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ALE toy wix0y jexSYp o7uE payanuos 10 WT POUT seer e 30 [ePID UY Z 2 ues youSis opuosay? 40 1°! ‘poxodarner ‘parouy ‘payrdue 94 eet if en 9 auoo oq ve> eR yyy susonpsuen 4q pouonta> bee zo peowspate OF OFM SIDEMAN Tog yuausaunscous UOHDO.9 Ue JO SOBEIAPS OL +e Mrowseunseowl 210.1201 J0 S8B5UEAPY FHF qeqen 30 Kaguenb (e219 say a0j sjdound ui 0 ne rosneea ML, SORES NNO ar repeal pe oe amuonaare uo Peres ‘ayqvuea 40 Ayyuanb 9 fo reomrt Se pousfn Bo uounsysy Suanseons 24, 00d FON ponvep 2h HPD -panseout 9g fou pinoys wownaisuy unseou oy, 30159 oy SOSTUHNUKE YORI v jou pine ayy 3080 ee UopEMOUNASUL g SWoUANSEON Scanned with CamScanner “N ‘eis eu sno op pee 0 Fao yd susaco aan suo pe eu fo 50 wy 1 aio 0 wae i wo Run pew suze soepuny 9 ous Eg Ky puis rrembop Sutpuodsoiio v ony puemseaus ayy suBAuO> UM Wat Buss Krud ‘smojoj saompsuen e ‘soso amp JO {SOU UT WOU SSeS Ard ws; pamseaur | aq 0} won Suéue poo ‘jeune yy wou Supuee dreamed oy fq aup 1 puemstour a jo uoRosip Way sn, UN HupuaE Led poye> 5} pans 2q 0 uenb ayy ipa sequoD yy IY SOLU WAY yUaEASUT Ue Jo wuaLERPa LY wwowerg Buysueg Arewug P71 “puna ag yo wove ayy Ue ype jog st HOUR y>ED Jo omminy ayy ‘wresSep 9po1q ay u “aInpaoaid ywouramseaU axp LT UORDUNY zePRTE ¥ wioyad yppym suouodme> puns yo raqumu jo da spam sy NOWP weg quauap uonewuasaid eeQ *¢ squawope Suyonrpuod wea 7 rau Samus Kou 1 ‘oe podnos® aq ues URW] SEA BL wounqsuy ue Jo syuoweye jeuoRound 14 Bia sunuoj Cavonpic resi savergg [eae] [Tame | [rouse] [nme] Pomme 7 opera || upon || Buses [pS een | [Lerman | | Amun Jwowns}suy ue jo syuowro}g JeUONUNS ZF TE Scanned with CamScanner monts eure 1-4 Basics of voltage, a ; 1.2.2 Varlable Conversion Element form such # oe for is i il The output of the primary sensing ‘element is in dete mot be St end frequency or any other electrical parameter. Such an outpul stem 18 6 for the the actual measurement system. For example if the measurement SY", able fe the analog signal obtained from the primary sensing elemen "nol hich digital system. Thus ‘analog to digital converter is required Ww! variable conversion element. 4 while some need Key Point: Some instruments do not need variable conversion element more than one. : ee . ined -as it-iS while The original information about the measurand must be retained doing such conversion, 1.2.3 Variable Manipulation Element The level of the output from the Previous stage may not be enough to dtive the next stage. Thus variable manip: ulation element manipulates the signal, preserving the original nature of the signal. é Key Point: The manipulation involves the change in numerical value of the signal. For example an amplifier’ which just amplifies the magnitude of the input, at its output, retaining -the original nature of the signal. It is not- Necessary that variable manipulation element must be always after variable conversion element. It may be before variable conversion element. In some cases, the levels of the output of the Previous stage are high and required to be lowered. In such case atenuators are used as the variable manipulation elements. -- Sometimes the output of the transducer may get affected due to unwanted signals like noise. Thus such signals are required to be processed with some processes like modulation, clipping, clamping etc, to obtain the signal in pure and acceptable form from highly distorted form. Such a process is called signal conditioning. Thus in addition to variable conversion and variable manipulation, the signal conditioning is also done in the second stage. Hence second stage is called data conditioning or signal conditioning elements. i ; 1.2.4 Data Transmission Element i When the elements of the system are physically ‘separated, it i necessary tg transmit the-data from one stage to. other. This is achieved by the data Setand on element. The signal conditioning and data. transmission together is called nee stage of an instrument. Scanned with CamScanner _ Moasurements & Instrumentation 1-5 Ba: sics of Measurements 4.2.5 Data Presentation Element ‘The transmitted data may be the information in the proper form, according to the purpose for which tis iene This function is done by the data presentation element, If the et Sot eae then visual display devices are used as data presentation element. If eee e recorded for analysis purpose then magnetic tapes, recorders, high 5 Ba aaa teed as data presentation elements, For control ad’ analysis purpove th meron, compu and microcontrollers may be used a8 date Sala cement e data presentation stage may be called terminating stage of an Current Primary Data Data sensing conditioning transmission presentation Fig. 1.2 Block schematic of an ammeter For example consider a simple analog meter used fo measure current OF voltage as shown in the Fig, 12 The moving coil is primary sensing element. The magnets and coil together act as data conditioning stage to-convert current in a coil to a force. This force is transmitted to the pointer through mechanical linkages which act as data transmission element. The pointer and scale act a5 data presentation element. Selecting the proper instrument for a particular Knowledge of the performance characteristics of an types of performance characteristics of an instrument. type of measurand needs the instrument. Let us discuss the 1.3 Performance Characteristics ‘The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided in two categories - j) Static characteristics and ii) Dynamic characteristics Some applications involve measurands which gre either constant or varying Very slowly with time. ‘ Key Point; The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are used £0 mensire quantities which are slowly varying with time or mostly ‘constant, ie. do not vary Wh time, is called static characteristics. 4 Scanned with CamScanner ment changes rapid ting, betwee? input and ferential ea?" ipferential “ay © cf mee quan nic relations exis! dyn mg will the help of di 1085 oi criteria defined tnsed o” © ions. amic 4 marking @ scale 80 that proces 5 adjustment or making 4” vi the certified standara 5 ig the correct values of : e particular ument that it is operating It creates the The periodic str : oe x ins! ! _The calibration afin o guarantee to eve Crnental OT atone : i in user's min confidence of using the properly ¢ _ » caibration of an instrument is very much necessary: ‘The calibration procedure involves the steps like visual inspec defects, installation according to the specifications, zero adjustment etc. The calibration characteristics can be determined by applying known values of quantities to be ‘measured and recording the corresponding ‘output of the instrument. Such output values are then compared with the input, to determine thi i i e error. srcord obtained from calibration is called calibration record. It is ae the tabular form. If it is represented in the graphical fon, i generally recorded in , , it is call ibrati curve. Such a calibration record or calibration alled caltbyatien tion for various. ati ra : urve is useful to i ed dap aeoad 7 an instrument. The performance of the eee ie g Sage ne ion. It only indicates whether the performance of 7 oe cae Boe and range specification or not. If the devi, : repaired, or modified, then recalibration is carried out. in 1.4 Static Characteristics As mentioned earli 2 a arlier, . a which measure the ee Static chafacteristics-are defined for the instry, es which do not vary with time. The various ments Static threshold, characteristic nara are accura , precision, resolution, @t0T, sensitivity, reproducibility, z ; Zero drift, stabili : ity and linearity. Scanned with CamScanner Measurements & Instrumentation 1-7 Basics of Measurements. 1.41 Accuracy It is the degree of closeness with which the instrumertt reading approaches the true value of the quantity to be measured. It denotes the extent to which we approach the actual value of the quantity. It indicates the ability of an instrument to indicate the true value of the quantity. The accuracy can be expressed in the following ways :- 1) Accuracy as ‘Percentage of Full Scale Reading’ : - In case of instruments having uniform scale, the accuracy. can be expressed as percentage of full scale reading. For example, the accuracy of an instrument having full scale reading of 50 units may be expressed as + 0.1% of full scale reading. From this accuracy indication, practically accuracy is expressed in terms of limits of error. So for the accuracy limits specified above, there will be + 0.05 units error in any measurement. So for a reading of 50 units, there will be error of + 0.05 units iet 0.1% while for a reading of 25 units, there will be error of + 0.05 units in the reading ie. + 0.2%. Thus as reading decreases, error in measurement is + 0.05 units but net percentage error is more. Hence, specification of accuracy in this manner is highly misleading. 2) Accuracy as ‘Percentage of True Value! :- This is the best method of specifying the accuracy. It is to be specified in terms of the true value of quantity being measured. For example, it can be specified.as + 0.1% of true value. This indicates that in such cases, as readings get smaller, error also gets reduced. Hence accuracy of the instrument is better than the instrument for which it is specified as percent of full scale reading. 3) Accuracy as’ ‘Percentage of Scale Span’ ;- For an instrument, if ag, is the maximum point for which scale is calibrated, ie. full scale reading and a,,,, is the lowest reading on scale. Then (4m. — amin) is called scale span or span of the instrument. Accuracy of the instrument can be specified as percent of such scale span. Thus for an instrument having range from 25 units to 225 units, it can be specified as + 0.2 % of the span i.e. + [(0.2/100)x (225 - 25) which is + 0.4 units error in any measurement. ® Point Accuracy : Such an accuracy is specified at only one particular point of scale. It does not give any information about the accuracy at any other point on the scale. The general accuracy of an instrument cannot be specified, in this manner. But the general accuracy can be specified by providing a table of the point accuracy values calculated at various points throughout the entire range of the instrument. ~" Thus the accuracy, in whatever way it may be specified, gives the equipment accuracy with a particular set up and other conditions and does not include any Personal accuracy. 1 7 Scanned with CamScanner readin other. points ig the nce .. differ , “og upto 7000 ery time ji yw ev" ee with each scale of the instrument 2 The readings ae not accurate. : ‘Thus there is 4 precision of + 1% but the accuracy is ony ion does 5%. Key Point This confirms the fact that high degree of precis accuracy, It is the accurate calibration that makes the accurate measurement possible. “The precision is composed of two characteristics * “s Conformity and : +s Number of significant figures. 4424 Conformity. .. having true value as 2385692 Q, which is being measured eas) by not guarantee the castes a-resistor _> am obmmeter. Now; the meter : But the reader, can. read c & cores istently measuring the true value of consistently, a value as 24 M due to nona’ the résisto! Vailability 0 proper scale. The value 24 M i : u Q is estimated by the reader fi vailable scale Scanned with CamScanner Measurements & Instrumentation 1-9 Besies of sics of Measurements ‘There are no deviations from the observed vi r alue, Th limitation of the scale reading is a precision error. ee The example illustrates that the conformity is a n ecessary, bul ‘i condition for precision. Similarly, precision is necessary but not ee suites ie for accuracy. : es Koy Point: An accurate instrument should be precise but a precise instrument may not be accurate, aden 4.4.22 Significant Figures The precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of significant figures, in which the reading is expressed. The significant figures convey the actual information about the magnitude and the measurement precision of the quantity. For example, a resistance of 110 Q, specified by an instrument may be closer to 109 © or 111 ©. Thus there are 3 significant figures..While if it is specified as 110.0 O then it may be closer to 110.1 © or 109.9 Q. Thus there are now 4 significant figures. Key Point: Thus more the significant figures, the greater is the precision of measurement. Number of times, the large numbers with zeros before a decimal point are used to approximate populations or the amounts of money. For example, the price of a vehicle is reported as Rs. 450/000. This means the true value of the vehicle lies between Rs. 449,999 and Rs. 450,001. Thus, there are six significant figures. But what is the ¢-meaning of the reported ptice is, it is closer to Rs. 450,000 rather than Rs. 440,000 or Rs, 460,000. In this case, there are only two significant figures. To avoid this confusion, the large numbers are expressed in a scientific notation using the powers of ten. For example, the price of Rs. ‘450,000 must be expressed as 4.5 x 10°. Thus now, there are only two significant figures. ‘The uncertainty due to the zeros to the left of the decimal point.is usually resolved by such scientific notation. © The precision can be mathematically expressed as + = Precision” where P : X, = Value of n™ measurément X. = Average of the set of measured values : . See Scanned with CamScanner Measurements & Instrumentation poratory. im Example 1.1: The table shows the set of 5 measurements recorded in e Calculate the precision of the 3rd measurement. [__Nessrent wonter | _ va of enone | [eater | Eonar eee See _ Solution : . The average value for the set of measurements is, = Sumof the readings _.251 _ 599 2, Numberofreadings 5 ‘The value of 3rd measurement is X, = 52 where n= 3 52 — 50.2 a = = 05 .e. 96.4 % 1 | 2 | 0.964 ie. 9 This is the precision of the 34 measurement. 4.4.3 Error : The most important static characteristics of an instrument is its accuracy, which i generally expressed in terms of the error called static error. Zl Key Point: The algebraic difference. between the indicated value and the true value of th quantity to be measured is called an error. - Mathematically it can be expressed as, where #4 tes “eam error’ ? A, = measured value of the quantity : “ - A, = true value of the quantity © In this expression, the error.denoted as e is’also called , the er absolut absolute error does not indicate precisely the accuracy of the ining enor. Tig example, absolute error of #1V is neglipible when the voltage|to be measureyt, order of 1000 V: but the same error of #1V becomes sighificant when the er Of te measiyement is 5V or 90. Hence, generally instead of specifying absolues tage under relative or percentage error is specified. i : te error, the 5 ome # . 4 | ye Scanned with CamScanner Measurements & 'nstrumentation 1-4 Mathematically, the relative error can be e, = Sbsolute error true value = AisAn An. The percentage relative error is expressed ag, where A. =, relative accuracy and a= Ax100% where ~ & = percentage accuracy - The error can also be expressed as a percentage of full scale reading as, error as a percentage of full scale reading = 4 = fn 100 — where f.s.d. = full scale deflection, mm Example 1.2.: The expected value of the voltage to be measured is 150 V. However, the measurement gives a value of 149°V. Calculate (i) absolute error; (i). percentage error; (iii) relative accuracy;. (iv) percentage accuracy and’ (v) error expressed as percentage of full scale reading, if the scale range is 0-200 V. ¢ Solution :. The expected-value rieans true value, s A, = 150V The measured value is given as 149 V. in A, = 49V i) e = absolute error ‘ = A,-A,=150-149=+1V Scanned with CamScanner Avr Amy 199 = tox 100 150 ii) 7 %e, = At = 0.66 % iii) A= ee eee 9933 23-[Sq* m=Ao| «1 [p36 iv) see e anton 09780010 = 99.33% : v) % error expressed as He of full scale reading 15, 2 Acie Aw 100 : f3.d. . ag £5.01 2001 = x 100 700 = 05% 14.4 Sensitivity . The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the instrument responds. It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a change in the value of the quantity to be measured. i : Mathematically it is expressed as, Thus, if the calibration curvé is is linear, as shown i zt ofthe instrament is the slope of the cal my pak in the Fig. 1.3 (a), the sensitivit Fig. 13 Sensitivity : Bs Scanned with CamScanner Measurements & Instrumentation 1.43 If the calibration curve i i th S not Ii i Sensitivity varies with the input. BSE 8 shown in . The Sensitivity is always expressed b Magnitude of i a antity being Measured to this definition is the reciprocal of the deflection factor, But mai Inverse sensitivity Deflection factor = 1 ao Sensitivity counts per volt, etc. while millimeter, ohm Per millimeter, volts per c The sensitivity of the instrument ible and to achieve this the range of an instrument should not greatly exceed the value to be measured, mm> Example 1.3 : A particular ammeter 1 emuires a change of 2 A i change in deflection of the pointer by 5 mm. Determine its ity are millimeter the Per micro-ampere, millimeter per ohm, units of a deflection factor are micro-ampere per Ount, etc, : should be as high as poss Solution: The input is current while output is deflection. ‘tivity = change in output Sensitivity = change in input a Smm 2m 525 tA = SBP 25mm 1 Deflection factor Sensitiviy 1 = =2=04A/ mm 25 2 1.4.5 Resolution i ich can be detected It is the smallest increment of quantity being measured whic Fn is : ‘ init an instrument. _ hctdinane ’ ores : ee the resolute ren, the smsalest mensurable input chenge Key Point: Thus, ing will not d, output reading w’ e tity is slowly increasec is minimum change So if a non zero input ee inthe input takes place Tis minimum chaige increase until some in the output is called resolution. : change : which causes the Scanned with CamScanner strumentation 1044 is ferred as disct instrument is also Te timination ; affect the accuracy of the measurement, Of the instrument, ‘The Fes0!™ wp Example 1.4: A 30 an scale has 30 uniform divisions. 1/20th of a scale division can ‘ale in mm. be estimated with a fair degree of certainty, Determine the resolution of the * Solution : 1 scale division = full scale deflection number of divisions 30 = Sygh adem =10 mm Resolution = 35% scale division 1 1 Pa = mm 35% 10 mm) 3 0.5 mm 14.4.6 Threshold If the input quantity is slowly change until some minimum value of the input is called threshold. Key Point : Thus, the resolution is the smallest measurable input, change while the threshold is the smallest measurable input. varied from zero onwards, the output does not f the input is exceeded. This minimum value of 1.4.7 Linearity The instrument requires the property of linearity that is the output varies linearly, according to the input. The linearity is defined as the ability to reproduce the input characteristics symmetrically and linearly. Graphically such relationship between input and output is represented by a straight line. . PI ‘The graph of output against the input is called the calibration curve. Key Point: The linearit indicates the straight lis S of J ity property les the straight line nature of the calibration ‘The linearity is defined as the maximum deviation of the actual calibrati (output) from the idealized straight line, expressed as a percentage of sel reading or a percentage of the actual reading. full scale a Scanned with CamScanner Measurements 8 Instrumentation Basics of Measures c The Fig. 1.4 shows the actual cali “= ed straight line, A— ldealized straight tine ae Actual curve Maximum deviation input . Fig. 1.4 Linearity Thus, the linearity is defined as, % Linearity = maximum deviation of output from idealized straight line 1 betes full scale deflection ~~ Tt is desirable to have an instrument as linear as Possible as the accuracy and linearity are closely related to each other, 1.4.8 Zero Drift The drift is the gradual shift of the instru during which the value of the input variable The zero drift is defined as the its zero value, when the variable calibration may gradually shift by ment indication, over does not change. deviation in the instrument output with time, from to be measured is constant. The whole instrument the same amount, There are many environmental factors which affect the di stray electric field, stray magnetic field, temperature changes, changes in the atomic structure, mechanical vibrations, The drift is undesirable and cannot be easily comp Suarded against by continuous inspection. an extended period rift. These factors are contamination of metal, Wear and tear, corrosion, etc. ensated for. It must be carefully - 1.4.9 Reproducibility - Output Tt is the degree of closeness with which a given Repestabilly value may be Tepeatedly measured. It may be specified in terms of units for a given period of time. The perfect teproducibility indicates no drift in the instrument. i The repeatability is defined as variation ‘of scale reading and is random in nature. Both reproducibility and the repeatability are a measure of the closeness "8? with which a given input may be measured again and Fig 4.50” again. The Fig. 1.5 shows the input and output relationship with positive and negative repeatability. re Scanned with CamScanner Masurements & Instrumentation 1.4.10 Stability a 7 ie epecified The ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout operating life and the storage life is defined as its stability of some (1.4.11 Tolerance ae inter ™> The maximum allowable error in the measurement is specific value which is called tolerance. This is closely related to the ee ment but it is aracteristics of meweited inte ¢ of tolerance Actually tolerance is not the static ch 7 he accuracy 1S mentioned because in some instruments # values. ; i jation Of Key Polnt: The tolerance indicates the maximum allowable devia component from a specified value. a manufactured 4.4.12 Range or Span : : aa ini) i tity: for which an instrumen ‘the minimum and maximum values of & quote ie designed to measure is called its range or span ‘Sometimes the accuracy is speci ed interns of range or span of an instrument: 1.4.13 Bias A : The constant error which exists over the full range of measurement of an instrument is called bias. Such a bias can be completely eliminated by calibration. The zero errror is an example of bias which can be removed by calibration. 1.4.14 Hysteresis If the input to the instrument is increased from a_ negative value, the output also increases. This is shown by curve 1 in the Kg. 1.6. But if the curve is now decreased steadily, the output does not follow the same curve but lags by ‘certain value. It traces the curve 2 as. shown in the Fig. 1.6. The difference be- hmm input are aimum out ig, 16. These are POW? in the Senerally ex- entage of the Scanned with CamScanner ts & Instrumentation 4-47 1.4.15 Dead Space In some instruments, it is possible that till input increases beyond certain value the output does not change. So for certain range of input values there is no change in output. This range of input is called dead space. This is shown in the Fig. 1.6. There is possibility that instrument without hysteresis may show the dead space in their output characteristics, Backlash in gears is a good example which causes the dead space, 4.5 Dynamic Characteristics When the instrument is subjected to rapidly varying inputs, the relation between input and output becomes totally different than that in case of static or constant inputs. As the input varies from instant to instant, output also varies from instant to instant. The behaviour of system under such conditions is called dynamic response of the system. All the systems include one or more energy storing elements like electrical inductance, capacitance, mass, inertia, friction, thermal capacitance, etc. Due to such elements, measuring systems rarely respond instantaneously to the changes in the measured variables. The measuring system goes through the transient state before it settles down to its steady state position. Hence, the dynamic and transient behaviour of the system becomes an important aspect. The dynamic behaviour of the measuring system is expressed mathematically by the differential equations. _The dynamic behaviour of the measuring system is determined by applying some known and predetermined variations of input to the sensing element. The standard variations in the input, used practically to obtain the dynamic behaviour, are as follows :- 1. Step Input : This represents sudden, instantaneous and finite change in the nous + input. The examples are sudden application of force to a mechanical system, instantaneous closing of switch in an electrical circuit, etc. ‘Au(t) The step input of magnitude A is denoted as Au(t) and can be indicated as shown in the Fig. 17, 0 ' Its Laplace transform is given by, Fig. 1.7 Step Fs) ‘when A = 1, it is called unit step input. Laplace of step input Ss Scanned with CamScanner Measurements & Instrumentation 1-18 Basics of Meas: ; a at change in input. The input, be: 9 6 ith time. It changes at a constar 2. Ramp Input : This represents line, fo be measured varies linearly w Fespect to the time. as At) Input ‘The ramp input of magnitude A is denoted w(® and can be shown in the Fig. 18. Sipe A . ‘The Laplace transform of ramp is given BY’ tu A Fo) = ©... Laplace of ramp input t t When A = 1, it is called uni input. Fig. 1.8 Ramp led unit ramp inpt 5. Parabolic Input : This represerits an inpu t signal which is proportional to the square of the time and hence represents oe ‘onstant acceleration. Input The parabolic input of Magnitude A is denoted ag AP u(t) and can be shown as in the Fig. 1.9. a acu The Laplace transform of parabola is given dy, ul f : Fs) = 24... Laplace of parabolic input 5 t 0 4. Impulse Input : It exists only at t = 0 and has zero value at any other time. 7 f(t) = Ofort+0 ~ And area under it is its magnitude. If it is unity, itis called delta function -denoted as B(t). Ik is shown in the Fig. 1.10.. The Fig. 1.10 (a) shows the concept of impulse input and the Fig, 1.10 (b) shows its representation. It is basically a pulse with its base At approaching to zero. The Laplace transform of &(t) is 1, Fig. 1.9 Parabolic Input (t) - Impulse z = : 0 ' Ato () (b) Fig. 1.40 Impulse input +» Laplace of unit impulse input Scanned with CamScanner ———— Measurements & instrumentation 5. Sinusoidal Input ; 8 sinusoidal IMPUt in a ‘aviour includes. tl Se as input the stud as a input ig Sinusoidal in nature, 2° ¥@Fiations t The Sinusoidal input is *; Put is a Where A ig its amplitude ay ence Asinet Fig. 1.11. tts La as shown in th Place transform is gi i ~ Laplace of sinusoidal input From the d, characteristics o The vari fidelity, lag namic behaviour of the measuring system, the vari dynamic # the system can be obtained, ” = ous dynamic characteristics of and the dynamic error, fm instrument ire speed of Tesponse, 1.5.1.Speed of Response 'ystem responds to the changes in the quantity to about how fast the system reacts to the changes in the input. It indicates activeness of the system. Key Point: The system should respond very quickly to the cha 1.5.2 Fidelity : It indicates how much faithfully the system reproduces the changes in the input B is the ability of an instrument to produce a wave shape identical to wave shape input with respect to time, ir indic in the Key Point: It is defined as the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in measured variable without dynamic aren. 1.5.3 Lag inges in the input, may be, to respond to the ime, whatever small it imay be, pi ee ae ae fetaraton or day in the response sri calle! ln Th one clad menoring ay. Te ag) oe system is called lag. Scanned with CamScanner Measurements & Instrumentation 1-20 Basics 1. Retardation Lag : In this case, the response of the system begins immediately after a change in the variable has occurred. 2. Time Delay + In this case, response begins after the application of input. Such a delay s! and hence causes the dynamic error. me time called dead time, after so! ; 7 se along time axis hifts the respon 1.5.4 Dynamic Error It is the difference between the true value of the variable to be changing with time and the value indicated by the measurement system, assuming zero static error, The Fig. 1.12 shows the dead time, i.e. time delay and the dynamic error. measured, Quantity to be measured Instrument reading Fig.-1.12 Dynamic characteristics 1.6 Instrument Classification’ There are many ways b: which the i f discuneniie ue acai oud instruments can be classified. Broadly the 1. Active/passive instruments 2. Null/deflection type instruments 3. Monitoring/control instruments 4. Analog/digital instruments 5. Absolute/secondary instruments 18-1 ActivelPassiv ‘The ins} ‘ measured, are calle fe Instruments in which the out ; tput is prod: _ Pressure gauge shone, Passive instrumen tuced entirely b SiNe® thown in the Fig, 1.13, Ns The example of PN tity being ' trum, lent is Scanned with CamScanner Moves, is Solely responsible for the measurement, No in this instrument, — The instruments in which the quantity to be Measured just activates the magnitude of some external Power input source which intum. Produces the Measurement (instrument output) are called active instruments, Apart from quantity to be measured, another external energy input source is present in such instruments. The example of such an active instrument is the liquid level indicator as shown in the Fig. 1.14, Fig. 1.14 Liquid level indicator The potentiometer and the external power input is used to an = Loree float which is Proportional to the level of the liquid in a tank. When tl Pens te the float moves and hence slider of the potentiometer ee ere sides the Gatpat Voltage, which is the part of the external power input, whic st ef cineca puller Thus the variable to be measured just modulates the magnitude : source. Scanned with CamScanner v not be increased ‘al energy rument, resolution is less and cal In passive inst ; tern’ Fatrument, by adjusting the magnitude of the CULT simple tO ace 7 can be obtained. The passive instrum: Mesign and selected resolution ca ‘sr are complicated 10 desi6" ST" on be tru cheaper, The active instrument ing on the required resolution, urement purpose. sparized 2) mi en passive and active instruments can be $¥ the passive or active ins Deper for the in The differences betwe ‘Active Instruments The output Is produced entirely by ‘The quantity to be measured the quantity being measured. activates some external power input source, which inturn produce: the output. i * Additional energy input source not | 2. Additional external energy input “required. source is required. ‘The resolution Is less. 7 The resolution is high. The resolution can not be easily | 4. ;| The resolution can be adjusted by adjusted. adjusting the magnitude of the extemal energy input. Simple to design. . | Complicated to design. Cheaper hence economical. . Due to complex design and higher . number of elements, it is costlier Examples are pressure gauge, . | Examples are liquid level indi voltmeter, ammeter. flow indicator. indicator, 1.6.2 NulliDeflection Type Instruments ‘The instruments in which a zero or null indication leads to the d : the magnitude of the measured quantity are called null type mano emmination of condition depends on some other known conditions. In pull peements: The null attempt is made to maintain the deflection at zero by suitable ag Fs seument, an which is opposite to that produced i applicati t cae Relies: PI by the quantity to be measured. A an effect arument requires, : Ay 1, The effect produced by measured ull pe 2. The opposite effect the value 3. The null detector, quantity of which is known, Scanned with CamScanner —_ ee 5. Unknown em4, Fig. 1.15 D.C, Potentiometer In this instrument, the slide wire is calibrated interms of ean. with the help of standard emf, source. The null detector is generally a galvanometer. The deflection of galvanometer is proportional to the difference between the em-ts E, i» and unknown em. Ey. When these two e.m.fs are equal the galvanometer shows null deflection, In such case Ex is equal to Exp, where E,, is known which is directly indicated on slide wire. Thus unknown e.m.f.s E, can be determined. : The instruments in which the quantity to be measured produces some effect due to — which pointer deflects, are called deflection type instruments. The pointer deflection is atcrl proportional to the quantity to be measured. “Ts P°agnet ‘The controlling torque which acts opposite to ee the pointer deflecting torque is provided in N ( ) s such instruments. When the opposing torque is equal to deflecting torque, the pointer is in ering balanced condition showing the reading on coll the calibrated scale which is the value of the quantity to be measured. The example of deflection type instrument is permanent, FiBoving coll ammeter" magnet moving coil ammeter. This is shown in the Fig. 1.16. The moving coil carries a current to be measured. ‘It produces its oe =a ne placed under the magnetic field of permanent magnet. Due to ee ane fluxes, coil moves; Hence the pointer deflects under the influence ot net ae torque Ty. The controlling torque T. is provided by spring. Mie Ta = H rae ch the attains the steady position. The deflection @ is proportional to the curren coil which is to be measured. Scanned with CamScanner of the 7U nstreuments ‘The accura deflection type i" am are m ne variatio! ne highly accurate 9M! it uses null detector, the effect assed by moasured quant and opposite effect to ‘obtain null condition. i detector Highly sensitive a3 nul ge around has to cover 8 small rant the nullpoint. Not sultable for the dynamic and rapid measurements. ple is d.c. potentiometer. Preferred for the dynamic measurements. ‘The exam} nitoring/Contro! Instruments 4.6.3 Mol ‘The instruments which are used to monitor the process, indicating the val der study are called the monitoring ra ‘Se - Suc “condition of parameter un‘ instruments give as audio or visual indication m of the magnitude of the quantity to measured. All the deflecti instruments Ii null type instruments, neni 4 eee ete ee neceaae and passive transducers are the r etc. are all th ra : examples of th : any ments a are used in automati instru Generally such instruments have an control systems ve an electrical ou are called contro itput. Such instrument are used in the feedback ae path to measure thé controle. Thus the output of such, the output and feedba ins ck the inf formation tt direct input to the controller. =e : must be j trum: in a suitable form fo Scanned with CamScanner _— ~~ measuring instrument Basics of Measurements Fig. 1.17 Simple control system 1.6.4 Analog/Digital Instruments Dependent variable Independent variable Fig. 1.18 Analog signal Dependent variable Independent variable Fig. 1.19 Digital signal The instrument which gives the output which varies in continuous fashion as the quantity being measured changes, taking infinite number of values in any given range is called analog instrument. The representation of an analog signal is shown in the Fig. 1.18. The voltmeter, ammeter which are deflection type instruments are the good examples of the analog instruments. As the input value changes, the pointer immediately moves with a smooth continuous. motion. Thus the pointer can be in an infinite number of positions within its range of movernent. The instrument which gives the output which varies in discrete steps and thus take only finite different values in the given range is called digital instrument. For example if the value shown by analog instrument having a range of 0-10 is 3.5 unit, then the digital instrument with 10 equal parts show the same reading as 3. The analog reading of 05 means a reading zero of a digital instrument. The digital signal is shown in the Fig. 1.19. By subdividing the various’ steps, improved. In digital instruments, the magnitude is measured onl the accuracy of digital instruments can be ly at the instant the reading is taken. This reading persists till the anther reading is taken. Scanned with CamScanner Measurements & Instrumentation 1-26 comput Jn present days, the digital instruments are well suited for the digi ve use control systems. As computer input and output both are in digital orm ace analog digital instruments is very easy’ In computer control systems. To interfere A instrument to computer, if is necessary to use analog to digital converter ‘© Ct Ti analog signal to digital, which is complicated. This reduces the speed alog signal affecting the accuracy. This is because finite time is required to convert an to digital and this time may be very critical in the fast processes. ; 1.6.5 Absolute/Secondary Instruments he instrument which gives the magnitude of the quantity to be measured intermy of the physical constants of the instrument, is called an absolute instrument. The) tangent galvanometer is the example of an absolute instrument. The instrument in which the reading shown by the instrument gives directly the measurement of the quantity to be measured is called a secondary instrument. Thes| are calibrated by the comparison with the absolute instruments. The amumeters,| voltmeters, thermometers are the examples of the secondary instruments. | Obtaining reading by an absolute instrument is tedious and time consuming as the reading is. required to be calculated. While the secondary instruments give dire readings without any calculations. Hence absolute instruments are rarely used while the secondary instruments are very commonly used. 1.7 Methods of Measurement ‘The methods. of measurement are-classified as, 1. Direct method and 2. Indirect method. 7 1.7.1 Direct Method of Measurement In direct method, the quantity to be measured is which directly gives the indication on the me} by an ammeter. The current to be measured used to prod; ter. For pile, Produce certain effect ; » Measuremen; is passed through t of current © 8 a potentiometer» 8ives th ter iy 5 ei oh Standard cell or Iowa ich the Poy BF = a A rence Scanned with CamScanner — Fe with the standa: rd instrument, 1.9 Calibration Methodology There are two fundamental me test instrument and standard ins! 1. Direct comparisons 2. Indirect comparisons trument. These thodologies for obtaining the comparison between methodologies are, 1.9.1 Direct Comparison Calibration Methodology In a direct comparison, a source or generator applies a known input to the meter under test. The ratio of wha! the meter’s error. In such t meter is indicating and the known generator values gives @ case meter is test instrument while generator is the ‘Test instrument Standard instrument standard instrument. The deviation of meter Fig. 1.20(a) Moter calibration from the standard value is compared with the allowable performance limit. If meter deviation exceeds the allowance, then the meter is considered to be out of tolerance. This is shown in the Fig. 1.20 (a). ‘i Scanned with CamScanner — 5 & Instrumentation With the help of a a jor of source a! : ‘Standard instrument i neh calibration, the mer fe generator standard instrument “ ris acts as a test instrument the Fig. 1.20 (b). the sign The transducer converts Hence from one form to another transducer is to be calibrated using direct comparison then both coe as meters are the'standard instruments while the transducer acts a5 # test 4 nent. The transducer characteristics are then expressed as a ratio between the device’ output to its input, in the appropriate input and output measurement units. This is shown in the Fig. 1.20 (c). Measurement: Test instrument Fig. 1.20(b) Generator callbration ‘Standard instrument Test instrument Standard instrument Fig. 1.20 (c) Transducer calibration 4.9.2 Indirect Comparison Calibration Methodology In the indirect comparison, the test instrument is com i ; : pared with the res] standard instrument of same type i. if test instrument is meter, standard ertec is also meter, if test instrument is te i i & aa generator, standard instrument is also generator and Test instrument then the same input j. it “ test meter as well sc °° *PPlied to the Thus the indicatigy = Standard compared Sie Of ‘test eG standard meter for the wacation of the abut The care must “me stimulus or durin, : soure saan o™P=5on © taken that have the ving input iS TOocess, the magnitude ty level op, Pt must Fig. 1.21 (a) Meter calibration Scanned with CamScanner ts Instrumentation pseu Test 2 eter le 7 ry out al the linearity ae Benenson, oe transf © resoluti sid calibrated mt the tee brated The setup for SRT is Generator calibratt

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