A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF MERCENARIES

Author(s): George H. Dodenhoff

Source: Naval War College Review , March 1969, Vol. 21, No. 7 (March 1969), pp. 91-109
Published by: U.S. Naval War College Press

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44641084

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 91

A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

OF

MERCENARIES

by
Colonel George H. Dodenhoff, U.S. Marine Corps
School of Naval Warfare

(This is an excerpt from a research paper in which Colonel Dodenhoff quite

exhaustively examines the problem of employing mercenaries, using the Congo as
a case study. Space precludes the complete publishing of this work but instead
excerpts will be presented in this and the following issue. The current article
features a brief history of mercenary activity while the follow-on will examine the
use of mercenary forces in the mid-1960 Congo rebellion. These works are not
only interesting reading, but should serve to place the employment of mercenary
forces in a perspective that is more objective than normally appreciated by the
U.S. military professional. Ed.)

The use of mercenaries is probably as The Heritage. Mercenaries were com-

mon to all armies, but generally they
old as war itself. Mercenary armies have
appeared in almost every highly or-
were engaged for a single campaign
ganized society in history and played anonly. In England, Harold had a body of
important role in the ancient world- Danes in his army when he defeated the
Philip II of Macedonia was delivered as Norwegian
a king. These were the famous
hostage to Thebes; on returning to
"housecarls" (from the Anglo-Saxon
Macedonia he seized the throne and huscarl) who were hired soldiers origi-
later, in concert with mercenaries, oc-
nally established in the kingdom of King
cupied Thebes and deprived the The-
Canute (1018-1035). 1
bans of their independence; foreignLater during the Battle of Hastings in
mercenaries appeared in the armies1066,
of "one of those battles which at
Alexander the Great and were well rare intervals has decided the fate of
represented in the Roman Legions;nations,"
with there were Normans, French-
men,
their own citizens acting as captains, theFlemish, Bretons, and soldiers of
fortune from a dozen other nations who
Carthaginians employed mercenary
soldiers in the Punic Wars with the were attracted by the prospect of con-
Romans. quest. William realized that the army he

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92 NAVAL WAR COLLEGE REVIEW

from
needed to invade England could not be the time of Louis XI to Louis XIV
recruited from Normandy alone, since (1665-1715). As the reputation of the
by feudal law he did not possess Swissthe fighting men rose they became to
be widely employed by the French, and
power to call out his vassals for service
overseas. However, William's cause they gradually displaced the Scottish
attracted many followers, for the con- personnel of the royal bodyguard, ren-
quest of so extensive and wealthy a dering loyal service often in adversity.
country as England offered unlimited Over 700 Swiss Royal Guards, for ex-
plunder and estates to soldiers of for- ample, were massacred at the Tuileries
tune and land-hungry sons of nobility. in Paris, defending Louis XVI from the
Volunteers flocked to William's stan- mobs of the Revolution. The Swiss were
granted the motto Honneur et Fidélité ,
dard from every quarter of France and
from beyond its borders. They were and their name became synonymous
with
staking their lives against riches and faithful service throughout France.
power which William the Conqueror, However, in 1859, the Swiss con-
Duke of Normandy, had sworn would federacy forbade the recruitment for
be theirs if they won and survived theservice abroad. The remnants of this
battle.2 force, the Papal Swiss Guards in Italy,
The mercenary officer was the domi- have shrunk since then to a mere cere-
nant type from the breakdown of feu- monial bodyguard.4
dalism to the latter part of the 17th
century. He had his origins in the free Machiavellian Admonishment. Con-
companies which flourished during the
dottieri was the name given to soldiers
Hundred Years War (1337-1453). Under
of fortune, leaders of the mercenary
the mercenary system the officer was
military companies who were in the
essentially an entrepreneur, raising a
service of the Italian States during the
company of men whose services he
latter Middle Ages. Owing largely to the
offered for sale. Success was judged not
wholesale condemnation of the system
by professional standards but by pecuni-
by Machiavelli, the Italian condottieri
ary ones. An army was composed of
became regarded as a byword for greed,
separate units, each the property of a
different commander. The mercenaries treachery, and incompetence. Machia-
velli considered them as such in the
were individualists, to some degree in
following appraisal:
competition with each other; they pos-
sessed neither common standards nor Mercenaries and auxiliaries are use-
corporate spirit. Discipline and respon- less and dangerous, and if anyone
sibility were absent. War was a preda- supports his state by the arms of
tory business, and the ethics of a preda- mercenaries, he will never stand firm or
serve, as they are disunited, ambitious
tory business prevailed.3
without discipline, faithless, bold
One of the most famous of all
amongst friends, cowardly amongst
mercenary groups were the Swiss fight- enemies, they have no fear of God, and
ing men, who were hired, sometimes keep by no faith with men. Ruin is only
the Swiss cantons themselves, for service deferred as long as the assault is post-
poned; in peace you are despoiled by
throughout Europe to form many them,
fa- and in war by the enemy. The
mous bodyguards. The Swiss Wars pro-
cause of this is that they have no love
duced a famous Swiss infantry that
or other motive to keep them in the
field beyond a trifling wage-which is
frequently sold its service where it was
not enough to make them ready to die
profitable. Swiss auxiliaries formed a
for you. They are quite willing to be
regular contingent in many of your
the soldiers so long as you do not
armies of Europe, especially of Italy and
make war, but when war comes it is
France. Over 1 million served in France either fly or decamp altogether.

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 MERCENARIES 93

Mercenary captains can be either Perhaps over a long period and dur-
very capable men or not; if they are,
ing her many wars, France has em-
you cannot rely upon them, for they
ployed mercenaries as much, if not
will always aspire to their own great-
more, than most other countries. For-
ness, either by oppressing you, their
eign soldiers, in particular, came to be
master, or by oppressing others against
your intentions; but if the captainassociated
is with the French King's body-
not able, he will generally ruin you.5
guard, a practice which began in the 9th
century, developed, and remained a
In reality, however, the condottieri
tradition until 1830.
took his profession seriously. He studied
war as a fine art, fought with skill and
Middle Ages. For centuries Scottish
bravery, and sought to win fame evensoldiers had a fighting reputation in
more than money. He was, however, France second to none. It is recorded
bound by no ties of patriotism to the
that as early as 886 the King of France
state which he served; his interest was
had to
a Scottish bodyguard. In the year
prolong war rather than end it.1400,
Thefor example, the Scottish contin-
necessity of buying up leading captains
gent was ahout 7,000 strong and in-
to prevent them from taking service
cluded 75 archers.
with an enemy strained the financial
resources of even the wealthiest of During the 15th and 16th centuries,
Italian rulers. The Milanese, on the Scottish mercenaries were periodically
employed by the French kings, and for
death of Duke Philip, hired Francisco
a short time there was even a body of
Sforza against the Venetians, who had
Scottish gendarmerie. It may come as a
overcome the enemy at Caravaggio, and
surprise to some that the traditional
then allied himself with them to oppress
forerunner of the French Foreign Le-
the Milanese, his own employers. The
gion were the Scots. For a good many
father of Sforza, being a soldier in the
years Scottish mercenaries held a place
service of Queen Giovanna of Naples,
of pride in the French military life, but
left her suddenly unarmed, by which
they hegan to be rivaled by the Irish,
she was compelled, in order not to lose
especially in the latter part of the 17th
the kingdom, to throw herself into the
century. The Irish mercenary had, of
arms of the King of Aragon. The Vene-
tians and Florentines increased their course, frequently appeared upon the
French scene, and by 1714 there were
dominions by means of such force, but
seven Irish regiments in the pay of
of the capable leaders whom they mightFrance.7
have feared, not all conquered; some
met with opposition, and others di- Wild Geese. In the latter part of the
rected their ambitions elsewhere. The
17th century and after the Jacobite War
one who did not conquer was Sir John in Ireland, the members of the Irish
Hawk wood, the Englishman who com- Brigade distinguished themselves on
manded the "White Company," whose many battlefields on the continent-
fidelity could not be known as he was Fotenoy, Ramillies, Blenheim, and Lou-
not victorious, but everyone admits that dun. The military articles of the Treaty
had he conquered, the Florentines of Limerick provided the authority for
would have been at his mercy. Hawk- the Irish military personnel to take
wood, who died in Florentine service in
service in a foreign country.8
1394, fought for 30 years for various
masters and was typical of the many After the siege of Limerick, in which
English, Spanish, German, and French the Irish defenders, almost without
captains whose companies fought in ammunition, had repulsed the well-
Italy.6 equipped veteran army of King William

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94 NAVAL WAR COLLEGE REVIEW

guard of the "Wild Geese" preferring

III, the treaty, agreed to on 24 Septem-
service with the French to that of the
ber 1691, provided that the garrison
English.
could march out of the city with "arms He later was entrusted with the
and baggage, drums beating and contingent
colors of Irish troops which repre-
sented
flying." Additionally, the treaty more than half of the force
pro-
vided that the officers and soldiers whointended for the invasion of England in
wished might go to any foreign country, May 1692. It was only after the decisive
with the government providing them British naval victory of La Hougue that
with ships. Almost 20,000 of these plans for the invasion were shelved.10
Irishmen went to Brest and entered into
Ulysses, Baron Brown, an Irish
French service. These military emigrants colonel of horse [sic] in the Austrian
were the vanguard of the vast exodus of Army was ennobled for his military
450,000, the flower of Irish manhood,
service by the Emperor. His son became
that departed Ireland during the 1691 one of Maria Theresa's most successful
to 1745 time period. commanders, Field Marshall Ulysses
A second stage of the Hibernian Maximilian von Browne, "The Eagle,"
Diaspora caused the dispersion of Irish who was considered to be a consum-
soldiers from France over the southern
mate general and an able negotiator.
and eastern European kingdoms. They Voii Browne faced Frederick the Great
never made their way, however, to these in Silesia during the War of the Austrian
dominions in the same number as they Succession and later in the Seven Years'
did to France, nor did there exist the War where he was defeated and mortally
strange racial affinity that has always wounded at Lobositz in Saxony.1 1
bound them to the Spanish; and yet,
possibly no dynasty appreciated their Many of these wandering soldiers of
fortune or their descendants attained
services more than the House of Austria.
The Emperor Francis Stephen once high positions in their adopted coun-
wrote: "Our troops will always be disci- tries. Among them, to mention only a
plined; an Irish coward is an uncommon few, were Leopold O'Donnell, who be-
character, and what the natives of Ire- came premier of Spain, Count Taafe,
land even dislike from principle, they premier of Austria from 1879 to 1893;
will generally perform through a desire Bernard O'Higgins, the Liberator of
Chile; President MacMahon of France;
of glory." The careless cosmopolitanism
of this time period ensured a welcome
and General Keller, the "Russian"
for any able soldier in nearly every army general killed in the Manchurian cam-
of Europe, and it was inevitable that paign in the Russo-Japanese war in July
1904.12
many of the wandering Irish should
have taken service in an Empire whose With these half million "Wild Geese"
very existence was a negation of na- spread throughout Europe, leaving their
tionalism.9 mark of military professionalism, none
Numbers of the gentry attained dis- would have imagined that the sign of
tinguished positions on the Continent. the "Wild Goose" would "fly" again
The Irish military emigration was by no some 273 years later. The scene this
means democratic in character. For time was to be in the Democratic
peasants and laborers there could be Republic
no of the Congo, in the heart of
Africa; a mercenary force once again
prospect other than service in the ranks,
while the members of noble families trying to sustain a nation in chaos, once
took the honors bestowed upon them asagain in a conflict that involved power-
no more than their due. ful external forces. However, in this
Gen. Patrick Sarfield, the defender of
endeavor they were condemned rather
Limerick, went to Brest with the van-than applauded.

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 MERCENARIES 95

Hessians and America. PossiblyChasseurs

no Britannique. Not as well
known as the Hessian were other mer-
event in history has had a more decided
effect on the American philosophy of who fought on the American
cenaries
mercenary employment than the Continent.
ex- After the French Revolution
perience in the American Revolutionary a considerable number of French royal-
War. This event has been inculcated in ists emigrated to Germany. Day by day
American history texts for almost 200 more of these émigrés arrived in Ger-
years and probably provides the mainmany and the Rhineland princes per-
basis for the derogatory connotation ofmitted them to enlist and arm volun-
mercenary operations in the American teers. Though the French demanded the
view. dishandment of these troops, the con-
Throughout the 18th century, Hes- flict that followed between France and
sians and Hanoverian regiments were Austria-Prussia would not have broken
constantly in the pay of the British out if the course taken by the Revolu-
Government. Frederick II of Hesse hired tion had not placed the French royal
out 30,000 of his men to fight for Great house of Louis XVI in danger. With
Britain in the first American war. These Louis XVI's execution and the outbreak
troops included some of his best regi- of the Continental War in 1793, the
ments, all drilled on the Prussian system British decided to increase the size of
and officered by experienced men. The their army by the addition of a large
Jäger Corps, who rivaled the American body of foreigners. Accordingly, in
riflemen, were the best soldiered troops 1794 an act was passed for the embodi-
on the British side. One-third of the ment of the "King's German Legion"
British forces under General Howe were consisting of 15,000 men. These troops,
Hessian troops. Due to amnesties, deser- who were increased in the course of the
tions, and combat losses, only 17,313 war to nearly double that number,
returned to Europe after the war's end. distinguished themselves in various en-
The landgrave of Hesse, who sold his gagements. Corps of the French émigrés
troops at so much a head, received fought as the Chasseurs Britannique (a
upward of $2,500,000 for Hessian sol- corps d' elite of sharpshooters) in the
diers lost in that struggle. Peninsula War and in America. This
In U.S. history, the term Hessian is particular foreign legion was disbanded
often indiscriminately used for all the in 1815, the officers being placed on
German mercenaries who fought on the half pay.1 3
British side during the Revolutionary
War. American history paints a disdain- The British Contribution. British-
ful and contemptuous account of these born soldiers have often served abroad
hirelings who fought for pay against the in the pay of foreign governments.
American patriots. The long line of English mercenary soldiers were by no
battles in which the Hessians actually means left out of the picture, and over a
distinguished themselves, such as Long period of time a number of English
Island, Fort Washington, Brandy wine, regiments were in the service of France.
and White Plains, as well as Newport There was one in the 16th century, two
and Charleston, are minimally covered in 1646, oddly enough known as the
in American history, while the victories "Stewarts Regiment" and the "Bavaria
of Washington on Christmas Eve at Regiment," but it seems that in spite of
Trenton and later at Princeton are en- the titles the personnel were English.
thusiastically described as infusing new Although the number of Scottish,
life into the patriotic cause and re-Irish, and English, especially the latter,
gaining confidence in Washington bothdeclined as the use of other foreign
at home and ahroad. troops increased, their traditions lin-

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96 NAVAL WAR COLLEGE REVIEW

gered on, and there were invariably

French losses in other campaigns would
British units of one kind or another in
not be popular.
foreign service. Englishmen, Scotchmen, Originally the Legion was organized
and Irishmen singularly or in bodiesin Toulon on 9 March 1831, founded by
served during troubled times in mosta Royal Ordinance, written on a small
European countries.14 piece of official French War Office
During the Crimean War, the Britishnotepaper. Ten days after the original
Government enlisted the aid of foreignordinance it was thought to be neces-
stipendiaries of German, Swiss, and sary to forbid Frenchmen to enlist in
Italian nationalities. About half of the the legion, but they still could and did,
troops enrolled became efficient soldierssimply by declaring themselves either to
by the time hostilities ceased, however,be Swiss or Belgian.
they were later disbanded at a great cost By the beginning of July the frame-
work of the first battalions had taken
in gratuities.
shape, and a Swiss officer, Colonel
La Legion Etrangre. The most re-Stoffel, was appointed to command.
nowned of all mercenary forces in theColonel Stoffel, an experienced officer
history of the world, the French For-of ability, and French officers who had
eign Legion, also saw service in the been sent to help him energetically
Crimean War. This legion of strangers tackled this wild tangle. Mixed among
the wild variety of ex-soldiers and
( Legion Etrangre) of many nationalities
would-be soldiers were some who were
distinguished itself significantly in battle
with some 900 of the 3,200 legionnaires obviously physically unfit for military
dying of wounds during the war. This life. Several contemporary accounts of
these detachments describe them as
body of foreigners, many of whom were
motley groups wearing remnants of a
"men with a past," volunteered for
gaudy variety of military uniform; some
service with France and fought valiantly
in the Crimea. were too old, some were too young,
many were unfit, and frequently many
Despite the many years of peace,were drunk.
Paris in 1830 was not unlike Germany Colonel Stoffel asked for more offi-
after the 1939-1945 war. The convul-
cers and a number of French sous-
sions of Europe had left a hopeless
officers to train this new formation and
flotsam of displaced, transplanted for-
to enforce discipline. Although by the
eigners loitering along the boulevards
end of the year five battalions were
which Napoleon had built to glorify his
functioning passably well, there were
triumphs. Veteran soldiers who had
some minor reorganizations the next
fought for the Empire and the Republic
year. Later, when recruiting became
were penniless and desperate. They were
better organized, another two battalions
ripe for any trouble. On the other hand,
were formed, making a total of seven in
they were potentially useful for anyone
all. These were composed of companies
who could harness their displeasure. of men of the same nationalities, as
The idea of forming a mercenaryfollows: lst-former Swiss Guards and
battalion of foreign undesirables ap- Hohenlohe; 2nd-Swiss and German;
pealed to Louis Phillipe who had come 3rd~Swiss and German; 4th~Spanish;
to the throne in August 1830, and also 5th~mixed but mainly Italian and Sar-
to the authorities in Paris. Principally,dinians; 6th~Belgian and Dutch; and
such a battalion would remove them 7th-Polish.
from the streets of the capital. France's The legion fought well and helped in
manhood had been decimated in the the conquest of Algeria. They also later
Napoleon campaigns and further heavy fought creditably in the Franco-Prussian

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 MERCENARIES 97

War and added to the history centuries

of mer- the French have employed
cenaries on the American Continent by
more mercenary soldiers than any other
fighting in Mexico, helping to placenation. Its Foreign Legion is
Western
Maximilian on the throne. Later the only the last in a long line of mercenary
units. Contrary to general belief, rela-
legion fought with distinction in the
Great War, World War II, and Indochina. tively few British and Irish have joined
Most English-speaking people's con- the legion. Still fewer Americans joined
cept of the Foreign Legion stems from the legion until hundreds of young
romantic fiction and films which con- Americans joined during the Great War
tain shoddy emotions, banal situations, and paid what they considered to be
and glaring inaccuracies of fact. Thetheir personal debt to Lafayette by
world's children of all ages loved thefighting as mercenaries on French
Foreign Legion. Despite novels by Mariesoil.15
Louise de la Ramée who wrote Under
Two Flags , under the pseudonym Oida, Frontiersmen Legion. Another kind
of legion was formed during the Great
and Percival Christopher Wren's Beau
War, one that was not so romanticized
Geste and Beau Sabreur , the Foreign
as the French Foreign Legion, but one
Legion is an outstanding example of the
that would have great similarities to
triumph of a way of life over the
another white legion recruited 50 years
literature written about it. Despite mil-
lions of published words of blame and for a mission in Africa, quite close
later
to the same area of conflict.
praise, of truths, half-truths, and lies,
the legion has remained essentially the In April 1915 the Legion of Fron-
same for more than a century. Politicstiersmen left London for British East
Africa. It is doubtful whether a more
and the changing social currents of the
world have been the determining factors remarkable, romantic regiment has ever
in its enlistments, its casualties, and left Britain to fight abroad. They were,
even beyond; the legion, surviving majorin fact, adventurers and soldiers of
fortune collected from all over the
and minor wars with great external
pressures, ultimately met disaster, notworld, officially dubbed the 25th (Ser-
from outside but from within. The vice) Battalion, Royal Fusiliers (Fron-
tiersmen). But in East Africa they were
legion that now exists at Aubagne, near
to be known as "The Old and Bold."
Marseille at Camp de la Demande, has
survived this disaster and still remains The battalion, 1,166 strong, had
the world's most famous mercenary been recruited by a South African War
organization. veteran, Col. D.P. Driscoll, D.S.O., who
French public opinion is divided on had raised and commanded the famous
the legion. Some citizens feel it is Driscoll Scouts in South Africa. The
disgraceful that their country should recruiting was partly done by advertise-
hire foreigners to fight its battles. With a ments in the newspapers and partly by
certain logic that may be cynical, word of mouth starting with Driscoll
French Governments have viewed the and his friends-some of them the origi-
question in this manner: "There are nal Legion of Frontiersmen that existed
foreigners who wish to fight for us, andeven before the war. Recruits included
we have battles to be fought. Is it notF.C. Selous, the famous naturalist, ex-
true, that for every foreigner who diesplorer, and hunter and friend of Theo-
in battle, the life of one Frenchman is dore Roosevelt; W.N. Macmillan, an
saved?" This logic is the result of a longAmerican millionaire of enormous
tradition in France which many Frenchphysique (his sword belt was 64 inches
military historians ignore. It is not in diameter); Cherry Kearton, the pho-
widely known that over the course oftographer who had specialized in photo-

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98 NAVAL WAR COLLEGE REVIEW

mon
graphing big game; famous hunters parlance for lacking allegiance,
like
George Outram and Martin Ryan; being aunscrupulous and unprincipled.
millionaire from Park Lane; a royal
However, the American participation in
servant from Buckingham Palace; a
mercenary activities demonstrates many
examples of actions, by both govern-
number of late members of the Foreign
ments
Legion; ex-cavalry officers from the 9th and individuals, that parallel the
and 21st Lancers; a naval wireless opera-
events that have previously occurred on
tor; a circus clown; cowboys from foreign soil and with foreign nationals.
Texas; several publicans; musicians from
In the 18th century it was not out of
the dance band at the Empire; London
the way for a naval officer of one
stockbrokers; a number of Merchant
country to enter the service of another
Navy officers; Americans from the U.S.his own state was at peace. For
when
Army; a lighthouse keeper fromexample,
Scot- the British Navy reduced its
land; Angus Buchanan, a naturalistpersonnel
who from 110,000 to 26,000 after
had been in the Canadian Arctic Circle
the War of American Independence
when war broke out and had not heard which meant that hundreds of officers
of it for nearly three months-he made were without employment; at least 20
his way to join the Frontiersmen viaof them entered the Russian service.
Hudson Bay Fort and London; miners
from Australia and the Congo; prospec- Kontradmirał Jones. No sooner had
tors from Siam and the Malay States;
the war been over than the Congress of
pearl fishers; an opera singer; a profes- the United States gradually started liqui-
sional strong man; an Irishman who haddating our impoverished Revolutionary
been sentenced to death by the Presi- Navy. Within a short time period all of
dent of Costa Rica; British officials and
the ships had been sold or given away
merchants from Hong Kong, Mexico,leaving the new nation with neither a
China, and Egypt; a number of troopers
navy nor a naval program. At the end of
from the Northwest Mounted Police; the war all the men that remained in the
music hall acrobats; a lion tamer; and
naval service were paid off and turned
last, but by no means least, an ex- adrift on the beach. The people of the
general of the Honduras Army, who fledgling nation were so fearful of a
became a sergeant in the Frontiersmen
and built them a bombthrower. One of
monarchial form of government and
everything that the Old World repre-
them, Lt. Wilbur Dartnell, was to be
sented, they went to remarkable lengths
awarded the posthumous V.C. in a in sacrificing the Navy to prevent the
minor engagement shortly after the
possibility of scheming politicians using
battalion's arrival. They had joined into
it to enslave their own people. It was in
a kind of Buffalo Bill army for adven-
this atmosphere that the foremost naval
ture and for patriotism. They were not hero of the small American nation, John
to know that they were to get little but
Paul Jones, on recommendation of
wretchedness. Before the war was over
Thomas Jefferson, took service with the
most of them were to die in a remote,
Imperial Russian Navy in April 1788.
inhospitable country a long, long way
Flag rank was what Jones had always
from Tipperary.1 6
coveted, and it was the principal motiva-
The American Experience. The tion that attracted him to the Russian
American public's philosophy towardsservice. The Empress Catherine II first
mercenaries is almost universal on two created him as Captain of the Fleet with
counts. First, that mercenaries are con- the rank of Major General. In Russia he
sidered a part of a foreign scene, andwas later known as Kontradmirał Pavel
secondly, the term mercenaries is com- Ivanovich Jones (Paul, the son of John).

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 MERCENARIES 99

He even hoped thus to impresschusetts

Con- companies, sent into combat
unable
gress. He wrote to Jefferson begging himto understand what was hap-
to use his influence to have him pro-
pening or what they must do or where
moted to Rear Admiral USN, as a the dangers lay; in a few days, many
gesture to "gratify the Empress." But aswere stumbling to their deaths in the
America now had no navy, there waswilderness.1 8
even less chance of Jones getting flag
Blue and Grey Foreigners. Signifi-
rank than there had been during the
cantly, these "immigrant mercenaries"
war. He does not appear to have been
were not the only foreign mercenaries
attracted by the Russian pay (about to take service with one of the contes-
$145 a month-however, it was twice
what he had drawn in the American
tants during the American Civil War.
Officers who had previously been in the
Navy).17 service of the Prince of Prussia or the
Immigrant Mercenaries. The amount Swedish kings, and others, took leave of
of money paid to John Paul Jones while absence from their service to fight in the
in the Russian Navy was not too dif- war. Among the more notable were
ferent from the sum that was involved Major Heros Von Borcke, Brevet Briga-
in a far more sobering account of dier Generals Von Egloffstein, Von Bles-
mercenaries; one that is not well adver- singh, Von Schack and Von Vegasack.
tised for obvious reasons. In Hamburg, Heros Von Borcke, who took service
Germany, early in 1864, advertisements with the Confederacy and became
appeared in several newspapers which J.E.B. Stuart's Chief of Staff, was pre-
offered unmarried, male immigrants free viously on the staff of the Prince of
passage to the United States, a bonus of Prussia. Baron Fred W. Von Egloffstein
$100, a guarantee of employment for and Louis Von Blessingh both had
three years, at the minimum rate Ameri- military training and experience in the
cans were earning in the same job ($12 a German Army before coming to Ameri-
month), plus food, lodging, and medical ca for the Civil War. Von Egloffstein
attention. The purpose of this advertise- and Von Blessingh were both breveted
ment was for the recruiting of Germans, brigadier generals United States Volun-
by the agents of the Governor of Massa- teers, USV for war service. George Von
chusetts. The Provost Marshal of Massa- Schack came to the United States on a
chusetts, when questioned later, indi- 3-year leave of absence from the Prus-
cated that it was explained to these sian Army where he had served as a
"immigrant mercenaries," orally, in Ger- Captain of Cavalry. He also was bre-
man, that they were joining the Union veted a brigadier, USV during the Rich-
Army. However, it is doubtful if any mond campaign in 1862. Baron Ernest
were aware that they would soon be Mattais Peter Von Vegesach received a
wearing a "Blue Union suit" fighting the special furlough and "recommendation"
Confederate forces. from the brother of the King of Sweden
These "mercenaries" were originally to go to Washington during the Civil
landed at Gallop's Island near Boston War. He fought as a private at Yorktown
and later were posted to the 20th and Williamsburg, later rising in rank to
Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry and brevet brigadier general and awarded the
the 35th Regiment of Massachusetts "Congressional Medal of Honor" on 23
Volunteers on the banks of the Rapi- April 1863 for "serving successfully as
dan. With the Union Army pushing men ADC and advantageously changing the
into action as fast as they could produce position of troops under fire at Gaines
them out of recruiting sources, the Mill, Virginia, 27 June 1862, while
Germans were split up among the Massa- covering Fitz John Porter's retreat."

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 100 NAVAL WAR COLLEGE REVIEW

recommended for service by no lesser

Upon returning to Sweden in August
1863, the Swedish king allowed himpersonage
to than the head of the Ameri-
wear this "foreign decoration"can
andArmy. Gen. William Tecumsuh
Sherman, who from his own ranks, and
eventually Vegesach retired as a major
general in the Swedish Army. The signi-
who had gained high appreciation of the
ficance of a mercenary soldier winning
merits of others against whom he had
the nation's highest award is uniquefought,
in had recommended most of them
the annals of our nation's history. to the Egyptian ruler. In the Union and
Understandably, this event is probably
Confederate service they had held rank
not well known by the average
g from lieutenant to major general. In-
g Ameri-
terestingly, no conflict arose between
them over the issues of the Civil War,
The Khedives Knight Errants. Not all
of the American experience with mer- and the wearers of the Blue and Grey
cenaries has been associated with for- dwelt peaceably together in Egypt.
eign nationals. In certain events in mili- However, major problems and dif-
tary history, Americans have been hired ferences were experienced between the
into an army not of their own country. Americans and the Egyptians. These
Such was the case of some 50 officers Americans were required to face and
from both sides of the American Civil deal with people of a different culture
War who, after the fighting ceased, were and different religious background, of
unable to face the rigors of civilian lifeimposing an American technical ad-
and took service with the Khedive of vanced society upon deep-rooted and
established alien systems, of communi-
Egypt in the 1870 's. Some wanted the
security of position that belongs tocating American concepts of efficiency,
military life; some wanted to atone fororder, law, and system to the Egyptians,
dishonorable incidents of the war; someand of resolving their own internal
conflicts. All these factors contributed
simply sought adventure. Many of them
had fought in three conflicts-the Semi- some degree to the abortive attempt
in
by Ismail to expand the influence of
nole, Mexican and Civil Wars-and sol-
diering was all they knew.
Egypt into Abyssinia. After the defeat
of Ratib Pashas' Egyptian force at
The Khedive was eager to avail him- Khaya Khor and Gura in 1876 by King
self of the skills of these officers in
John, the Negus of Abyssinia,2 1 Ameri-
engineering, navigation, surveying, ex-can military prestige dropped severely.
ploration, and conquest. The half Those
a Americans who had officered and
hundred Union and Confederate officers
advised the Egyptian forces at Gura
who went from the United States to were blamed for the defeat and were
Egypt had a high degree of technical methodically cashiered from the Egyp-
excellence, superior training, and a rich
tian service. The loss of 10,000 men,
experience. They were for the most part 10,000 new Remington rifles, and 25
graduates of West Point and Annapolis.cannons was a defeat not easily over-
They had perfected their training with looked by the Khediveš22 Memoirs of
experience on the high seas or on thethis period of history by some of the
American frontier; they had fought principals provides interesting informa-
Indians, Mexicans, and each other,
tion on the participation and names of
gaining experience in the management these American soldiers of misfortune.
of men, in the logistics of supply, and in Gen. Charles Pomeroy Stone, U.S.
the tactical requirements of armed con-
flict.20
Volunteers, who one day would build
the pedestal for the Statue of Liberty,
These Union and Confederate offi- was the senior American officer in
cers who put on Khedive's uniform wereEgypt. Gen. William W. Loring, late a

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 MERCENARIES 101

colonel in the U.S. Army, later a of young Americans, together with

major
other
general in the Confederate service, young men throughout the world,
and
still later Fereek Pasha and general inthe great adventure in 1914 by
joined in
the Army of the Khedive of Egypt,joining the French Foreign Legion. Ex-
ceptCol.
served during the disaster at Gura. for the legion, there was no corps
that they could regularly enter as
Charles Chaillé-Long of the U.S. Volun-
teers served as Chief of Staff to Gen. Americans. Forty thousand is con-
Charles George "Chinese" Gordon for a sidered a rough estimate of these young
period prior to his explorations. "Chi-war heroes who were too eager to wait.
nese" Gordon, a British officer, hadThe Americans who entered the service
fought from Crimea to China and also of France after the outbreak of war
took service with the Khedive. Chaillé- were volunteers recruited from all
Long is primarily known for his explora-classes of society. Millionaires, and there
tions of Uganda, Lake Victoria, Nyanza,were some, writers, lawyers, engineers,
Karuma Falls, Juba River, and Lake boxers, butchers, explorers, and espe-
Albert.2 3 cially university students.
Generals Colson and Field, and Col. The legion, now 84 years old, pro-
William McEntyre Dye, Capt. David E. vided a constitutional loophole that no
Porter, son of the Union naval com- other fighting army could offer. The
mander, and others-men of ability, of technicality that allowed Americans to
experience and adventurous spirit enlist in the legion without forfeiting
agreed to serve in any war except a war their U.S. citizenship lay in the wording
that would be fought against the United of the enlistment contract itself. Legion
States.24 Their pay was approximately volunteers were not required to swear
that of similar grades in the U.S. Army, an oath of allegiance to France, only to
and for those who served in any of the the flag of the legion itself. The contract
distant provinces an additional 20 per- required only that the legionnaire
cent was awarded. In general, the men promise "to serve with faithfulness and
from the Confederate service took a
honor and to follow the corps, or any
grade no lower than they had had in the
fraction of the corps wherever the gov-
Army of the Lost Cause with the ernment wished to send it." This saved
Khedive paying transportation costs be-
the Americans their citizenship. They
tween New York and Cairo. Should a
joined in such numbers that one regi-
man become ill during his term he could ment, the 1st, became regarded as an
accept a two months' severance pay andAmerican enclave and, as such, a prime
resign. The heirs of any man who died tourist attraction for visiting French
in service received a full year's pay, andgenerals.
the widow of any who died in battle or
On 8 August 1914 Le Journal Offi-
of battle wounds would recieve gratui-
ciel in Paris advised: "The Minister of
tous benefits unless she remarried or
War has authorized the acceptance of
until the majority of her youngest
child.25 The veterans of the Blue and foreign volunteers for the duration of
the war only. However, no enlistments
Grey who worked for the Khedive and
of foreigners can be received until 21
their descendants would soon go forth
August 1914." Impatient for the arrival
to other parts of the world and once
of the enlistment date, the Americans
again hire themselves out to a foreign
army. However, it was not until a gathered each morning in the garden of
the Palais-Royal to learn the rudiments
quarter of a century later that a signifi-
cant enlistment took place in France.
of close-order drill. They were trooped
around the square by a onetime West
Americans in the Legion. Hundreds Point cadet named Charles Sweeney, 32,

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102 NAVAL WAR COLLEGE REVIEW

from Spokane, Washington. Atleft wives, families, and jobs to be

first
Sweeney's marchers numbered about "engaged
20 in glory alone." With rare
Americans who had been living inexceptions,
Paris Americans who came to
at the outbreak of war; but the repay
strag-
their personal Lafayette debt to
France proved to be good fighters.
gling ranks began to fill with country-
Americans such as Norman Prince; Vic-
men who had been traveling on vacation
in different parts of Europe, and
tor by
Chapman; Kiffin Rockwell; Denis
others arriving from the StatesDowd;
on al- William Thaw, the Pittsburgh
most every boat that reached harbor.
millionaire; Elliott Cowdin; Lufbery;
Bert
After nearly three weeks Sweeney hadHall; Paul Pavelka; and James
worn himself hoarse, but by then his and the rest later rendered
MacConnell
ragtag platoon executed facing and
significant service to the French Army
flanking movements so well theywhile
werein the American Escadrille.26
actually applauded by the French who
It was the legion group and the
gathered daily to watch the fun.
volunteer ambulance drivers serving in
On 21 August the swearing-in cere-
the American Field Service that pro-
mony was held in the great courtyard of
vided, in many cases, the appointments
the Hotel des Invalides, repositoryinto
of the
so French Air Service. These
much of France's military history. The
"Legionnaires of the Sky," American
huge golden dome that sheltered the
volunteer aviators in World War I, saw
remains of Napoleon Bonaparte looked
much frontline action and heavy casual-
down on the blinding white yard filled
ties. The Escadrille Américain , N.142, in
with colorfully uniformed army offi-
the French Air Service, later called the
cers, silk-hatted diplomats, and the
Lafayette Escadrille , was created in
hodgepodge of Americans, Englishmen,
April 1916. Many of these "Galahads of
Poles, Spaniards, Russians, Italians,
the Air" had previously been bloodied
Greeks, South Americans, Servs, Croats,
in the mud of France and the trenches
Arabs, Sicilians, Norwegians, Swedes,
of the Marne or Verdun battles. The
Danes, and others whose nationality
motives that inspired their beliefs and
could only be guessed at. The yard rang
guided their footsteps were many and
with patriotic speeches defying Ger-
varied but practically all had one com-
many and promising revenge for the
mon instinct-courage, backed by an
humiliation of 1870; they praised the measure of sacrifice that
abundant
"selfless act of so many foreigners who
probably seems idiotic in these ma-
wished to contribute their part of cour-
terialistic days.2 7 Who is to say whether
age and blood to the history of France."
these were "patriots," "volunteers," or
When the last paper had been signed, 43
mercenaries? Certainly the views of
Americans were accepted as privates in
France, United States, and Germany all
the Legion Etrangère . Their pay would
be 30 cents a month. differed on the designation of these
men. Parochial and subjective views
Many a name personality on the
American scene became a mercenary for
provided differences in meaning and
interpretation; when compared they
this paltry sum. Some of those that
were all held in a different perspective.
served would delight any romantic. Alan
Seeger, a renowned poet; Algernon Abraham Lincoln Brigade. In more
Satoris, grandson of Ulysses S. Grant; recent times, 3,300 Americans volun-
William L. Bresse, son-in-law to Hamil- teered and participated in the Spanish
ton Fish, the American statesman; Civil War. They were grouped, together
Edward Genet, descendant of the from individual and bodies of volun-
French Minister to the United States, teers, into the International Brigade
deserted from the U.S. Navy; and others (XV Brigade) which was formed in 1937

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 MERCENARIES 103

hotshot outfit-tough and arrogant, as

as the III Battalion-Lin coin- Washington
(usually referred to as the Abraham invincible as they were temperamental,
Lincoln Brigade). They manned andthe
sometimes as equally undisciplined.
A goodly amount of good green
John Brown Field Battery and partici-
American
pated in some of the heaviest fighting of dollars was deposited to their
the Civil War. Testimony to this wascredit
thein an American bank, and that
death of 1,600 Americans in the waswarwhy many were there. However,
not all of them were so motivated. For
with the remainder all being wounded
once, and some being wounded as the manybest of them and even some of the
as three times.2 8 mediocre ones would have done the
same, even if there had been no
Communistic and leftist ideological
money.30
overtones were a part of the recruitment
of this group. It is interesting to note
Eagle Squadron. During the same
that few, if any, Americans fought for
time period of World War II, another
the Nationalists. Practically all of the
group of flying "volunteers" entered the
American combat troops, service and
scene with American pilots flying in the
auxiliary units supported or fought on
service of a foreign government. This
the Republican side.29 The only re-
time, however, the theater of operations
ported American to fight with the Na-
was halfway around the world from
tionalists appears to be a pilot shot
down in October 1937. Some would their China compatriots. The unit desig-
nation of these flying Americans was
argue that these men were altruistic and
called the "Eagle Squadrons" who were
noble, while others, based on an op-
to fight in England during the Battle of
posing ideology, would paint these
Britain.
troops as fully mercenaries.
America was still at peace in the
Flying Tigers. In the spring of 1941 early 1940's, but some of her young
Americans once more served as soldiers men were very much at war. They were
in a foreign army with no question this transport pilots, crop dusters, washed-
time as to the pay motive. The Ameri- out cadets, students, and other adven-
can Volunteer Group under the com- turous youths who had gone to Canada
mand of Claire Chennault with Meriam
and enlisted in the Royal Canadian Air
C. Cooper as Chief of Staff and 200 Force or Royal Air Force units.
U.S. Army Air Force, U.S. Navy, and In October of 1940 these Americans
Marine pilots on "leave of absence" flew were transferred to the newly organized
antiquated P-40 fighter planes and71st Royal Air Force Pursuit Squadron,
fought against the Japanese as mer- the first of the Eagle Squadrons. These
cenary air soldiers of fortune, a "For-Americans wore Royal Air Force uni-
eign Legion of the Sky." This group, forms with the distinguishing Eagle
known as the Flying Tigers because ofSquadron patch on the left shoulder.
their grinning tiger shark P-40 's, pro- The 71st was soon joined by the 21st
vided the only bright spot on an other- and the 133rd Squadrons as more
wise darkened and bleak scene for the Americans signed. Many of the adven-
Allies in the Pacific. They provided aturous flyers became aces in the "Battle
stopgap to the Japanese drive in China of Britain." One in particular was Flight
and eventually contributed to drivingLt. Chesley Peterson, now a major
the Japanese from the Chinese soil andgeneral in the U.S. Air Force.3 1
the air above. The Americans were not the only
This unorthodox group of "wild, nation contributing aviation personnel
gun-toting Texans," wearing high-heel to the Royal Air Force. At one time in
cowboy boots to fly their P-40 's, was aDecember 1941 the Fighter Command

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104 NAVAL WAR COLLEGE REVIEW

numbered 34 "foreign" squadrons as

underdeveloped areas. In many of those
compared to 66 British. In addition
areas to
newly emergent states began or-
the three American, of the foreign
ganizing and staffing intelligence agen-
squadrons ten were Canadian, eightciesPo-
as one of the status symbols associ-
lish, four Australian, three Czech, two
ated with the trappings of sovereignty.
Belgian, and one each New Zealand,
World War II produced a manpower
Norwegian, Newfoundland, and French. pool of trained, hardened, and un-
This grouping into "national" squadrons employed former soldiers and partisans.
was only accomplished after the arrival Many of these individuals were unable
of the British reinforcements from war to integrate themselves into the postwar
training organizations. Previously, the life of their respective countries. These
unique camaraderie in these squadrons "centurions" needed the security of an
had been the international flavor of organization with high morale and esprit
these organizations.3 2 Once again,
de corps. When associated with such a
unit, they move up rapidly in one of
whether patriotic or venal in motive, in
reality the composite nature of these
several elite, special force organiza-
tions.33
squadrons and their nonnational charac-
teristic easily falls within the Webster It may be very important and mean-
definition of mercenary. ingful that the United States possibly
solved a major problem by "unwit-
Postwar Reservoir. Before the age of
tingly"
intense nationalism, characterized by forestalling the possibility of ten
World Wars I and II, it was not un- million potential mercenaries by sub-
common for men of talent and ability sidizing its veterans with the provisions
of the G.I. Bill. As lucrative as this
to serve faithfully and with distinction
program was, however, not all of this
in the political and military establish-
ment of countries other than their own group were satisfied at being so oc-
without being regarded as traitors. In
cupied. Some still needed the "Big
Battalion" of institutionalization, while
the past, as the feudal organization of
warfare decayed and capitalism others appeared to be motivated by
idealistic reasons.
emerged, mercenaries formed the nuclei
of many armies. With the full develop- First in 2,000 Years. Such may have
ment of capitalistic society, national been the case of Col. David Marcus,
armies took more and more the place of
known by his nom de guerre as "Mickey
the professional adventurers in search of Stone." An American citizen, he was a
gain. The period after the Great War; graduate of West Point who had served
the Revolutionary Wars of the United
on General Eisenhower's staff in Europe
States, Russia, and France; the Civil
with the rank of colonel. He helped
Wars of the United States, Britain, and
draft the Italian, German, and Japanese
Spain; the Wars of Succession; Conti- surrender terms and was a member of
nental, Peninsula and Carlist Wars have
the U.S. delegation to Teheran, Dum-
always developed a large number of barton Oaks, Yalta, and Potsdam. He
trained military personnel who have
volunteered for service with the Haga-
accepted service in some mercenary nah during Israel's war of independence.
force, normally after a war in their own
He had been appointed as a single
country.
commander for all forces operating in
Modern Mercenaries. After World Jerusalem and the Corridor after the
War II an unprecedented number of initial failure in Latrun in May 1948.
trained guerrilla warfare and counter-Specifically, on 28 May 1948 he was
insurgency experts was turned loose in a given his first command in Haganah as
restless world of former colonial and the Supreme Commander of the Jerusa-

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 MERCENARIES 105

the Jewish faith would arrive at the

lem front with authority over Etzioni,
individual's home and briefly outline
Harel, and the 7th Brigade. Here Marcus
was appointed the first "general" the
of flying
an proposition, indicating that
Israeli army in 2,000 years-and hisironi-
citizenship was not in jeopardy. In a
few his
cally he was an American. Under days, if the individual was still
interested,
guidance and drive the Israelis began to a sum of old, crumpled
money
launch small-scale attacks, initially notof all denominations and condi-
too successful in gaining ground buttionthe
would be exchanged, a passport
benefit derived by his hammering miraculously
away presented, a ticket to
was that the pressure on Jerusalem Miami,
wasthen one to Washington or Balti-
more, then on to New York, and soon-
relieved, and attention could be directed
against Latrun. Mistaken by one ofusually
his within five days-the recipient
would
own sentries, Col. Marcus was killed onfind himself in Europe or the
11 June 1948, just hours before theEast flying missions in support
Middle
of Israel's
cease-fire, and his body was returned to war of independence. In each
the United States for burial at West case, he was passed from individual to
Point.34 individual and given a ticket for only
As can be expected in this late 1940 the next stage of the trip.
conflict, there was more than one volun-
The Seconded Leave. Ironically, at
teer that participated in the fight. this same time orders were being re-
Jewish and non-Jewish volunteers from
ceived by Sir John Bagot Glubb (Pasha
Canada, South Africa, Australia, Britain
Glubb) of the Jordanian Arab Legion
-former Royal Air Force and Army Air
that all British Army seconded officers
Force pilots-came to help Israel. Some
were immediately to leave their com-
even brought their own aircraft, such as mands and withdraw from battle. The
Mody Allon, a former officer of the reason for this order was that the U.N.
South African Air Force, who subse-
Security Council, at a meeting on 29
quently became the Commander of May 1948 had adopted a British resolu-
Israel's first combat squadron.
tion calling for a four weeks' truce in
Fledgling Falcons. When the war Palestine. The resolution called upon all
ended in 1949 the Israeli Air Force had governments to refrain from sending
grown to 249 aircraft of 57 different war materials to either side. However,
types, flown by pilots from 28 countries there was no mention in the resolution
speaking 14 different languages. At the for the recall of foreign nationals who
war's end, traditionally, these air mer- might be fighting. The British Govern-
cenaries packed up and left. National ment, however, presumably bowed to
Israeli pilots trained in Israel now held pressure in New York to withdraw its
the air defense reins of the country. At regular officers from the Arab Legion.
this time France, herself involved in a The withdrawal of the British offi-
war in Algeria, was providing the fledg- cers was a shattering blow. They in-
ling Israeli falcons with the necessary cluded all operational staff officers,
modern aircraft in order to guarantee both the brigade commanders and the
Israel's security.35 commanders of three out of the four
It was not too unusual at this time to infantry regiments, and all the trained
telephone collect to Miami in response artillery officers. The British officers
to an advertisement in a local midwest were not a little aggrieved, particularly
newspaper-relating to "adventure, high since they were aware of the activities
pay and flying"~to be told that "you of Col. David Marcus. Pasha Glubb, not
will be contacted." That night, or soon a regular officer in the British Army at
after, two local businessmen or elders of this time, received a communication

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106 NAVAL WAR COLLEGE REVIEW

from the British Legation. Thisture

docu-
during World War II, promptly
ment referred to a British law known as reenlisted for colonial service after the
war. Embittered and disillusioned by
the Foreign Enlistments Act. Under this
act Glubb was exposed to a charge of their experience in Vietnam, many of
having taken service "without His Ma- them sought compensation by a victory
jesty's cognizance," with a foreign over native nationalists in North Africa.
power.36 After six years of frustration, hard-corps
militants, including general officers, or-
The Citizenship Stake. While Pasha
ganized an illegal Secret Army Organiza-
Glubb could retain his citizenship and
was able to convince the Legation au- tion (OAS) and waged a relentless
underground war of terror and assassina-
thorities that they had no cognizance
tion. As in all extremist cases, terror
over his presence in Jordan, not so was
begets counterterror with many being
the case with the Americans. The Wal-
ter-McCarran Act of 1952 spelled outkilled on both sides. When the plot for
seizing power in France and Algeria was
details that had previously been vague
uncovered, many showed up in other
on the conditions of American citizen-
areas of Africa. These and many other
ship lawē It specifically barred Ameri-
underemployed or unemployed mili-
cans from serving in a foreign army,
tants appeared in the Congo crisis and
voting in a foreign election, or entering
reappeared in other active political war-
the regular employ of a foreign govern-
fare theaters when they occurred. Many
ment. All restrictions were subject toof these freelance mercenaries were
certain exceptions, but basically the
offenses incurred the forfeiture of adventuresome, fanatic, and frequently
embittered personalities; their petty
American citizenship.
intrigues constituted a threat to the
In a test case involving an American
peace of the turbulent area in which
who had served with Castro's army they
in sold their services. However, their
Cuba, the Supreme Court affirmed thatactivities also complicated and fre-
service in a foreign army would incurquently embarrassed the political war-
the loss of citizenship. However, this
fare operations of the major powers.38
ruling by the Court was reversed by the
decision of 29 May 1967 specifically Swedish Surprise. While a consider-
able number of incidents involving
because of the "loss of citizenship"
French, British, Irish, Scotch, German,
aspects of the case. Service in a foreign
army, however, remained illegal with Italian, including the American mer-
other penalties. Thus, what had been cenary experience has been related, the
foregoing cannot be considered a com-
legal, or at least not illegal, for the
Americans who flew for France before plete study of mercenary activity since
1917, or for China before Pearl Harbor, ancient times. However, it does provide
or fought in Allenby's Jewish Brigade a considerable number of examples of
against the Turks in 1916-1918, or in events which have been found, in many
Israel's Army against the Arabs in 1948, cases, to be repeated in reviewing the
suddenly became illegal in 1952. 3 7 events in the Congo. Perhaps there are
few items of a similar nature on which
French Anguish. While the United Americans are so sharply divided. De-
States and Great Britain were having pending on one's reading, or having
problems with their nationals serving in been exposed to propaganda of one side
foreign lands, so was another countryor the other, the idea of mercenaries has
on the Continent. In France many developed strong opinions on the part
ex-soldiers and partisans, having ac- of the American public. These opinions
quired a taste for violence and adven-are not necessarily joined by other

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 MERCENARIES 107

for the Swedish "soldier." The reference

nations, even though they are con-
to Swedish "mercenaries" was com-
sidering the same historical event. The
Hessians in the American war were pared with a later account, expanded by
thought of differently in Europe thantheinsame author and publisher, for an
America. The Americans in the Spanishofficial account of the Congo story for
War were considered as mercenariesthe byUnited Nations. Ironically, in the
similar section of the official version,
the Nationalists, regardless of the "ideal-
references to the Swedish contingent
ist" nature of their adventure. Surely,
Lafayette, Pulaski, and Von Steuben were listed as "volunteers."40
were considered as mercenaries by the
Reflection. With all the evidence of
British regardless of the "patriotic"
history complete with examples of mer-
label by the American Revolutionaries.
cenary operations, with all types of
On the contrary, no one among nations
the participating; the idealistic, the
Western nations considers the Swedish
pragmatic, the globalist, the small, the
elements in the United Nations peace-large, including our own country- why
keeping forces anything but being as-then the strong opinions voiced against
sociated with high forms of idealism. mercenaries? Have we been absorbed
Apparently, however, the opposite has with the Machiavellian admonishment
been justly claimed. This is typical when against the use of mercenaries? Is it our
examining cases of most wars involving past experience with Hessians in the
international forces.
Revolutionary War that is incorporated
In accordance with the General
into our thoughts, or perhaps the le-
Assembly resolutions, the donor govern-
gality of the situation as expressed in
ments required the United Nations to
the Walter-McCarran Act of 1952 that
reimburse them for the overseas allow-
taints our thinking toward the use of
ances they paid their men while in the
mercenary forces? Surely, mercenary
Congo. Some governments, notably
operations have been a part of the
Sweden, also required reimbursement
for the salaries of their men and offi-
BIOGRAPHIC SUMMARY
cers. In referring to a presentation given
at a private conference on United Na- Col. George H.
tions Security Forces held in Oslo, Dodenhoff, U.S. Ma-
February 1964, by Major General rine Corps, holds a
Rikhye, the military advisor to the bachelor's degree
from the University
Secretary-General of the United Na- of Maryland and an
tions, Ernest W. Lefever wrote: "All M.A. in international
Swedes serving in the United Nations affairs from The
Forces were mercenaries and not mem- George Washington
University. As an avia-
bers of the Swedish Army."3 9
Some countries cannot send units of
tor, he has had a variety of assignments in
fighter aircraft including service as an ex-
their national army outside the country change officer with U.S. Air Force fighter
by law and have, therefore, to raise asquadrons. Other assignments include Marine
volunteer contingent. In most cases the Corps Representative to the Chief of Naval
Operations; Intelligence Officer, First Marine
unit that is sent is a reserve unit in
Air Wing; and while with Headquarters, U.S
which the men had their training while
Strike Command, he served with Joint Task
serving the army some years previously
Force 11 in the Congo. He is a graduate of the
Naval
and just before going abroad receive a War College, School of Naval Warfare
refresher course of a few weeks. Class of 1968, and is currently serving as
Commanding Officer of the Marine Air Re-
So was the case in the Congo with
serve Training Detachment, U.S. Naval Air
the United Nations paying $48 a month
Station, Willow Grove, Pennsylvania.
for the Indian soldier and $625 a month

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 108 NAVAL WAR COLLEGE REVIEW

it is
African scene almost from the first in conflict with elementary com-
days
of the European explorations. Possibly
mon sense it is regarded with extreme
diffidence. The 35 nations involved in
we have been the subject of powerful
the Congo operations, plus the super-
and subtle propaganda which has turned
powers
us away from the very force that has of the United States and the
sustained Africans and kept themSoviet
fromUnion and their allies, all viewed
communism. The difficulty of the estab-
mercenary situation differently. An
lishing the truth becomes increasingly
objective view, rather than long-standing
difficult as additional facts are un- subjective evaluation, is required in
covered. It would be convenient if the order to determine and qualify the
researchers could, by various "scien- rhetorical question as to whether a
tific" methods when analyzing the total mercenary force can provide internal
documentary evidence, read with fac- and external security for the fledgling
tual certainty what is true and what is nations of Africa, and if the answer is
false. Documentary evidence cannot be yes, what are the pitfalls?
ignored, however falsified, but whenever

FOOTNOTES

1. Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince (New York: Modern Library, 1940), p. 46; "Mercenar
Encyclopedia Americana, 1966, v. IX, p. 655.
2. F.M. Stenton, Anglo Saxon England (New York: Oxford University Press), p. 57
seq; Edward Tetlow, "What We Know about Hastings," The New York Times, 15 October
p. 5:5; J.F.C. Fuller, Military History of the Western World (New York: Funk and Wag
1957), p. 367.
3. Samuel P. Huntington, The Soldier and the State (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
1957), p. 20.
4. Helmut Hirsh, "Mercenaries," Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1966, v. XV, p. 177.
5. Machiavelli, p. 45.
6. Mary C. Ady and J.R. Hale, "Condottieri," Chambers Encyclopaedia, 1967, v. Ill, p.
839; Machiavelli, p. 46.
7. Edgar O'Ballance, The Story of the French Foreign Legion (London: Faber and Faber,
1961), p. 16, 17.
8. Henry S. Wilhams, ed., The Historians History of the World (London: Hooper and
Jackson, 1908), v. XXI, p. 434.
9. Christopher Duffy, The Wild Goose and the Eagle (London: Chatto and Windis, 1964),
p. 26.
10. "Sarfield, Patrick, "Dictionary of National Biography (London: Smith Elder, 1909), v.
XVII, p. 794, et seq.
11. "Brown or Browne, Ulysses Maximilian Von," Dictionary of National Biography
(London: Smith Elder, 1908), v. Ill, p. 35.
12. Wilhams, p. 434 fn.
13. "Mercenaries," Chamber's Encyclopaedia, 1967, v. IX, p. 288.
14. O'Ballance, p. 17.
15. "Foreign Legion," Chambers Encyclopaedia, 1967, v. V, p. 763; O'Ballance, p. 24, 25;
Gregory Bocca, La Legion! (New York: Crowell, 1964), p. 41; Charles Mercer, Legion of
Strangers (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1964), p. 10, 11; Pierre MacOrlan, ed. Pages
de Gloire de la Legion Etrangre (Rhone: L'Imprimerie Andre Martel a Givors, 1952), p. 10, et
seq.
16. Brian Gardner, German East (London: Cassell, 1963), p. 48-50.
17. Samuel E. Morison, John Paul Jones (Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1959), p. 352;
John R. Spears, The History of Our Navy (New York: Scribner, 1897), p. 303.
18. George A. Bruce, The 20th Regiment of Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry 1861-1865
(Boston: 1906), p. 329-330; U.S. Dept. of State, Foreign Relations of the United States 1864
(Washington: 1865), p. 174-175; Sumner Carruth, et al, History of the 35th Regiment of
Massachusetts Volunteers 1862-1865 (Boston: 1906), p. 284-303.

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 MERCENARIES 109

19. Mark M. Boatner, III, The Civil War Dictionary (New York: McKay, 1961), p.
20. William B. Hesseltine and Hazel C. Wolf, The Blue and the Grey on the Nile
University of Chicago, 1961), p. 2.
21. William W. Loring, A Confederate Soldier in Egypt (New York: Dodd Mead,
402, et seq.
22. Paul Charrier, Gordon of Khartoum (New York: Lancer, 1966), p. 136.
23. Hesseltine, p. 149, et seq; Alan Morehead, The White Nile (New York: Dell,
179.
24. Hesseltine, p. 21.
25. Ibid., p. 22.
26. Herbert M. Mason, Jr., The Lafayette Escadrille (New York: Random House, 196
et seq; Bocca, p. 41, et seq; Paul L. Hervier and E.A. McKenzie, Source Records of the G
(New York: National Alumni, 1923), v. IV, p. 260, et seq.
27. Arthur G.J. Whitehouse, Legion of the Lafayette (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday
p. X, xi.
28. Arthur H. Landis, Abraham Lincoln Brigade (New York: Citadel, 1967), p. XVII, XVIII.
29. Edwin Rolfe, The Lincoln Brigade (New York: 1939), p. 7; and Hugh Thomas, The
Spanish Civil War (New York: Harper, 1961), p. 377.
30. Robert L. Scott, Flying Tiger; Chennault of China (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday,
1959), p. 3.
31. Gene Gumey, The War in the Air (New York: Crown, 1962), p. 72, 73.
32. Peter Wykeham, Fighter Command (London: Putnam, 1960), p. 210.
33. Paul W. Blackstone, The Strategy of Subversion (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1964), p.
218.
34. Netance Lorch, The Edge of the Sword (New York: Putnam, 1961), p. 193, 198; and
Edgar O'Ballance, The Arab-Israeli War, 1948 (New York: Praeger, 1957), p. 107, 108.
35. Leo Heiman, "Israeli's Little AF-and How It Grew," Air Force, January 1968, p. 91;
Harry Sacher, Israel, The Establishment of a State (New York: British Book Center, 1952), p.
271.
36. John Glubb, A Soldier with the Arabs (New York: Harper, 1957), p. 133, 134.
37. Harold R. Isaacs, American Jews in Israel (New York: Day, 1967), p. 172-175.
38. Blackstone, p. 233.
39. Ernest W. Lefever, Crisis in the Congo (Washington: Brookings Institution, 1964), p.
148; I. Rikhye, Preparation and Training of United Nations Peace-Keeping Forces, Adelphi Paper
No. 9 (London: Institute of Strategic Studies, 1964), p. 7.
40. Brookings Institution, Foreign Policy Studies Division, United Nations Peace-Keeping in
the Congo, 1960-1964 (Washington: 1966), v. II, p. 381.

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