CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter bestows an overview of selected topics and items which are

significant and related to the study, taken from the ideas and opinions of

authorities in the field of school management and development in local, national,

and global perspectives. Moreover, it is also consist of discussion and various

studies that are very constructive in making this thesis paper. It entails scholarly

articles, dissertations, past researchers and other resources as the spring board

to the discussion of variables which are pertinent to this current matter

Governance Theory

The fact that society has changed considerably during the last century,

from agricultural to industrial and moving towards a post-modern society is

nothing but an obvious development. The most obvious, however, can

sometimes be a perfect point of departure for research. A continuous change

gives researchers inexhaustible sources for analysis of how society is governed

and organized. In the political science field theories are constantly launched

about the way political systems are governed and organized. These theories

have been accused of lacking strength during the last years. Focus is no longer

on hierarchical governing and formal organizations, and the critics are starting to

move away from traditional central concepts, such as ‘government’. The term

government has usually included formal institutions of the state, and their

monopoly of legitimate violence. Formal and institutional processes at central

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level are used in order to maintain common order and to facilitate collective

actions. (Stoker, 1998a) As a contrast to these traditional views of government,

political systems and processes are increasingly discussed in terms of

‘governance’ (Rhodes, 1996, 1997) and sometimes even in terms of ‘modern

governance’ (Kooiman, 1994). One major problem of these new theoretical

frameworks is that there are almost as many ideas of governance as there are

researchers in the field. There is, therefore, a need for a common ground of

governance, so that a governance theory can be developed in order to become a

helpful tool to understand and analyze the society of today. This paper aims at

describing different approaches of governance, to discuss their weaknesses and

to present one step on the way towards a common ground of governance from

our point of view. There are much research going on in the field, but how can we

do research about governance if we cannot define or agree on a common view of

governance.

The changes mentioned above have mainly been about decentralization.

During the 80’s we could witness decentralization taking place in many western

countries. The purpose of decentralization is to change, usually to decrease, the

role of the state. This is related to what is called ‘hollowing out the state’

(Rhodes, 1996, 1997; also Peters, 1993). Rhodes argues that “The process of

hollowing out…is central to understand the shift from a unitary state to a

differentiated polity” (Rhodes, 1997:19). The shift is about the transfer of state

functions to the European level, to specialized institutions and other actors

primarily within the state. It is also about the transfer of decision-making and
 13

implementation capacities to lower levels, i.e. municipalities or state authorities.

Rhodes (1997) also argues that the shifts are about a limitation of scope and

form of public intervention, the limitation of civil servants’ discretion and of an

even more distinct line between politics and public administration. The result is a

more fragmented public sector. Decentralization and ‘hollowing out the state’

have changed 2 the conditions to govern society. New processes and methods of

governing have opened up for and at the same time challenging the role of the

state by creating new conditions for organizing society.

In general one could say that these changes have taken place in such a

way that we have moved from government to governance. The term governance

is used, generally speaking, to reflect that the conditions for governing society

have changed. (Rhodes, 1997; Stoker, 1998a) How then can society be

governed if traditional forms of governing, to some extent, are not valid anymore?

Three analytical distinctions can be made: the state either has to (i) drastically

reduce or (ii) abandon its ambitions to govern the society, or (iii) the state has to

find new forms to govern. The first ambition could be achieved through

deregulation and decentralization, and the second through privatization. The third

ambition, finally, could be achieved through, e.g. the creation of new

prerequisites for governing depending on new forms of co-ordination. These new

forms are discussed in terms of governance.

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Management Theory

In The Principles of Scientific Management Taylor sought to establish

efficient management by discovering the scientific principles by which it could be

approached. His work focused on issues such as selection of workers, division of

labor, cooperation among employees, etc. The major focus of Taylor’s scientific

management is the employment of similar production activities and “seeks to

maximize efficiency by planning procedures according to a technical logic, setting

standards, and exercising controls to ensure 22 conformity with standards and

thereby with technical logic Thompson (1967) p.5. Thus Taylor’s research

focused on finding the “one best way” for managers and employees to perform

their duties.

The work of Gulick and Urwick (1937) represents one of the most

influential works of the scientific management movement. This work argued that

most of what managers do is summed up by the acronym POSDCORB. This

acronym represents the following activities: planning, organizing, staffing,

directing, coordinating, reporting and budgeting. Although there is considerable

overlap among the listed activities; POSDCORB was very influential in early

management studies. POSDORB is useful because it divides management

activities into basic tasks. POSDCORB is also important because it infers

strategic management as a remedy for organizational problems. “If an

organization appears to lack direction planning may be the answer, if

communication and coordination are poor across departments within an

organization, reorganization may be in order” (Agranoff and McGuire 2001).

 15

The human relations theory of management also challenged the traditional

scientific management approach. The Hawthorne Studies provided evidence

which suggested that changing the environment of an organization has an impact

on the productivity of employees. The majority of organizational theorists claim

that the Hawthorne studies are important because they demonstrate the impact

of social and psychological factors on the behavior of workers. The studies found

that the manner in which supervisors show concern for employees as well as the

relationships and experiences that workers share influence organizational

outcomes. Additionally, the researchers found that employees establish informal

norms regarding productivity. These 23 norms regulate the intensity with which

work is done. The Hawthorn Studies are regarded by many as the most

important research highlighting the influence of “social and psychological factors”

in a place of employment up to that point in the literature.

One of the most influential works in the human relations literature is that of

McGregor (1960). McGregor introduced two competing theories: Theory X and

Theory Y. Theory X assumes that most individuals dislike work and that they

must be coerced and controlled to properly function. However, Theory Y

assumes that people do not innately disfavor work, and says that when they are

committed to goals, they will use self-direction and self-control to achieve goals.

Based on these assumptions Theory X managers will use oversight and control

mechanisms to direct employees. Theory Y managers attempt to encourage the

creativity of employees and merge the goals of employees and the organization

to create a more productive organization. Both POSDORB and human relations

 16

are among the management models that may be referred to as rational or open

systems because they imply that management plays a role in changing

performance outcomes.

Students Involvement

The significance of student involvement, and the programs in which they

chose to participate, have become the subject of increasing attention at

institutions of higher education across the United States. The original idea by

Astin (1984) described involvement as "simply, the amount of physical and

psychological energy that the student devotes to the academic experience" (p.

297). As is evident from analysis of the theory, the academic experience no

longer refers solely to the classroom and paper learning associated with higher

education, but the full life of a student in higher education.

Unlike other theories of student development in higher education

involvement theory emphasizes the student’s behavior rather than emotional,

motivational, or intellectual ideas (Astin, 1984). Those abstract ideas through the

theory of involvement developed by Astin (1984) are defined in a more

measurable framework of time devoted to tasks (quantitative analysis) and the

content covered over that time (qualitative). Both 7 relationships of the theory

must be considered in order to determine accurate learning outcomes resulting

from student involvement.

 17

Students and individuals in a variety of situations must decide which

activities require or deserve their attention, thus involvement can be viewed as a

resource through the time students devote to certain aspects of college life

(Astin, 1984). Because students can only devote certain amounts of time to any

given activity, involvement in one requires absence of another. Despite potential

issues regarding the management of time and resources, studies show that

involvement increases self-efficacy and retention (Emerick, 2005). "The amount

of development and learning (from involvement) is directly proportional to the

quantity and quality of involvement" (Pepper, 2009, p. 11).

Involvement in the university experience can be described in a variety of

forms based on the activities in which students engage (Emerick, 2005).

Students choose to be involved in programs, academics at varying levels of

intensity, athletics, organizations and a variety of other campus experiences.

Each activity demands time from the student, and the policies and procedures on

a campus affect which activities and to what extent students participate (Astin,

1984).

Astin (1984) also postulated that involvement occurs along a continuum,

with students exhibiting varying degrees of involvement depending on time,

place, and the student themselves. Over the length of a semester, for example,

the amount of time one student spends devoted to academics increases

significantly during periods of elevated anxiety or requirement such as mid

semester or final exams.

 18

In addition to providing activities and academic disciplines, educators at

institutions of higher education must also stimulate students in order to facilitate 8

involvement. By promoting students' devotion of time and resources to

involvement, achievement and retention of those students shows a direct positive

correlation to the time devoted to any discipline (Astin, 1984). The goal of

administrators and professors thus has been to study and increase this result

through effective programming and pedagogy.

One of the environmental factors which significantly influence levels of

involvement is students' place of residence. According Astin (1984), students

living on campus increases self-efficacy and participation manifested through

increased student-faculty interaction, greater involvement in clubs or

organizations, as well as leadership opportunities. In part, this correlation could

be attributed to increased contact with the campus culture and environment,

permitting students to devote more time to these aspects of campus life.

Through analysis of student behavior in the context of involvement certain

correlations can be determined based on the programs, academics, and co-

curricular activities in which the student chooses to participate. The basis of this

study, therefore, was to examine student involvement as it pertained to club

sports on a university campus.

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Outcomes of Students Involvement

Previous research has shown significant correlations between students

involvement and students' persistence and achievement. Studies involving

leadership, campus recreation, academic interest, residential status, and co-

curricular activities all influenced student intellectual and learning development

(Astin, 1984; Chen, 2002; Emerick, 2005; Jamelske, 2009; Pepper 2009; Wever,

2003). While each area of involvement varies slightly in both degree of impact

and specific developmental areas affected, all exhibit positive correlations in

leadership development, social development, and academic persistence.

Supported both through the review of the literature and by the significance

placed on them by administrators in higher education, programs emphasizing

involvement promote student retention on campuses and persistence to degree

attainment at an institution. According to Jamelske (2009), the first year

experiences and programs support that year have a significant impact on student

retention and achievement. Students that develop social ties and links to an

institution through involvement correlated to the increased persistence to

subsequent years.

Further research into students' perceived self-efficacy showed "students

who lack confidence in the skills they possess will less likely engage in tasks

where those same skills are required or they will give up when they are

confronted with difficulty" (Emerick, 2009, p. 31). Getting students involved in

outside activities that encourage learning and development of skills in multiple

 20

areas has significant implications on students' futures. Programs that enhance

the holistic student experience, as mentioned, correlate to higher retention rates

and persistence to degree attainment.

Student involvement in co-curricular programs further compliments

student learning at institutions of higher education through social development

afforded by interaction with their peers. Through competitive environments such

as intramural sports, students interact with diverse student backgrounds which

can shape perceptions and relationships (Todaro, 1990). Through these

interactions, students learn both what is acceptable in an environment outside

the classroom. Frequently, these involvement experiences enhance already

present relationships and continue to develop the students' sense of autonomy

(Todaro, 1990).

Furthermore, students that choose to be involved in activities outside of

academics find roles of leadership that develop through these peer interactions.

According to Gerhardt (2008), students with higher levels of involvement also

correlate to leadership activities within those programs. Students learn

responsibilities and accountability which enhance the lessons learned in the

classroom. Those lessons that extend beyond the classroom create significant

areas of benefit for both students and institutions, and as students increase

involvement, the more likely they are to continue to leadership positions, which

are a significant emphasis at institutions of higher education (Gerhardt, 2008).

One area that has received increased attention in past years has been the
 21

area of student affairs and campus recreation. Some studies have shown that

students perceive campus recreation playing a role in the campus culture, while

the directors of those facilities place more emphasis on the impact of campus

recreation (Chen, 2002). That same study also indicated that students did

perceive recreation centers as a bonus to the campus and getting involved,

though not primary reason for choosing one college over another.

Further research into the relationship between academics and student

involvement in programming shows a significant relationship between the two.

Astin (1984) noted that students only have a finite amount of time to devote to

any given activity, thus students choose to be involved. Consistent with that

theory, students with higher level academic workloads tend to be less involved in

programming (Pepper, 2009).

Though academics and involvement compete for students' time and

attention, those students who are involved in programs consistently achieve at

high levels (Astin, 1984). This reinforces the emphasis placed on involvement at

institutions of higher education. Each programmatic area contributes specific

benefits to student development and achievement as it relates to the higher

education experience (Astin, 1984).

Determining what motivates students to become involved has been the

subject of much research. As cited in one study by Pepper (2009), involvement in

activities was found to be positively correlated to the to the Chan Drasgow (2001)

motivation to lead construct. In this case students with a desire to excel and lead
 22

were more likely to become involved at the university level. This could also be

true of those students who lead clubs or organizations.

In a similar study relating to student leadership and involvement, Emerick

(2005) found a positive relationship between self-efficacy and leadership in

student organizations and intramural activities. The findings from this study

emphasized the idea that multiple programs on campus could impact student

development. In this case, campus recreation programming in intramurals along

with student organizations contributed to the holistic student development.

Some programs dedicated to enriching the college student experience

have a more targeted approach to student involvement and retention. In one

study examining first year programs, student achievement positively impacted

retention of below average students provided those programs followed

institutional and program goals (Jamelske, 2009). These targeted approaches

helped students identified as needing aid in persistence through at least the initial

semesters of college.

Student Club Organizations

Community colleges now grasp that retention and robust student

engagement involve interplay concerning both academics and non-academic

elements. Elements of both student persistence and institutional retention need

to be addressed in policies and plans in order to ensure success (Lotkowski,

Robbins, & Noeth, 2004). College students who create interpersonal connections

with faculty members have a greater level of academic improvement (Tinto,

 23

2012b). Athletics, clubs, organizations, and other extracurricular activities create

advantages outside of the gratification they afford to students, and these

recreational involvements contribute to students’ individual evolvement, both in

social groups and academically (Lawhorn, 2008). They may influence students in

the advancement of their educational and professional objectives. Student clubs

and organizations are means that allow the forming of interpersonal relationships

(Lawhorn, 2008; Tinto, 2012b). Researchers in one study noted students who

partake in official student clubs and organizations exhibit a greater likelihood of

completion of their chosen major at both two-year colleges and four-year

colleges (Frost, Strom, Downey, Schultz, & Holland, 2010).

Research done at a four-year college concerning involvement in student

organizations pointed to positive outcomes on student development and learning

for students who participate (Webber, Krylow, & Zhang, 2013). The literature

highlighted various reasons that students at four-year colleges join student clubs

and organizations; for instance, career advancement or social engagement

(Holzweiss, Rahn, & Wickline, 2007). Research done at four-year colleges

indicated that students who do not have formal extracurricular and informal social

interactions do not obtain a sense of connection, resulting in many students’

choice to leave college (Baker, 2008; Fischer, 2007; Tinto, 2012b). However, in

other research on four-year colleges, students offered specific examples of

rewarding experiences they had garnered as members of campus professional

organizations; experiences that included gaining field-specific knowledge and

creating networking connections (Foubert & Grainger, 2006; Holzweiss, Rahn, &
 24

Wickline, 2007; Witt, Witt, & Clark, 2012). Foubert and Grainger (2006) noted

that the more students were involved in clubs and organizations, the greater their

psychosocial development. Webber, Krylow, & Zhang, (2013) noted that students

involved in academic and social activities had higher grades than students who

were not involved.

The studies at community colleges highlight many of these same findings.

Karp and Hughes (2008) interviewed 44 students who were in their second

semester at one of two northwest U.S. community college and then again six

months later to see whether or not the students had returned; the researchers

noted that students who developed a sense of belonging within the college had a

higher rate of retention then those who were not integrated into the college.

Songer (2011) sought to understand at a North Carolina residential community

college how academic club involvement affected a student’s persistence to

graduation. Songer (2011) had 864 students participate in a survey, and the

results noted that students who were involved in academic clubs were more likely

to persist to graduation. A study that involved 239 students, who took the

Community College Student Experiences Questionnaire (CCSEQ) and

participated in predominately-minority social organizations at 1 of 12 different

community colleges, noted that higher frequency and level of involvement with

faculty and peers outside the classroom yielded higher rates of both retention

and persistence (Lundberg, 2014). Lundberg (2014) stated that although

community college students frequently have obligations outside of college, the

 25

commitment to time in relationships with other students and faculty outside the

formal classroom seems to be beneficial.

In addition to increased persistence and retention, researchers noted that

involvement in student organizations and clubs yields positive effects on student

learning and development, such as that of a healthy self (Busseri & Rose-

Krasnor, 2008); greater college satisfaction and academic success for minority

students (Fischer, 2007); and a better clarified sense of purpose and life

management (Foubert & Grainger, 2006). Additionally, assuming a leadership

role within a student club has been shown to be associated with increased levels

of formulated purpose, academic involvement, life management, and

participation in cultural events (Case, 2011; Yin & Lei, 2007). Leadership

responsibilities foster growth in planning, organizing, managing, and decision-

making in students (Foubert & Grainger, 2006); and numerous non-classroom

experiences have the possibility to influence the prospected outcomes of a

college student, especially those involvements that necessitate continuous efforts

and exchanges with a diverse community, including faculty members and college

administrators (Kuh, 2012).

Many researchers have investigated co-curricular and extracurricular

activities associated with student learning and personal development but have

neglected to explore the level of the students' involvement (Kuh, 2005; Kuh,

Kinzie, Buckley, Bridges, & Hayek, 2006; Kuh, 2012). The term “extracurricular

activities” encompassed many areas of a college campus, such as athletics,

intramural sports, academic clubs, social organizations, peer tutoring, and

 26

auxiliary department use; research needs to be more focused on specific types of

activities and the level of student involvement in those activities in order to clearly

see the impact that each area has on the success of students (Bailey & Alfonso,

2005). According to Bailey and Alfonso (2005), further empirical research in

regards to community college students’ participation in clubs is needed. Tinto

(2012a) noted that there are many factors that affect community college student

retention and persistence, but there is a lack of research on student campus life

and its relation to retention and persistence. According to the Transfer and

Retention of Urban Community College Students (TRUCCS) project,

administrators stated that students need ways to feel connected to the campus,

and that that connection would most likely led to retention (Hagedorn, Perrakis, &

Maxwell, 2007). Urban community colleges may benefit from student club

awareness, increased student involvement, the creation of clubs more attractive

to students in order to increase their retention and persistence numbers. There

have also been studies that looked at the variation of student club involvement,

for example: frequency of involvement, hours spent participating, how satisfied

students were with the club, the overall importance of being involved in a student

club, and the type of club involvement.

Participation in Clubs

Participation in structured extracurricular activities promotes not only

academic achievement but also personal development. Students have unique

opportunities to develop their social skills and their social identities. It can

provide adolescents with a social network and a support system that is

 27

associated with their school (cited in Darlng, Cadewell, & Smith et al. in Fieldman

& Mat Jasco, 2005).

Another article discussed the benefits of youth participation in

extracurricular activities and the impact on academic success. According to

Brown (n.d.), student participants in extracurricular activities had better grades,

had higher standardized test scores, higher educational attainment, attended

school more regularly, and had higher self-concepts. In addition, young people

who participate also have been found to be less likely to use substances such as

drugs and alcohol, less likely to drop out of school, misbehave at school, and

commit delinquent acts (Brown, n.d.).

Youth who participate in activities can learn important skills, such as

teamwork or leadership skills, and these skills may help them in other parts of

their lives. When furthering their education, those who participated in activities

are more likely to make friends easily, adjust to a new environment, and show

leadership based on prior experience in extracurricular activities. By being

involved, students decrease the likelihood that they will be involved with problem

behaviors. For example, research indicated that youth who are involved in pro-

social activities from 2-8 p.m. are less likely to commit or be a victim of a crime

(Brown, n.d.).