Tourism Recreation Research

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Impact of Domestic Tourism on Host Population

Ted A. Williams

To cite this article: Ted A. Williams (1979) Impact of Domestic Tourism on Host Population,
Tourism Recreation Research, 4:2, 15-21, DOI: 10.1080/02508281.1979.11014981

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02508281.1979.11014981

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 Impact of Domestic Tourism on Host Population:
The Evolution of a Model
The negative impacts of tourism develop-
ment have begun to surface in academics only
within the past two decades. The predominance
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of this literature is based on studies conducted in
less developed countries and island nations
where cultural transformation has occurred as a
result of tourist influx from western nations
(Forster, 1964; Aerni, 1972; McKean, 1973; Lund-
berg, 1974, Esh and Rosenblum, 1975). The
conspicuity of the problem has made these
areas principal targets for research. Very recent-
ly, studies have appeared which focus upon a
more specific scope of tourism impact research-
domestic tourism.
This specific area of interest has captured
the attention of serious scientific research con-
cerning the negative effects of a concentration of
dome!!tic tourists on permanent residents of host
communities. A number of investigations have
been addressed to this problem and it is the aim
of this paper to review this literature and
provide discussion and recommendations for fur-
ther research. Structurally, a model has evolved
explaining the interrelating factors and variables
that form the bases for impact-oriented research.
Initially, a clarification of terms is instructive.
Domestic tourism broadly refers to in-
country travel, where culturally similar tourists
gather for reasons of business or pleasure, out of
their home community. l'or a duration of at least
24 hours. Typically international tourism is com-
posed of visitors who originate from different
cultures and ethnic backgrounds, have a dis-
similar languages, and often contrasting habits of
·dress. Cohen (1972) suggests the most important
variables of comparison between domestic an :I
international tourism are the differences in cul-
*Ted A. \Villiams is Resc-.rch t\.so<·iatc at th<' :\ri;wzn Stat<· Uni\·crsity (US;\\,
Tourism Recreation Research, December, 1979
tural characteristics of the tourists and hosts. The
implications for comparison are evident. Domes-
tic impacts " are not as obviously detected as
impacts on international cultures, albeit as harm-
ful.
Differentiation between international and
domestic tourism is also evident in the economic
stability of the destination. Forster (1964) states
that "economies which are not well-rounded in
the sense that there is unequal developmen; of
various sectors, (prevalent in island nations and
less developed countries), are more likely to
develop a tourist industry and more liable to be
economically and socially disrupted by it". What
then comprises domestic impacts?
The scope of this paper prohibits a~'l in-
clusive list of possible negative impacts, however
a partial list includes: (a) economic (e.g., land
price inflation, seasonal variations, dependence
on a single industry), (b) environmental and phy-
sical (e.g., overcrowding, congestion, noise and
water pollution) and, (c) social (e.g., increases in
crime, changes in mode of living, feelings of in-
feriority) (Pizam, 1977). These impacts have
been hypothesized by researchers to cause resent-
ment of tourists and tourism by residents in
host communities (Doxey, 1975; Lengyel, 1975;
Fizam, 1977; Thomason, Crompton, and Kamp,
1978). A review of the pertinent literature is
provided to investigate this hypothesis.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Emphasis has been placed specifically on
sociological studies of tourism impact on domes-
tic environments and populations. Related litera-
ture, addressing research impacts of international
tourists and tourism has appeared in press (See
related Bibliography).
15
 FORESTS- THE·SECONDLINEOF DEFENCE
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~'"'' " '"\'I . ~ ·-

-·
Apart fro'" fheir protective, econo:~lfliC olnd
play a. vital role
a.<t>s th~tic- 1,.,.,porta.11ce, forests
In tke countrys delenC'e. Thl'y pr.widl' timh"r
for floe Rcsilways and thu~ help il\lceepi119" th"
w"S"""' movinS'· The $rowin8 need of fhe·
Defencf: S.:rvjc"• {or sfrcstes-ic m11.tei"Jcs/s such
cu timbfrlor rifle butts, ship-buildin!(. marint>
pill's, packint CASI'S lot" arms and e~mmunifions
and loddt!r for mountain t,..e~nsport #('e~ms are
met by the forests. Forests have thei,.. slrwsl~lc
importo.nce too.

MORE THE TREES STRONGER

THE NATION

16 Tourism Recreation Research, December, 1979

 Prolific in tourism impact research has
been G. V. Doxey (1975) with his comparative
study of Barbados, West Indies and Niagara-on-
the-Lake Ontario. Doxey devised an irridex*
to measure perceived impacts between residents
and outsiders. His hypothesis suggests that there
e:x:i5t5 reciprocating impacts between outsiders
(tourists) and residents. When these impacts are
converted into irritations, they prove harmful to
tourism development.
Utilising informal interviews and survey
questionnairs, Doxey found that in Barbados, the
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society, was undergoing a structural change due
to tourism. Residents as well as entrepreneurs
perceived the continued development of tourism
as "spoiling the charm of the island". The im-
plications of this continued expansion, according
to Doxey's findings, manifest the need for long-
range planning. The case at Niagara-on-the-Lake
is much more accute.
Even though visitors were primarily
attracted from surrounding areas, residents of this
small Canadian community perceived visitors as
"strangers" who altered, adversely, the life pat-
tern of the town. The tremendous influx of
visitors during the summer festival season
resulted in overcrowding, traffic snarls, and gen-
eral congestion. It appeared, a viable solution to
this "saturation" :problem was simply to limit the
entry of visitors into the city centre.
Another comparative study was initiated
by Packer (1974) in three disparate communities-
Mykonos, Greece; Bodrum, Turkey and Leaven-
worth, Washington USA. Packer determined
that in both Leavenworth and Bodrum, tourism
provided an increase in community self-image,
occupational diversity, and access. Mykonos
residents, on the other hand, were experiencing
both positive and negative effects of tourism
development. Noted positive impacts include:
employment opportunities, educational opportu-
nities, modernization of facilities, and increased
transportation access (via plane and boat). Nega-
tive impacts were found to be: loss of trust,
catering to tourists, infusion of socially denounced
activities, and a general breakdown in traditional
familial values. Evaluation of impacts on these
•"Irridex" i~ a measure ofirrit~tion to gauge irritation intemities (Doxey, 1975). Instrumental to understanding these irritations are four
levels of resident tolerance thrc~holds-euphoria, apathy, annoyance, and antagonism. As tourists' levels increase. the irridex increases.
Tourism Recreation Research, December, 1979
communities were determined by resident at-
titudes measured over several time periods.
Detailed case histories provided supplementary
1
data for comparative analysis. Particularly signi-
ficant in Packer's findings was Leavenworth's
high positive attitude towards tourism. This was
attributed primarily to community planning. Such
has not been the case for other impact-oriented
research.
tn a recent study conducted at Cape Cod,
Massachusetts, Pizam (1977) found there exists a
general negative attitude toward tourism as per-
ceived by residents. Researchers interviewed
1,636 residents and 212 entrepreneurs in order to
find a correlation between heavy tourism con-
centration and perception of the tourism industry.
Using an attitude index (a general measure of
resident's attitude on an eleven point scale,-5
through +5) he found that the overall mean in-
dex was a -.804, indicating a slightly negative
attitude. Additionally, the study indicated a size-
able portion of the sample wanted to control,
restrict or discontinue tourism on Cape Cod.
Specific impacts that affected residents most in-
cluded: traffic conditions, litter, noise, vandalism,
occurrences of alcoholism and inrlated prices of
goods and services. On the positive side, res-
idents felt that income, standard of living, and
opportunity for shopping were enhanced as a
result of tourism.
Pizam additionally conducted research on
the varying attitudes of residents and entrepre-
neurs towards tourism. His findings indicate a
positive correlation between economic depend-
ency on tourists and resident attitudes. Those
residents employed in tourism were more favour-
ably disposed towards tourists than those not
employed in a tourism related business.
In a very similar research inquiry Rothman
(1978) undertook a comparative study of two
Delaware communities. Again utilising survey
research, he compared responses of residents in
both communities and found a general satisfac-
tion with tourism. Positive consequences of
tourism were revealed as additional revenues,
seasonal jobs, expanded services and the opport-
unity to see old friends. Negative consequ-
17
 ences mirrored Pizam's findings. However, two
additional findings have relevance.
First, nearly half the Bethany residents
and one-quarter of the Rehoboth residents have
jobs which are totally or in part dependent on
tourists. This supports Pizam's hypothesis that
those residents who are economically dependent
on tourists will be more favourably disposed to-
wards tourism. In contrast, those who are less
favourabl~· inclined towards tourism tend to
come from a somev.;hat older g1·oup and are more
likely to have moved to the resort for retirement
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purposes. Rothman's research further indicates
that virtually every aspect of community life is
in some way affected by the annual influx of
vacationers. This implies the controlling forces
inherent in tourism development.
A research survey of residents has also
been recently conducted at Corpus Christi, Texas
(Thomason, Crompton, and Kamp, 1978). This
report indicated a generally positive attitude to-
wards tourism by residents of the community.
However, significant variations were revealed
between residents, entrepreneurs and public serv-
ice providers.* Public service providers general-
ly felt visitors placed a strain on community serv-
ices. Since they are in close proximity to
visitors who utilise community services, they are
likely to be most sensitive to impacts upon these
same services. Conversely, entrepreneurs were
most favourable of tourists, reflecting the find-
ings of both Pizam and Rothman. Residents'
feelings were generally mixed, falling in between
the two other sectors.
The studies included in this review lay the
foundation for research impacts of domestic
touri!:m. However, much of the data is non-com-.
parable. Only two themes consistently pervade
the literature. First, employment is positively
affected by tourism in terms of increased op-
portunities and employee attitude. Second, visit-
ors cause a general increase in congestion and
strain on facilities. The value of this research is
in ascertaining commonalities so that generalisa-
tions regarding tourism impacts can be for-
mulated. This can be in part accomplished by
standardizing research components and demon-
•Included in public service providers are employees in the departments of fire, police, sanitation, parks and recreation, Y.M.C.A. tele"
phone, water, etc.
18
strating their interrelationships. A discussion of
common research components follows.
COMPONENTS OF DOMESTIC IMPACT
RESEARCH
Four major categories of components
appear in the litNature addressing the study of
tourism impacts. These are: (a) stages of develop-
ment, (b) types of tourists, (c) types of tourism,
and (d) types of impacts. A brief description
of each will help clarify their relationships.
Sta~rs of Development
Greenwood (1972) has theorised that tour-
ism development proceeds through three stages.
Stage !-discovery; tourism has been recently
indroduced and there are no appreciable effects
on local economic growth. Tourists are wel-
comed. Stage II; local response and initiative.
Tourists adapt to the host community to the
degree that the host community accepts the in-
novations necessitated by the tourists. Stage III;
institutionalization. The host community is
"taken over" by tourism. Local economic growth
is high but monies are controlled by outside in-
vestors. Contacts between tourists and residents
are "unpleasant and conflictful". Although many
research studies have not utilised this typology,
it provides an essential temporal framework for
investigating impacted populations.
Types of Tourists
There are nearly as many typologies of
tourists as there are studies of tourism impact
(Nunez, 1973; Gray, 1970; Cohen, 1972; Nolan,
1975). A typology that is particularly germane
for domestic tourism is one developed by Smith
(1977). Smith categorises tourists into seven
heterogeneous groups. Included are; (a) explorer,
(b) elite, (c) off-beat, (d) unusual, (e) incipient
mass, (f) mass, and (g) charter. As the groups
move from explorer to charter they become more
visible and expect more western amenities from
the host culture. Since domestic tourism is gene-
rally not culturally affected, correlations are
made only by numbers of tourists. The vaca-
tioners and winter visitors common to most
domestic tourism environments would be gene-
rally classified in the last four sub-groups.
Tourism Recreation Research, December, ./979
 Types of Tourism
Noronha (1977) categorises tourism on
a continuum of "-organic" to "induced". Organic
tourism i~ served and controlled by local institu-
tions witHout requiring any changes in the social
structure, roles, or cultural values. Induced tour-
ism is completely served and controlled by out-
side entities that often require vast changes in
the community structure. This definition closely
parallels the stages of tourism defined by Green-
'Nood.
Types of Impacts
Tourism impacts, as mentioned, are broadly
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mic impacts are regarded as positive, i.e., broad-
ening and diversifying the economic base,
providing tax revenues, providing employment,
etc. Conversely, social and environmental/phys-
ical impacts are regarded generally as negative,
i.e., degradation, congestion, overcrowing, pol-
lution, etc. Also included in. this negative
component are the resident's tolerance levels
described by Doxey (1975). These are euphoria,
apathy, annoyance, and. antagonism. The co~bi­
nation of these become the bases for measuring
resident resentment towards tourists and tourism.
THE EVOLUTION OF A MODEL

defined into three categories; economic, social, Analysis of these four components reveals
and environmental/physical. Generally, econo- a theoretically consistent pattern of interrelation-

INTERRELA.TION MODEL FOR TOURISM DEVELOPMENT AND IMPACT

ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES

~ ~ ~ J;
Econond.c Tourist Tourism

Mi.niJ!Ial. Explorer Organic

STAGE I Elite

Altematina
And
Internninc
Moderate orr-Beat Organic Varl&blea
n Unusual Induced

ZONE OF TOU
------OPT m!ng"in!" on

Incipient
!'.ass

III Su't>etant1al Haee ln:luced

onan.cr

E:-.i\'lRON:.\IE~TAL lNFLUEl'\CES

Tourism Recreacien Research, December, 1979 19

 ships between variables. This is shown pictorial-
ly in the model (See Figure). It should be made
cle~r that tourism development and impacts do
not inevitably occur as shown. No resort com-
munity must evolve through all the stages indica-
ted or experiP.nce equal impact. However, there
is a strong positive correlation between these
variables and research findings.
The environmental influences are comprised
of factors that cannot be influenced by the com-
munity. Heading the list are progno5tic indica-
tors on the future of tourism. Accordingly,
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tourism is expected to be the largest industry in
the world by the year 2000 (Commerce America,
1977; Driggs, 1979). This will have unforeseen
effects on those communities already "saturated"
by tourists. O.ther environments include fluc-
tuations of the economy, varying demands and
preferences of tourists, resiliency of the eco-
systems (Cohen, 1978), and spurious relations
with other economic activities.
The viable alternatives and intervening
variables that can affect tourism development
and impact range from limiting the amount
of tourists in an environment (Young, 1973,
Doxey, 1975; Lengyel, 1975; Cohen, 1978)
to expanding the infrastructure to accom-
modate increased activity (Cooper, 1977). Other
existing alternatives are: planning ( Gunn.
1973; Packer, 1974; Fox, 1975; Doctoroff, 1976),
education of tourists and residents (Friedl,
1973; Gray, 1974; Archer, 1978), special analysis
and temporal dynamics (Knetsch and Var, 1976;
Mings, 1978), and dispersion of touristic activities
throughout the country (Gray, 1974; MacCannell,
1976, p. 165). These alternatives are not mutually
exclusive nor exhaustive but merely indicate the
numerous combinations and possibilities avail-
able to decision makers.
The simplicity of this holistic model does
not undermine the dynamics of the issue. Each
of the major components in the model is affected
by every other component. The intervening
variables and alternatives are affected by the
actions of the ·outside environmental influences
as well as community objectives. In order to
· achieve optimum levels of tourism development
(in accordance with community objectives) offi-
cials, planners, and decision makers must realize
that certain components are going to require sub-
20
optimization. Realistically, some positive econo-
mic impact and aggregate corporate control might
have to be sacrificed in order to balance develop-
ment on the whole.
The value of the model can best be utilis-
ed by re!':earchers in determining positions of
research components in specific community en-
vironments. Therefore in evaluating the impacts
of domestic tourism development, researchers can
better visualise interrelations of factors and opti-
mum alte1·natives can be chosen.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The primary emphasis of this studv has
been to identify the research problem of domes-
tic tourism impacts on host populations. A litera-
ture review has been instrumental to that end.
However, the issue of impacts on domestic en-
vironments is new. Consequently research find-
ings are descriptive in nature and generally non-
comparable. A model has been developed to
correlate the aggregate components of impact-
oriented research so that the interrelationships of
research components and commonalities can be
analysed.
Noronha (1977, pp. 85-86) has postulated
three crucial elements which will permit a balanc-
ed growth in tourism. In conjunction with the
theoretical model, future studies should reflect
these hypotheses: (a) that sufficient differentia-
tion of the local organizational structure main-
tains development control; (b) that local "events"
that have duality of purpose and independent
meaning can take place without the presence of
tourists; and (c) that planning with lot:al parti-
cipation is an integral part of tourism develop-
ment.
The significance of domestic tourism re-
search, indeed any applied research, is to provide
us with a better understanding of the phenomena
under investigation. However, emphasis must
be placed on legitimising research inquires. This,
in part, is accomplished by ascertaining what
factors of tourism affect populations adversely.
Once these factors are predictably deter-
mined, models can be developed to begin solving
the pressing problems at hand-Why does tour-
ism have negative consequences and what ex-
plicit solutions exist to mitigate those consequ-
ences?
r,.,rism Recreation Research, December, /979
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Tourism Recreation Research; December 1979 21