Fluid Mechanics

1. Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 3.1Introduction

1.1Introduction 3.1.1Horizontal plane surfaces
1.2Concept of a fluid 3.1.2Vertical plane surfaces
1.3Engineering system of units 3.1.3Centre of pressure
1.4Properties of fluid 3.2Vertical plane surface submerged in
1.5Fluid as continuum liquid –derivation
1.6Viscosity 3.3 Inclined plane surfaces submerged in
1.6.1 No slip condition of viscous fluids liquid – derivation
1.7Vapour pressure of liquid and 3.4 Curved surfaces submerged in liquid –
cavitation derivation
1.8Compressibility and bulk modulus 3.5 Water pressure on pipe walls
1.9Capillarity or meniscus effect 3.6 Gravity dams
1.9.1Capillary inversion 3.6.1Mode of failures
1.10 Surface tension 3.7Lock gates
1.11 Worked examples 3.8Worked examples
1.12 Objective questions 3.9Objective questions
1.13 Theory questions 3.10 Theory questions
1.14 unsolved problems 3.11 Unsolved questions

2. Fluid Pressure and its 4. Fluid Masses Subjected to

Measurements Acceleration
2.1Introduction 4.1 Introduction
2.2Pressure at a point 4.2D’ Alembert’s principle
2.2.1Forces on fluid element 4.3 Fluid masses subjected to horizontal
2.2.2Definition of stress acceleration
2.2.3Stress at a point 4.4Fluid masses subjected to vertical
2.3Absolute, gauge, atmospheric and acceleration
vacuum pressure 4.5Fluid masses subjected to acceleration
2.4Pascal’s law along inclined plane
2.5Pressure variation in a static fluid 4.6 Worked examples
2.6Pressure equivalent and units 4.7Objective questions
2.7Measurement of pressure 4.8Theory questions
2.8Measurement of gauge pressure 4.9Unsolved examples
2.9Manometer
2.10 Multitude manometer 5. Buoyancy and Flotation
2.11 Differential manometer 5.1Introduction
2.12 Inverted u-tube differential 5.2Buoyancy, buoyant force and centre of
manometers buoyancy
2.13 Single column manometer 5.3Metacentre and Metacentric height
2.14 Inclined single column manometer 5.4Determination of Metacentric height
2.15 Micro manometers 5.4.1Conditions of equilibrium of a
2.16 Mechanical gauges floating body
2.17 Worked examples 5.4.2Conditions of equilibrium for
2.18 Objective questions submerged body
2.19 Theory questions 5.4.3Maximum height of a body floating
2.20 Unsolved questions in water
5.5Time of rolling
3. Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 5.6Fluid masses subjected to acceleration
 Fluid Mechanics

6.15 Relationship between stream

6. Kinematics of Fluid Flow function and velocity components in
6.1Introduction cylindrical polar coordinate
6.1.1Kinematics of fluid flow 6.16 Flow net
6.1.2Scalar, vector, and tensor 6.17 Worked examples
quantities; fields 6.18 Objective questions
6.2Classification of fluid flow 6.19 Theory questions
6.3Methods of describing fluid motion: 6.20 Unsolved questions
Lagrangian and Eulerian flow
description 7. Fluid Dynamics
6.3.1Fundamentals of flow visualization 7.1Introduction
6.3.2Discharge or rate of flow 7.2Equation of motion
6.3.3Average velocity 7.2.1Euler equation of motion in
6.4Continuity equation Cartesian coordinate
6.4.1One dimensional analysis 7.2.2Euler’s equation along stream line
6.4.2Three dimensional continuity 7.2.3Note on significance of Bernoulli’s
equations: differential equation Principle
of continuity in Cartesian 7.2.4Alternative form of Bernoulli’s
coordinate equation
6.4.3Continuity equation in polar 7.2.5Bernoulli’s equation: principle of
coordinates conservation energy
6.4.4Continuity equation in cylindrical 7.3Bernoulli’s equation for real fluid flow
polar coordinate 7.4Practical application of Bernoulli’s
6.4.5Continuity equation in spherical theorem
polar coordinate 7.4.1Venturimeter
6.4.6Conservation of mass in orthogonal 7.4.2Orifice meter
curvilinear coordinates 7.4.3Pitot tube
6.5 Equation of continuity in the 7.5Free liquid jet
Lagrangean method 7.6Impulse – Momentum principle
6.6Equivalence of two forms of the 7.6.1Forces exerted by a flowing fluid on
equation of continuity a pipe bend
6.7 Boundary surface 7.7Moment of momentum equation
6.8 Intensive and extensive properties 7.8Integral approach- Impulse –
6.9 System v/s control volume approach Momentum equation
6.10 Control volume transformation 7.9 Law of conservation of angular
equation moment
6.10.1 Continuity equation for a control 7.10 Vortex flow
volume 7.10.1Introduction
6.10.2 Continuity equation for 7.11 Forced vertex
infinitesimal control volume 7.12 height of the paraboloid of the liquid
6.11 Circulation surface
6.11.1Rotational flow: rotation and 7.13 Closed cylindrical vessel
Vorticity 7.14 Total pressure on the top and bottom
6.12 Streamline of a closed cylindrical vessel
6.13 Potential function completely filled with a liquid
6.14 Stream function 7.15 Free vortex
6.14.1Cauchy Riemann equation 7.16 Worked examples
7.17 Objective questions
 Fluid Mechanics
7.18 Theory questions
7.19 Unsolved questions
8. Viscous Flow
8.1Introduction
8.1.1Classification of viscous flow
8.1.2relation between shear stress and
pressure gradient in laminar
flow
8.2Navier-Stoke’s equation
8.2.1equation of motion of a viscous
fluid
8.2.2stokes law of viscosity
8.3Flow of viscous fluid through circular
pipe
8.4Flow of viscous fluid between two
parallel stationary plates
8.5Flow of viscous fluid between two
parallel plates, if one plate is moving
with constant velocity
8.6Laminar flow near a suddenly
accelerated plane surface
8.7Flow between two concentric rotating
cylinders
8.8Flow between two co-axial cylinders
8.9Hydrodynamic lubrication
8.10Worked examples
8.11 Objective questions
8.12 Theory questions
8.13 Unsolved questions
9. Turbulence and Turbulent Flow
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Classification of turbulence
9.3 Intensity and scale of turbulence
9.4 Reynolds equation of turbulence
9.5 Turbulence modeling
9.6 Worked examples
9.7 Objective questions
9.8 Theory questions
9.9 Unsolved questions
10. Theory of Boundary Layer
10.1Introduction
10.2Description of boundary layer
10.2.1Laminar Boundary layers in pipe
10.2.2Turbulent boundary layer in pipe
10.3Boundary layer thickness
10.3.1Displacement thickness
10.3.2Momentum thickness
10.3.3Energy thickness
10.4 Laminar flow
10.5 Boundary layer equations
10.6 Prandtl boundary layer equation
10.7 Blasius solution for laminar boundary
layer
10.8 Von-Karman integral momentum
equation
10.9 Separation of Boundary layer
10.10 Worked examples
10.11 Objective questions
10.12 Theory questions
10.13 Unsolved questions
11. Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Dimensions and units
11.3 Dimensional analysis
11.4 Dimensionless groups
11.4.1Some important terms
11.5 Different methods of dimensional
analysis
11.5.1Rayleigh method
11.5.2Buckingham’s π-theorem
11.5.3Alternate formulation of π-
parameters
11.6 Model studies
11.6.1Geometric similarity
11.6.2Kinematic similarity
11.6.3Dynamic similarity
11.7 Types of forces acting in moving
fluid
11.8 Similarity model laws
11.9 Classification of models
11.9.1Scale ratios for distorted models
11.10 Worked examples
11.11 Objective questions
11.12 Theory questions
11.13 Unsolved examples
12. Flow Through Orifices and
Mouthpieces
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Classification of orifices
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12.3 Discharge through a sharp edged
orifice
12.4 Hydraulic coefficients
12.5 Experimental determination of
hydraulic coefficients
12.6 Velocity of approach
12.7 Discharge from an orifice under
variable heads
12.7.1discharge through a large
rectangular orifice
12.7.2discharge through a large circular
orifice
12.8 Flow under pressure through orifice
12.9 Flow through submerged orifice
12.9.1Discharge through a wholly
drowned orifice
12.9.2Discharge through a partially
drowned orifice
12.10Time of emptying tank
12.10.1Time of emptying a tank through
an orifice at its bottom
12.10.2 Time of emptying hemispherical
tank through an orifice at its
bottom
12.10.3 Time of emptying a conical tank
through an orifice at its bottom
12.10.4 Time of emptying a horizontal
tank through an orifice at its
bottom
12.10.5 Time of flow of liquid from one
vessel to another
12.10.6 Time emptying or filling a canal
lock
12.11 Flow of liquid from one tank to
another under pressure
12.12 Worked examples
12.13 Objective questions
12.14 Theory questions
12.15 Unsolved questions
12.16 Flow through mouthpieces
12.17 Introduction
12.18 Classification of mouthpieces
12.19 Loss of head of a flowing liquid
12.19.1Loss of head due to sudden
enlargement
12.19.2Loss of head due to sudden
contraction
12.19.3Loss of head at entrance in a
pipe
12.19.4Loss of head at exit in a pipe
12.19.5Loss of head due to obstruction
in a pipe
12.20 Discharge through an external
mouthpiece
12.21 Pressure in an external mouthpiece
12.22 Discharge through an internal
mouthpiece
12.23 Discharge through mouthpiece
12.23.1 Running free
12.23.2 Running full
12.23.3 Pressure in internal mouthpiece
12.24 Discharge through a convergent
mouthpiece
12.25 Discharge through a convergent
divergent mouthpiece
12.26 Worked examples
12.27 Objective questions
12.28 Theory questions
12.29 Unsolved questions
13. Flow Over Notches and Weirs
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Types of notches
13.3 Discharge over rectangular notch
13.4 Time of emptying a tank over a
rectangular notch
13.5 Effect on discharge over a
rectangular notch due to error in
measurement of head
13.6 Discharge over a triangular notch
13.7 Advantages of v- notch over a
rectangular notch
13.8 Time of emptying a tank over a
triangular notch
13.9 Effect on discharge over a triangular
notch due to error in the
measurement of head
13.10 Discharge over trapezoidal notch
13.11 Discharge over a stepped or
composite notch
13.12 Effect of velocity of approach
13.13 Worked examples
13.14 Objective questions
13.15 Theory questions
13.16 Unsolved questions
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13.17 Flow over weirs
13.18Introduction
13.19 Classification weirs
13.20Discharge over a rectangular weir
13.20.1Bazin’s formula for rectangular
weirs
13.20.2Rehbock formula
13.21ventilation of rectangular weirs
13.22 time required to empty a reservoir
with a rectangular weir
13.23 Discharge over a trapezoidal weir
13.24 Discharge over a narrow crested
weir
13.25 Discharge over a broad crested weir
13.26 Discharge over a submerged or
drowned weir
13.27 Discharge over a sharp crested weir
13.28 Discharge over an ogee weir
13.29 Worked examples
13.30 Objective questions
13.31 Theory questions
13.32 Unsolved questions
14. Flow through pipes
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Flow losses in pipes
14.3 Darcy’s equation for head loss due
to friction
14.4 Minor losses
14.5 Hydraulic gradient and total energy
lines
14.6 Pipes in series and in parallel
14.7 Equivalent pipes
14.8 Power transmission through pipes
14.9 Flow through nozzles
14.10 Analysis of water distribution
network
14.11 Worked examples
14.12Objective questions
14.13Theory questions
14.14Unsolved questions
15. Water hammer and surge analysis
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Gradual closure of valve
15.3 Sudden closure of valve and pipe is
rigid
15.4 Sudden closure of valve and pipe is
elastic
15.5 Time taken by pressure wave to
travel from the valve to the tank and
from tank to the valve
15.6 Surge tank operation
15.7 Analysis neglecting hydraulic losses
15.8 Analysis including hydraulic losses
15.9 Worked examples
15.10 Objective questions
15.11 Theory questions
15.12 Unsolved questions
16. Potential flow
16.1Introduction
16.2Uniform flow
16.2.1Uniform flow parallel to x-axis
16.2.2Uniform flow parallel to y-axis
16.3Source flow
16.4Sink flow
16.5Free vortex flow
16.6Super- imposed flow
16.7Source near a wall: (method of image)
16.8A plane source in a uniform flow
16.9Doublet
16.10 A source and a sink pair in a
uniform flow
16.11 A doublet in a uniform flow
16.12 Flow past a circular cylinder with
circulation
16.12.1Drag and lift
16.13 Complex potential function of
irrotational flow
16.13.1Conformal transformation
16.13.2Derivative of the complex
potential
16.13.3Milne Thomson method to
determine complex function
16.14 Three dimensional potential flows
16.14.1Three dimensional sources and
sinks
16.14.2Three dimensional doublet
16.14.3Three dimensional Rankine half
body
16.14.4Three-dimensional Rankine full
body
16.15 Worked examples
16.16 Objective questions
 Fluid Mechanics
16.17 Theory questions
16.18 Unsolved examples
19. Open channel flow
17. Vortex flow
17.1Introduction
17.2 Forced vertex
17.3 Height of the paraboloid of the liquid
surface
17.4 Closed cylindrical vessel
17.5 Total pressure on the top and bottom
of a closed cylindrical vessel
completely filled with a liquid
17.6 Free vortex
17.7 Worked examples
17.8 Objective questions
17.9 Theory questions
17.10Unsolved problems
18. Flow of compressible fluids
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Laws of perfect gases
18.2.1 Boyle’s law
18.2.2Charles’ law
18.2.3Gay-lussac law
18.3general gas equation
18.4 specific heats of a gas
18.5 Specific heat at a constant volume
18.6 Specific heat at constant pressure
18.7 Relation between specific heats
18.8 Ratio of specific heats
18.9 Isothermal process
18.10 Adiabatic process
18.11 Bulk modulus of a fluid
18.12 Basic equations of compressible
fluid flow
18.13 Equation of continuity for flowing
gases
18.14 Energy equation for flowing gases
18.15 Flow of gases through an orifice
18.16 Relation between pressure and
height
18.17 Velocity of sound wave
18.18 Mach number and its importance
18.19 Mach wave
18.20 Stagnation pressure
18.21 Worked examples
18.22 Objective questions
18.23 Theory questions
18.24 Unsolved questions
19.1 Introduction
19.1.1Basic flow concepts and
terminology
19.2 Channel types
19.3 Flow regimes
19.4 Velocity distribution
19.4.1Velocity distribution coefficients
19.4.2Expression for energy correction
factor and momentum correction
factor
19.5 Basic flow equations
19.5.1Continuity equation
19.5.2 Energy principle
19.6 Uniform flow
19.7 Empirical formulae for Chezy’s
constant
19.8 Most economical section of channels
19.8.1Introduction
19.8.2Most economical rectangular
section
19.8.3Most economical trapezoidal
section
19.8.4Best side slope for most
economical trapezoidal section
19.8.5Most economical triangular
channel
19.8.6Most economical circular channel
19.9 Non-uniform flow through open
channel
19.9.1Specific energy and specific
energy curve
19.9.2Specific energy curve
19.9.3Mathematical expression for
critical depth
19.9.4Mathematical expression for
critical velocity
19.9.5Mathematical expression for
minimum specific energy
19.10 Hydraulic jump
19.10.1Loss of energy due to hydraulic
jump
19.11 Worked examples
19.12 Objective questions
19.13 Theory questions
19.14 Unsolved questions
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Appendix