
 Components of amino acids.
 Chief structural pattern of protoplasm form
enzymes, hormones, chromosomes and cell
components
Types of Proteins
1. Fibrous protein – polypeptides are arranged parallel
along a single axis to produce long fibers or sheets
a. Keratin – principal components of hair
b. Silk – pleated sheet protein produced by silk moths
and spiders
2. Globular proteins – the polypeptides are so tightly
folded into spherical or globular shapes, such as
hemoglobin, the component of vertebrate blood used to
transport oxygen
3. Conjugated protein – simple proteins in union with
other substances
a. Nucleoprotein – Protein with nucleic acids (e.g.
histones)
b. Glycoproteins – Proteins with carbohydrates (e.g.
mucin)
c. Lipoprotein – Proteins with fatty acids (e.g. serum ad
brain tissue)
d. Chromoproteins – Proteins with pigments (e.g.
cytochrome)
PROTOPLASMIC PROTEINS IN LIVING BODIES
A. Enzymes as Proteins
- most of the proteins in the body cells are
enzymes
- catalysts that control the rates of many
chemical reactions such as respiration,
digestion, muscle contraction, nerve
conduction and other metabolic processes
SIX MAIN GENERAL GROUPS ACCORDING TO
CHEMICAL REACTIONS THEY PERFORM
1. Oxido-reductases – oxidation-reduction reactions
2. Transferases – transfer of groups
3. Hydrolases – hydrolytic / hydrolysis reactions
4. Lyases – addition or removal of a group to and
form a double bonds.
5. Isomerases – catalyze isomerization
6. Ligases or synthetase – condense 2 molecules by
splitting a phosphate bond
- Reactions involving bond formation
coupled with ATP hydrolysis.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCED OR INHIBITED THE
ENZYMES
1. The number of contacts or collision between
molecules of the enzyme and that of substrate
2. Temperature – increase rate of collision with
substrate thus speed up reaction
- Optimum temperature is generally the
body temperature
Just to add other information:
- 37° C is the optimum temperature of the
body
- If your temperature is more than 40° C,
enzymes in our body will lead to
denaturation and can lead to death.
3. pH concentration – the highest activity of the
enzymes is at optimum pH.
- Slightly change of pH can also lead to
denaturation.
4. Relative concentration of the enzymes and
substrate (SUBSTRATE & ENZYME
CONCENTRATION)
- Always remember that in enzymes
concentration, enzyme itself is not
consumed during chemical reaction and it
is constant. If it is increasing instead of
having a constant level, there will be
having enzyme saturation. (Absorbing all
the substrates).
Increasing in substrate concentration
=
Increase of reaction rate
 NUCLEIC ACIDS
 Composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, and phosphorus

 Important in protein synthesis as RNA and in

heredity as DNA

 Building blocks are the nucleotides, which are

made up of a pentose sugar (ribose or
deoxyribose) , a nitrogen base (pyrimidine or
purine), and phosphoric acid

 In DNA, purines are adenine and guanine;

pyrimidines are cytosine and thymine

 In RNA, thymine is replaced by uracil

DNA
Thymine – Adenine
Cytosine – Guanine

RNA
Uracil – Adenine
Cytosine – Guanine