Professional Documents
Culture Documents
NoellWitt 1996 ACriticalRe-Evaluation
NoellWitt 1996 ACriticalRe-Evaluation
NoellWitt 1996 ACriticalRe-Evaluation
189 - 203
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190 NOELL AND WITT
procedures (e.g, conjoint BC, Sheridan, Kratochwill, & Elliott, 1990) are evident
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in the consultation literature, the core procedures have remained essentially con-
stant. The glacial pace of BC's evolution provides evidence for both the logical
and popular appeal of the original conception and its weak scientific status. The
evolution of models is a critical product of scientific activity, if not the primary
product of science. BC has been surprisingly ineffective as a scientific heuristic for
examining the process of behavior change through a triadic relationship.
It is worth noting that stability is not necessarily an indication that a model is
scientifically impotent. Many principles (e.g., gravity and entropy) in the physical
sciences have remained stable for decades. The critical issue is whether these
conceptions have served as useful springboards for new findings that elaborate our
understanding of the phenomena of interest. The basic principles of operant reinforce-
ment provide a useful case in point from the domains of psychology and behavior
analysis. While the basic principles of reinforcement have remained unchanged for
many years, they have served as a basis for new conceptions and research programs
that elaborate on the original statement. Research programs examining matching
(Herrnstein, 1961; Herrnstein, 1990) and behavioral momentum (Nevin, 1988)
derived from the reports of reinforcement, have added substantively to a behavioral
"model" of the universe, but have not as substantively modified the basic principles.
In contrast, BC has neither produced new findings that have substantively changed
our conceptions of triadic behavior change, nor has the model evolved itself.
The argument could be advanced that BC should not be evaluated as a scientific
model for triadic behavior change, but as a model for delivering interventions that
have been validated through research that is independent of BC. However, this
argument is unsatisfying because it assumes that the factors controlling consultee
and consultant behavior are either unimportant or not subject to scientific analysis.
The factors controlling consultee behavior are clearly important when considering
issues such as treatment integrity and utilization (Sechrest, 1982; Witt & Elliott,
1985) and there is no compelling reason to assume a priori that the factors
controlling consultee behavior are beyond scientific understanding. A recent
investigation by the present authors indicates that the factors controlling consultee
behavior are susceptible to experimental examination (Witt, Noell, LeFleur, &
Mortenson, 1996). The service delivery component of BC serves to increase the
importance of its scientific adequacy because it is a theory of behavior change that
will be applied in an attempt to meet requests for assistance.
CONSULTATION ASSUMPTIONS 191
The stability of BC over two decades could be explained by the argument that it
is effective and does not need revision. The few studies available provide some
support for improvements in student functioning as a result of teacher contact with
consultants (Sheridan et al., 1990; Fuchs & Fuchs, 1989). However, the present
authors were unable to locate any experimental studies directly measuring consult-
ation's most direct effect: changes in teacher behavior as a function of BC contact.
At this point BC's ability to predict and control the phenomena of interest remains
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important as the status of the evidence supporting BC is the fact that powerful,
well-supported scientific models should still serve as heuristics in guiding the
development of their fields. In fact, the most strongly supported principle of
behavior analysis, reinforcement, has also served the strongest heuristic role.
Assuming that the heuristic value of a model is an important element in evalu-
ating its scientific merit, BC is deficient in this regard. Neither BC's special status
as a directly applied theory nor the current status of its supporting data account for
this failure. However, BC is clearly not logically deficient as an account of how
behavior change might work in a triadic process. If BC were logically deficient, it
is unlikely that it would have survived for approximately 20 years. Rather than any
conspicuous logical inadequacy, it is possible that BC's formalization may have
created a degree of orthodoxy that has stifled BC's continued evolution. BC may
have come to be regarded more like a crystal, elegant and rigid, than a scientific
model, evolving and subject to revision. The advocacy of a particular vehicle for
the application of behavioral technologies in schools may have interfered with the
re-examination of the vehicle and its continued evolution.
Updyke, 1985). While the studies contributing to these reviews have generally
reported that BC was effective, at least two serious concerns have been raised
regarding the data presented in many of these studies. The frequent absence of
adequate experimental control noted by Gresham and Kendell (1987) limits the
interpretability of many of the studies. Additionally, the over-reliance on teacher
report as the sole or primary dependent measure limits what is known about the
effectiveness of BC. Fuchs and Fuchs' (1989) component analysis of BC is
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illustrative because it included both behavioral observation and teacher report. The
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circumstances is BC efficient.
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The term collaboration has been a fundamental tool in the construction of school-
based consultation. If the term did not exist, we would have invented it. BC and
school based consultation developed in a societal context where egalitarian notions
of human relationships are predominate over anything resembling a hierarchy. The
societal context converged with earlier work on consultation (e.g., Caplan, 1970)
to drive BC to develop a modus operandi which specifies a co-equal status between
psychologist and teacher. It is interesting to note that this co-equal status serves to
devalue any expert content knowledge (i.e., instruction, learning, and behavior
management) the consultant may possess because this would create an unequal
relationship. This subtle side effect of the collaboration assumption may have even
given some consumers the impression that content knowledge is unnecessary to be
an effective consultant.
Beyond the cultural milieu, a number of specific authors (e.g., Caplan, 1970) and
studies (e.g., Reinking, Livesay, & Kohl, 1978) have contributed to the adoption
of collaboration as an important element of BC. Unfortunately, the seminal studies
often cited in support of the importance of collaboration may are not as relevant to
intervention implementation in schools as the citations would make it appear. The
problem with many of the seminal studies in consultation and, for that matter, the
problem with most consultation studies is an over-reliance on the self-report of
teachers. If you ask someone, "Do you prefer to be involved in decisions about
what you will be doing and what will be happening in your classroom?," does
anyone really expect that they will say, no they don't like being involved?
Despite the early support for collaborative consultation (e.g., Parsons & Meyers,
1984), contradictory findings have also been reported. Studies by Erchul and his
colleagues (Erchul, 1987; Witt et al., 1991), using the BC model, produced data
which suggested that teachers actually exposed to consultants preferred those who
were more directive. Wickstrom (1995) systematically varied whether consultants
using the BC model were either expert or collaborative. Collaboration was opera-
tionalized as asking for and accepting input from consultees on several key aspects
of intervention development and implementation. Wickstrom (1995) found no
differences in either teacher satisfaction or the degree to which the intervention
CONSULTATION ASSUMPTIONS 195
the student (e.g., teacher behavior change). The only study examining implemen-
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tation (Wickstrom, 1995) did not provide support for the importance of collabora-
tion in producing treatment implementation.
While the collaborative assumption enjoys widespread support, there have been
significant barriers to its scientific examination. Collaboration is so integral to the
practice of consultation that collaboration is seldom considered to be an inde-
pendent variable; rather, if collaboration is not present, then whatever process is
being conducted is not consultation. Hence, there have been relatively few studies
conducted to examine specifically whether being collaborative enhances the effec-
tiveness of the consultant. Hampering research in this area is a clear definition of
collaboration or, more accurately, an operational definition. In order to study it we
must be able to measure it. Absent is a list of the specific behaviors, which, if
performed by a consultant, would cause the unbiased observer to conclude that
collaboration had occurred. Also, if one is not being collaborative, then what is it
that one is being? What is consultant behavior at the other end of the spectrum
called? Words like expert, domineering, and prescriptive begin to emerge.
In contrast to traditional collaborative processes, behaviorally oriented consult-
ants are producing promising results using procedures which are more prescriptive
than collaborative. Watson and Robinson (this issue), for example, discuss proce-
dures which achieve positive results but which are markedly prescriptive. Our own
work (Witt et al., 1996) casts the psychologist in the role of assessing the problem,
developing an intervention that is effective, testing the intervention on the child,
and, after determining the intervention is effective with the specific child, using
behavioral procedures to teach the intervention to the teacher and to insure that it
is used with integrity. While teacher input is taken into consideration, it is the
habilitative effects of treatment, rather than teacher preference, which ultimately
determines what is used (Witt, Gresham, & Noell, in press).
The possibility that consultation might be most effective if conducted in some-
thing other than a collaborative model is already being discussed and explored by
a small set of investigators. These investigators are examining the possibility that
technical assistance to teachers and expert consultant knowledge should play a
central role in consultation. This may lead to the rejection of the original assump-
tion, the development of an alternative set of procedures that are desirable for some
cases, or may ultimately support the original assumption. Whatever the results of
this new line of investigation, testing the collaboration assumption should serve to
expand our understanding of how to change student and teacher behavior.
196 NOELL AND WITT
This may be the most pervasive assumption permeating BC. The procedures for
BC outlined by various authors (Bergan & Kratochwill, 1990; Kratochwill, Elliott,
& Rotto, 1995; Martens, 1993) describe a series of verbal interchanges or inter-
views that constitute the core BC process. However, BC does not assume that the
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referral problem resides within the teacher and that talking with them will change
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the problem. The assumption made is that as a result of these interviews, the teacher
will return to the classroom and emit new behaviors that were planned in the
interview. These behaviors include both assessment activities, such as collecting
baseline data, and implementing the intervention. It is then assumed that these new
teacher behaviors will result in remediation of the referral concern.
The empirical support for this assumption is limited. The current authors were
unable to locate any experimentally controlled studies which measured teacher
behavior change as a function of BC. A previous survey of practicing school
psychologists reported that approximately half of the teachers receiving consult-
ation services implemented the intervention (Happe, 1982). This estimate was
based on the retrospective and subjective evaluations of consulting school psychol-
ogists. The relationship of these consultant recollections to more direct measures
of treatment integrity is unknown. The studies that were located reporting on
teacher intervention integrity as a result of BC (e.g., Sheridan et al., 1990) relied
upon teacher self-report. The exclusive reliance on teacher self-report of treatment
integrity is particularly damaging in light of recent findings. Wickstrom (1995)
found that all 33 teachers studied reported high levels of treatment integrity.
However, direct observation revealed that the teachers were implementing the
intervention on less than 10% of the relevant occasions, despite an observer being
present in the classroom. Although this study has not yet been subjected to peer
review, it does indicate that the historic reliance on teacher report may have led to
gross inflations of estimates of the actual rate of treatment implementation.
The larger data base of applied behavior analysis also casts doubt on the viability
of this assumption. The assumption that teachers will carry out intervention plans
developed in consultation can be considered a generalization problem. The assump-
tion could be restated as: verbal descriptions of behaviors by a consultant in one
setting are sufficient for teachers to emit those behaviors at another time in another
setting. A cursory examination of the generalization literature indicates that this
assumption is unlikely to be correct. For example, a recent review of generalization
in studies of preschool children's social skills (Chandler, Lubeck, & Fowler, 1992)
found that the studies that were most likely to produce generalization employed a
combination of antecedent (e.g., prompting) and consequent strategies (e.g., feed-
back) to establish the behavior, while the least successful studies relied more often
on antecedent strategies alone (e.g., instructions). This finding is particularly
crucial for BC given the nearly exclusive reliance on antecedent descriptions of
CONSULTATION ASSUMPTIONS 197
While these three case studies do not provide clear indications of how interven-
tion usage may be related to changes in the rate of psychoeducational assessment,
they do raise a number of interesting questions. Did the rate of psychoeducational
evaluation drop due to the use and generalization of effective prereferral interven-
tions? Did the rate of evaluation drop due to greater advanced scrutiny of potential
evaluation cases, with improbable candidates being diverted from evaluation? Did
the rate of evaluation drop due to the greater opportunity cost (e.g., time and
meetings) for initiating referrals? While these studies provide evidence of the
impact of more generic consultation at a systems level, the types of dependent
variables employed in evaluating changes in systems do not provide information
regarding the consultation procedures which were effective at an individual level.
Examining the issue of teacher skill development and generalization of interven-
tions to new referral concerns raises an interesting and complex issue regarding the
appropriateness of this generalization. It would appear that the most probable basis
for teacher generalization of interventions would be recognition of a similar
problematic behavioral topography. The topography rather than the function of
behavior is more likely to be salient and distressing to the teacher. If the original
intervention was successful because it was based on an accurate assessment of the
controlling variables and/or skill levels for the original referral student, it may or
may not be effective for the subsequent student. The original intervention may have
been effective because it correctly targeted a student's critical skill deficit, while
the student presenting the apparent generalization opportunity exhibits a perform-
ance deficit which requires different intervention elements, despite similarities in
topography. Similarly, the time out that was a functional and effective intervention
for the student whose behavior was maintained by social reinforcement is likely to
prove disastrous with a student whose behavior is maintained by escape (Plummer,
Baer, & LeBlanc, 1977; Solnick, Rincover, & Peterson, 1977). The interesting
subtlety evident when this level of generalization is considered from a behavior
analytic perspective is that it is a discrimination as well as a generalization task.
Specific data on how to prepare teachers to generalize interventions to appropri-
ate opportunities and discriminate these from topographically similar, but function-
ally dissimilar opportunities does not exist within BC. It is worth acknowledging
that this is a level of refinement that will not be relevant until a more definitive
understanding of the procedures necessary to achieve adequate treatment integrity
are understood. Extensive consideration of alternative assumptions appears to be
CONSULTATION ASSUMPTIONS 199
premature for the same reasons. It is worth stating that there is considerable
empirical basis for assuming that teachers will not consistently generalize and
accurately discriminate in the absence of some type of programming for this distal
BC outcome (Johnston & Pennypacker, 1993; Stokes & Baer, 1977; Stokes &
Osnes, 1989). However, consideration of this type of issue does highlight the
potential wealth of understanding that could be developed regarding the application
of behavior analytic principles in educational settings.
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This BC assumption is the least central of those reviewed in this article. Obviously
this is not an assumption that has been advanced as an advantage of the traditional
BC model. Rather than explicitly stating that direct assessment or contact with the
client is unnecessary, the model emphasizes collecting data regarding client behav-
ior through the Problem Identification and Problem Analysis Interviews. In addi-
tion to these data, the teacher would typically be asked to collect baseline data
between these interviews. As a result of strict adherence to the procedures outlined
by Bergan and Kratochwill (1990) it would be perfectly plausible to consult without
ever seeing the target student/client. The authors were unable to locate any test of
the importance of student - consultant contact in the consultation literature. We
simply do not know anything empirically about the validity of this tacit assumption
ofBC.
The strong emphasis on direct measurement in the behavior analytic literature
has not lent itself to comparison of interventions derived from interview alone
versus direct assessment. Behavior analytic assessment techniques such as func-
tional analyses and observational measurement have required direct contact with
the participants. A recent report of combined functional and descriptive analyses
performed on the same participant by Umbreit (1995) provides some insight into
this issue. The assessment activities, functional analysis, observations, and inter-
views (including a student interview), contributed different data that led to the
inclusion of additional elements in the final intervention package. If the interven-
tion had been developed solely on the basis of the teacher interview data reported,
it would not have had elements addressing all of the maintaining variables identi-
fied through direct assessment. The case presented in the Umbreit (1995) study
serves an important reminder that assessment results are dependent on assessment
methods and that exclusive reliance on one method, such as interview, will
necessarily affect results (Campbell & Fiske, 1959).
Two equally self-apparent statements derive from the discussion above. First,
the exclusive reliance on teacher interview will inevitably bias and limit assessment
results. Secondly, any other form of assessment is time consuming and reduces the
efficiency of BC. The conflict between these statements communicates the tension
between time efficiency and procedures that are sufficiently comprehensive to be
200 NOELL AND WITT
reliably effective across referrals. Consultants may be able to design some effective
interventions based solely on teacher reports and observation, but this single
assessment tool is unlikely to be reliably accurate.
Alternative hypotheses regarding the functions of direct assessment in BC cover
a wide range of possibilities. Direct assessment may serve to decrease teacher
resistance by increasing the apparent legitimacy of the assessment procedures and
the resulting intervention recommendations. The consultant's recommendations
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seem more plausible and reality-based, because she or he has met with, observed,
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SUMMARY
The five fundamental BC assumptions that are examined in this article have all
remained static for at least 19 years. The retention of these assumptions over this
period of time has served as the basis for only limited examination of other issues
related to a triadic behavior change process. The lack of research production in the
area of BC may reflect more on the difficulty of conducting consultation research
(Gresham & Kendell, 1987) and on the contingencies in place for those individuals
conducting research. Whatever the nature of the contingencies in the research
community, BC has not served as a sufficient stimulus for development of pro-
grammatic research.
As noted in the introduction, the absence of change in the core BC model does
not necessarily indicate that its assumptions are incorrect. It simply indicates that
it has not been a theoretically stimulating heuristic. The early adoption of an
orthodox BC with little substantive competition in the behavioral domain may have
served to dwarf BC's development. This same orthodoxy may also have stifled
examination of plausible alternative models for the application of applied behavior
analysis in a triadic format. The review presented in this article attempted to
challenge this orthodoxy by reevaluating fundamental assumptions, noting
contradictory evidence, and considering the possibility that these assumptions are
incorrect.
While the fundamental assumptions underlying BC reviewed above were pre-
sented as an attempt to invigorate the evolution of BC, it is possible that they could
provoke revolutionary activity. Reconsideration of fundamental assumptions could
CONSULTATION ASSUMPTIONS 201
serve to spark the emergence of an alternative model for the delivery of behavioral
intervention in schools. The emergence of a competing model for triadic behavior
change designed to solve problems is almost certain to create controversy. While
controversy and completion between paradigms can be uncomfortable, it can also
serve to guide science to the examination of critical variables and accelerate the
development of science (Witt, 1993). The fusion of school psychology, behavior
analysis, and consultation would benefit from such an acceleration, whether it
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