EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE (ELS)

- Types of Root System

- Basic building blocks. 1. Tap root - Found mostly in dicot, long and
- Can specialize in form and function thick, and it reach deep into the soil to
obtain water/nutrients
2. Fibrous Root - Found mostly in monocot,
many thin roots, and spread out away from
1. Dermal Tissue
the plants to find water & nutrients quickly
- Outermost surface of the plants
- Epidermis – outermost layer of cells
- Mycorrhizal Association –
- Stomata (opening in the epidermis) –
Mycorrhizae/Mycorrhiza (Mycorrhizas) is a
regulate the passage of gases into and out of
symbiotic association between a fungus and
the plant.
the roots of a vascular host plant
- Trichomes – outgrowths of the epidermis
that are found on the surface of the shoot, 2. Stem
stems, and leaves. It also regulates the heat
- Produce leaves, branches, and flowers
and water balance of the leaf.
- Hold leaves up
- Root Hairs – absorption of water and
- Transport substance between roots and
minerals from the soil.
leaves
- Periderm – corky outer layer of cells
- Types of Stem
- For protection and prevention of water loss
1. Herbaceous Stem
(cuticle).
2. Woody Stem
2. Ground Tissue
- Makes up the bulk of the inner part of the
plants or the plant organs.
• Cutting around a tree
- Photosynthesis, food storage, regeneration,
• Damages the phloem and xylem, eventually killing
support, and protection.
the tree!
- 3 kinds of Tissues: PARENCHYMA
(photosynthesis, food storage, and cell
repair), COLLENCHYMA (support for
thickening or growing regions of the plants),
SCLERENCHYMA – made up of walls of dead
cells at maturity (support and strengthen
the plant). (2 types of SCLERENCHYMA:
FIBERS (long, slender cells that usually form
strands) and SCLEREIDS (vary in shape but
are often branched) (sometimes called “stone
cells” because they make up the bulk of the
stones of peaches and nut shells).
3. Vascular Tissue
- Enables water, minerals, and sugars (made
through photosynthesis) to move through
the roots, stems, and leaves of the plants.
- It includes 2 vessels: XYLEM (transports
water from roots to other parts of the
plants) (WATER IN), PHLOEM (transports
sugar from leaves to other parts of the plant 3. Leaves
that need sugars) (GLUCOSE OUT). - Main site of photosynthesis
- Composed of epidermis
- Primary Function: Intercepts light, Exchange
gases, dissipate heat, and defend the plant
1. Roots from herbivores and pathogens
- -Expanded and flattened green structures
- Anchors the plant to the ground.
growing out at the node of the stem
- Absorb and Transport water and nutrients
- Green due to chlorophyll
from the soil.
• Blade – dicots; thin, flattened
- Storage of sugars made in photosynthesis
structure
 • Petiole/Leaf stalk – cylindrical or
flattened narrow structure; provides
maximum exposure, not present in
monocot (leaf sheath)
• Stipule – with stipulate; without
estipulate; pair of appendages or
outgrowth
- Monocots & eudicots differ in the
arrangement of veins, the vascular tissue of
leaves.
• Most monocots have parallel veins
• Most eudicots have branching veins
**Monocot (one cotyledon) and
Dicot (two cotyledons)
- Mesophyll (Meso = middle)
1. Palisade Mesophyll
• Site of most photosynthesis
2. Spongy Mesophyll
• Some photosynthesis
- Stomata – pores in the underside of the leaf,
gas exchange: CO2 in; O2 out
- Guard cells – surround the stomata, open and
closes stomata
**Stomata closed at night to
prevent water loss
- Transport in Leaves: Vein (Vascular Tissue) –
XYLEM: Water in for photosynthesis and
PHLOEM: Glucose out for photosynthesis
Plants are able to grow throughout their
lifetime due to the presence of
undifferentiated tissues called Meristems
Hormones
• Produced by plants to regulate
growth & development
• Chemical substances that the body
produces in very small amounts
• Are transported to different parts
1. Meristematic - Continuously growing and
dividing, Responsible for the production of
new cells
• Apical Meristems – adds primary growth,
located at tips of stems and roots; for
increase in length
• Lateral Meristems – adds secondary
growth, along the sides of certain roots
and stems; for increase in width and
diameter (thickness)
• Intercalary Meristems – happens in
monocots; bases of young leaves and
internodes; further lengthening of stems
and leaves far away from the tips of the
stems
• Primary Growth of Roots
- The root tip is covered by a root cap, which
protects the root apical meristem as the
root pushes through the soil.
- Growth occurs just behind the root tip, in
three zones of cells:
• Zone of cell division
• Zone of elongation
• Zone of differentiation, or maturation
• Secondary Growth
- Secondary growth occurs in stems and roots
of woody plants but rarely in leaves
- Secondary growth consists of the tissues
produced by the vascular cambium and cork
cambium
**Primary growth and secondary
growth occur simultaneously
**HERBACEOUS, PRIMARY
GROWTH; WOODY, SECONDARY
GROWTH
- Root Tip – Organized into 3 regions with
specific functions
• Root Cap – for protection, lubrication,
water and nutrient absorption
(mucigel)
• Meristematic Region or Region of
Cell Division – growing region;
positively dividing cells(mitosis)
• Region of Elongation – root increases
in length; cells increase in size
• Region of Maturation – cells mature
and differentiated
• Root Epidermis – outermost, single
layer of cells that: protect (from
 diseases), absorbs water and
nutrients.
• Root Hairs – tubular extension of
epidermal cells, increase the surface
2. Permanent - Attained their mature form
• Simple Permanent – consist of 1 type
of cells; similar structure and
function
A. Epidermis (Dermal T.) – external
tissue and outermost
B. Parenchyma Cells (Ground T.) –
uniformly thin walls; with
chloroplasts(chlorenchyma); for
food manufacturing and storage
C. Collenchyma Cells (Ground T.) –
uneven thickness of walls; for
strength and support
D. Sclerenchyma Cells (Ground T.) –
walls are thickened(lignin); can
be formed as fibers or sclereids;
for strength and support
E. Cork Cells – external tissue;
mature epidermis; with waxy
substance(suberin); for
protection
• Complex – consist of several kinds;
with 1 or more specific function
A. Phloem – conducts dissolved
organic food materials
- Sieve Tube Elements – main conducting part;
no nucleus; perforated end walls (sieve
plates)
- Companion cells – parenchymatous cells
beside sieve tubes; small elongated with
nucleus
B. Xylem – conducts water and
mineral salts; for strength
- Vessel - main conducting part; heavily
thickened walls
- Tracheid – help in the movement of water
Will develop in primary meristem – Alternative
(some develop as cambium or cork cambium)
• Cells near the meristems are younger
• Cells farther the meristems are older
(outer layer of trees)
- Primary tissue in younger roots – still has
epidermis
- Formation of Lateral Roots (roots that grow
simultaneously), arises from the PERICLE
- Primary growth of shoots:
• Protoderm - epidermis
• Pre-cambium – ground tissue
- Secondary Growth – (corky bark)
• Secondary Growth occurs in the
stems and roots of woody plants but
rarely in leaves
• Secondary Growth consists of the
tissues produced by the vascular
cambium & cork cambium
• Primary Growth & Secondary Growth
occur simultaneously
- Flowering plants
• Annual – 1 year life
• Biennials – 2 seasons
• Perennials – it can last forever if
walang mangyayaring bad
- Reproduction in Angiosperms
1. Flowers – reproductive structures of
angiosperms sporophytes, both male
and female organs are present in
some
- Structure of the mature seed
• A seed consists of a dormant plant
embryo, surrounded by its food
supply (cotyledon, endosperm, or
both)
• The seed is surrounded by a hard,
protective seed coat
- Two common types of Germination
• Germination begins with imbibition,
the uptake of water by the dry seed.
Rupturing of the seed coats triggers
metabolic changes that allow the
plant embryo to resume growth
- Growing without seeds
• It’s called vegetative reproduction
and occurs with roots, stems, or
leaves
• Helps allow plants to cover areas
faster
• 100’s and 1000’s from one single plant
• Examples: runners (Bermuda grass),
bulb (onion or tulip), corn (gladiolus),
rhizome (fern), tuber (potato)
1. Runners – Specialized stems,
horizontal above ground stem
that helps the plant spread
within an area
2. Bulb – Very short stem with
thick fleshy leaves
3. Corn – Very short thick
underground stem with thin
scaly leaves
4. Rhizome – Horizontal
underground stem
5. Tubers – swollen fleshy
underground stem

- Two Organ System
1. Root System
2. Shoot System
- Hormones - Chemical substances that the
body produces in very small amounts,
produced by plants to regulate growth &
development
1. Auxin - Plant growth, they stimulate the
cells to divide & elongate, produced in
the root & short apical meristem
Sensitive to light & tends to move
away from it, Phototropism - the growth
movement of a plant or plant part in
response to light as the external
stimulus
2. Gibberellins - Stimulates dramatic
increase, involved in the promotion of
fruit development, produced in seeds &
juvenile plants, promotes seed
germination
3. Cytokinin - Works in combination with
auxin to stimulate cell division &
differentiation, promotes cell division
& growth of lateral buds (width
increase).
4. Ethylene - Promotes ripening of fruits,
stimulating the production of flowers,
influence abscission
5. Abscisic Acid - Growth inhibitor,
stomata closing (prevents dehydration),
seed dormancy, promote bud dormancy,
work antagonistically with other
hormones, help the plant cope with
environmental stresses, such as extreme
cold and drought.
- Tropism - Response of plants to hormones,
growing toward or away from the stimulus
(moving away-negative; moving towards-
positive)
- Phototropism - Plants response to light
(stimulus=light) **Leaves have positive
phototropism
- Geotropism / Gravitropism - Plants response
to gravity (stimulus=gravity) **Roots have
positive gravitropism
- Thigmotropism - Plants response to touch
(stimulus=touch) **Vines have positive
thigmotropism
- Photoperiodism - Plants response to changes
in the photoperiod
• Example: Winter Dormancy – as
winter draws near, many plants go
into a state of dormancy
• DORMANCY – is the period when an
organism’s growth or activity stops
(period of inactivity)
• Dormancy help plants survive during
the winter months. It helps them
survive freezing temperatures and
lack of water
**DORMANCY (to sleep); TROPISM (to
turn)
- Hydrotropism - Plants response to water
(stimulus=water) **Roots have positive
hydrotropism
- Chemotropism - Plants response to
chemicals
- Structural Adaptation: are the way
something is built or made.
• Adaptation for defense: spines and
thorns (protects plants from
predators), poison ivy & poison oak
have toxins that give predator a
painful itchy rash
• Adaptations to get water and
nutrients: roots soak up water &
nutrients from soil
• Desert Adaptations: small leaves or
spines on desert plant conserve
water, thick waxy skin holds in
water, roots near the soils surface
soak up rain water quickly before it
evaporates
• Rainforest Adaptations: smooth,
slippery bark keeps vines from
killing trees, slide-shaped leaves let
rain runoff, so fungus doesn’t grow on
plants
- Behavioral Adaptations: are the way
something acts naturally or by instinct
• Adaptations to get food: plants like
the ventis fly trap, trap insects for
food
• Adaptations for reproduction: plants
drop seeds to grow new offspring.
- Space living things occupy
- ATOM – MOLECULE – CELL – TISSUE – ORGAN –
ORGANISM – BIOSPHERE – ECOSYSTEM –
COMMUNITY – POPULATION
 - Primary Succession
• Begins with no life
• No soil is present
• New area
• Lichen and moss come first
• Biomass is low
- Secondary Succession
• Following removal of existing biota
• Soil already present
• Old area (following a bush fire)
• Seeds and roots already present
• Biomass is high
• “wipeout all organisms”
- Interactions Among Organisms - organisms
live together because they depend each
other
• Problem: competition for food and
territory in the animal world
• Solution: find a specific niche
within their environment; form a
stable relationship with another
species, one other than a predator –
prey relationship
- Biological community of interacting
organisms and their physical environment
- Two types of ecosystem: Aquatic and
Terrestrial
- Principles of Ecosystem:
1. Speciation: formation of new species
2. Adaptation: change to survive
3. Diversity: variety of ecosystems
4. Habitat: where organisms live
5. Interdependence: interaction with others
6. Evolution: permanent change
Speciation – results when a subpopulation is
prevented from interbreeding (between different
species/are)
Adaptation – to the environment and the origin of
new species are closely related processes
Diversity:
1. Area: larger area has more species than
smaller area
2. Climate: number of species increase poles
towards the equator
3. Niche: It is the organism’s role in the
community (more niche more diverse)
4. Co-evolution: organism evolving together
Biotic population – the ability of a population of
living species to increase under ideal
environmental conditions – sufficient food supply,
no predators, and a lack of disease.
Biomes – biological communities that have formed
in response to a shared climate
Freshwater Ecosystem: standing water – lakes and
ponds; moving water – rivers and streams
Transitional Communities: Estuaries, Wetlands
(bogs/tens, swamps, marshes)
Marine Ecosystem: Shorelines, barrier islands, coral
reefs, open oceans
_________________________________________
1. Competition
- same organisms or different species
attempt to use an ecological resource in the
same place and the same time
- harmful for all participating beings
● Intraspecific – same species
● Interspecific – different species
2. Predation
- organism capture and feeds on another
organism
- prey (being killed) and predator (kills & eats)
relationship
Defense against the enemy:
1. Mimicry – resemblance ∙
- Batesian – harmless species resembles
dangerous species
- Mullerian – dangerous species resembles
each other
2. Camouflage – coloration or pattern that
helps to blend with its surroundings; to
disguise from predator
3. Cooperation – same organism work in a way
that benefits them all
_________________________________________
Symbiosis
- relationship between individual of 2
different species who live together in a
close relationship
 • Mutualism – both organism benefit
and that is obligatory for them to
survive
• Commensalism – one individual
benefit while the other is neither
affected nor benefit
• Parasitism - one benefits at the
expense of the other, sometimes
without killing the host organism,
PARASITE obtain all or parts of its
nutritional needs from the other
organism, called the HOST
1. Ectoparasite – parasite lives
outside the body of organism
2. Endoparasite – parasite lives
inside the body of organism
• Greek term “ATMOS” meaning AIR
• The atmosphere is primarily composed of
nitrogen (about 78%) and oxygen (about 21%).
Other components exist in small quantities
• It is matter! Sound can travel through it.
1. Contains the gases that living organisms need for
survival.
2. Heat transfer.
3. Protects Earth’s surface from being struck by
meteors.
4. Protects the biosphere form UV radiation (Ozone).
5. Plays a part in weathering and erosion.
I. The early atmosphere did not support life.
Methane and Ammonia. Little Oxygen.
II. Over time, gases were added to the atmosphere by
volcanic eruptions, and as a result of chemical
reactions due to sunlight.
III. The OZONE LAYER formed as a result of the
chemical reactions. It blocks out ultraviolet
radiation from the sun.
IV. The formation of the ozone layer allowed MICRO-
ORGANISMS such as Blue-Green Algae to appear on
earth.
- Satellites travel here because there is very
little friction with air.
- outermost layer
- from the exobase: 600 km
- atoms and molecules are so far apart that
this layer no longer behaves like gas
- KARMAN LINE – Theodore von Kármán
• first to calculate that around this altitude,
the atmosphere becomes too thin to support
aeronautical flight
- warmest layer (1,000ºC – 1,500ºC)
- absorption of very short-wave, high-
energy solar radiation by oxygen and
nitrogen
- Blocks cosmic radiation
- exobase: top of thermosphere, base of
exosphere
- Satellites & Radio waves travel in
this layer
- from the stratopause: 50-85 km
- coldest layer: -85ºC to -100ºC (coldest
place on Earth)
- least explored regions of the
atmosphere
- mesopause: outer boundary of the
mesosphere
- Meteors burn up when they hit this
layer.
- contains the ozonosphere (ozone
layer)
- temperatures increase in the
stratosphere because it is in this
layer that the atmosphere’s ozone is
concentrated
- stratopause: outer boundary of the
stratosphere
- Rivers of air, called Jet Streams, can
be found at the base of this layer
 - They are interdependent and function
- Contains Convection Currents created as a whole
by the sun’s heat which cause most of
our weather
- 75% of the atmosphere’s mass
- tropopause: outer boundary of the
troposphere
- Harmful ozone is found here…IT
CREATES SMOG!!

The gases of the atmosphere

readily exchange with those dissolved in
water bodies (e.g. oceans, lakes, etc.)
The atmosphere supplies oxygen
and carbon dioxide that form the basis of
life processes (photosynthesis and
respiration).
Gases in the atmosphere react
with water to produce weak acids that aid in
the breakdown of rock.

** Hurricanes (atmosphere) sweep

across the ocean (hydrosphere) and
onto the land (geosphere), • Earth is a closed system, but its four
damaging the dwellings of people
(biosphere) who live along the
subsystems are open systems
coast. • Matter and energy freely transfer
between them

➢ ’
- hydrogen and oxygen atoms (H2O)
- only substance that exists in the
atmosphere as a solid (ice), liquid
(liquid water) and gas (water vapor)
• Not too CLOSE or FAR from Sun • differ only in the arrangement of the
(preventing life from freezing or water molecules
frying) • the higher the temperature, the more
• Large enough to hold atmosphere vigorous the movement resulting to
• Abundance of WATER its distinct property
• Temperature range allows water to
exist as SOLID as well as LIQUID and
GAS form
• Interactions of four SPHERES
- The earth is made up of several
subsystems that interact to form a
complex and continuously changing
whole
 1. Moderate climate
2. Heat transfer
3. Organisms need water to transport
nutrients and waste
4. Water is essential in many of Earth’s
processes (mineral formation, erosion,
weathering)
➢
-
• Process by which plants lose water
out of their leaves. Water is transferred between
the hydrosphere and biosphere by
• Gives evaporation a bit of a hand in
evaporation and precipitation. Energy is
getting the water vapor back up into
also exchanged in this process.
the air
Water is necessary for the
transport of nutrients and waste products in
organisms.
Water is the primary agent for
•
the chemical and mechanical breakdown of
- Free water that is beneath Earth's
rock (weathering), to form loose rock
surface. Surface or near surface can be
fragments and soil, and sculpts the surface
dry, but deeper parts are saturated
of the Earth.
with water.

• FACTORS: earth's rotation the wind

the temperature salinity differences
the gravitation of the moon
- They are very important in
determining the climates of the
continents, especially those regions
bordering on the ocean.
- Deep ocean currents are driven by
density and temperature gradients.
- These currents, which flow under the
surface of the ocean and are thus
hidden from immediate detection, are
called submarine rivers.

ENSO (EL NIÑO-SOUTHERN OSCILLATION)

- El Niño- (Christ child)
- Waters began warming towards the
end of November and early December.
- Strong warming brings abundant rains
to the region

- prevailing wind patterns affecting a
large area
• Northeast Monsoon (Amihan)
- cold wind usually coming from China
and Siberia (Nov. – Feb.)
• Southwest Monsoon (Habagat)
- wind from Australia that flows in a
southwest direction going towards
the equator (May – Oct.)
- One hypothesis is that tornadic
waterspouts sometimes pick up
creatures such as fish or frogs and
carry them for up to several miles.
- It is the solid Earth that includes the
continental and ocean crust as well
the various layers of Earth’s interior.
- The geosphere is not static
(unchanging), its surface (crust) is in
a constant state of motion.
- Mineral resources are mined from the
geosphere.

’
- A region where the atmospheric ➢ Inaccessible
pressure is lower than that of ➢ Studied through seismic information and
surrounding locations. form under computer models
areas of wind divergence that occur in ➢ Composed of Fe and small amount of Ni
the upper levels of the troposphere.
Hot solid spherical Mostly made of
iron and nickel
Atlantic Ocean - hurricane 1250 km (thick) 2300 km (thick)
Pacific Ocean - typhoon
Consists of iron- Very hot (4000°C –
Indian Ocean - cyclone
nickel alloy 5000°C)
Magnetic Liquid
6000°C (almost as Magnetic
- Lightning heats the surrounding air
hot as the surface of
as much as 50,000 °F. the sun)
- When air is heated it expands and High pressure Cause of earth’s
this tremendous expansion is what (alloy cannot melt) magnetic field
causing the sound of thunder. - Lehmann discontinuity Boundary
- The expansion is happening faster between the outer and inner core
than the speed of sound, which creates
a sonic boom.
 ’ • South American Plate
➢ Intermediate layer (longest part) • African Plate Antarctic Plate
➢ Made up of molten rocks (magma)
➢ Thickness: 2900 km
➢ 70% of Earth’s volume
➢ Composed primarily of peridotite - a theory that explained how
Plate tectonic theory Balances continents shift position on Earth's
temperature and pressure Causes surface.
formation of minerals that are - also explained why look-alike animal
different from the upper layer and plant fossils, and similar rock
formations, are found on different
continents.
Asthenosphere Lithosphere
Hot Rigid/Solid
Exhibits plasticity 660 km
1. Divergent: Occurs when plates slide
Produces higher
apart from each other
pressure
2,240 km 2. Convergent: Occurs when two plates
Soft Magma slide towards each other
- Gutenberg discontinuity: Boundary 3. Transform: Occurs when plates slid
between outer core and lower mantle
- Mohorovicic discontinuity: Boundary
between crust and upper mantle

Light-colored Dark-colored
Rock Sample: Rock Sample: Basalt
Granite
Less Dense Denser
Coarse-textured Thin layer
Thick Layer 50 km
40 – 70 km

- Tectonics Process that deform the

earth’s crust

- Plates that move around on top of

asthenosphere Large scale
movements of earths lithosphere
- The Earth’s lithosphere (outermost
layer) is broken into the following 7
large plates:
• Eurasian Plate
• Indo-Australian Plate
• Pacific Plate
• North American Plate

- In the mantle hot material rises
towards the lithosphere
- The hot material reaches the base of
the lithosphere where it cools and
sinks back down through the mantle.
- The cool material is replaced by more
hot material, and so on forming a
large “convection cell”
- This slow but incessant movement in
the mantle causes the rigid tectonic
plates to move (float) around the
earth surface (at an equally slow
rate).
- Increase with depth PRESSURE
- Increase with depth WATER CONTENT
- Decrease melting point MINERAL
COMPOSITION
- Different minerals, melting points
• Physical processes which create and modify
landforms on the surface of the earth
- External process: Transforms rocks to
sediment
- Weathering, mass wasting, erosion,
deposition
- Internal process
- Reshaping of the earth’s landforms
- Volcanism, folding, faulting, earthquake,
diastrophism
- Also called Gradational Processes, they
comprise degradation and aggradation – they
modify relief
- carried through Geomorphic Agents: gravity,
flowing water (rivers), moving ice (glaciers),
waves and tides (oceans and lakes), wind,
plants, organisms, animals and humans
• 1. Degradation Processes
• 2. Aggradation Processes
- is disintegration and decomposition of
rocks – no transportation involved
-
• Physical or Mechanical Weathering
- (Disintegration, exfoliation, frost action)
• Chemical Weathering
- (Oxidation, carbonation, hydration, solution)
• Biological Weathering
- (Plants, Animals, Humans)
- process by which soil, sand, and rock move
downslope typically as a mass, largely under
the force of gravity, but frequently affected
by water
-
• Wind
• Water
• Ice
- removal of material from one place to
another at a greater rate than its
replacement
- process in which sediments, soil and rocks are
added to a landform or land mass.
- they create relief.
- large-scale landform building and
transforming processes
 • 4. Important contributor of atmospheric gases
- a. Volcanism: Volcanic eruptions and (volcanoes).
Volcanoes 5. Movement of plates that serves as barriers in the
isolation of population of organisms (influences
•
evolution).

a. Folding: anticlines, synclines, mountains

b. Faulting: rift valleys, graben, escarpments
**Earthquakes - evidence of
present-day tectonic activity
- Eruption of molten rock (magma) onto Earth’s
surface
• Volcanism is mostly focused at plate
margins
• Pacific Ring of Fire
volcanism spews significant amounts of
gases into the atmosphere. For example, volcanoes inject
large amounts of Sulphur dioxide to the upper
atmosphere, resulting in global cooling.
The formation of many minerals
involves incorporation or release of water. Also, water
speeds up chemical reactions that produce or destroy
minerals, and aids in the melting of rock.
Nutrients released from rocks during their
breakdown are dissolved in water (to be used by aquatic
plants).

- Two forces push towards each other from

opposite sides, the rock layers will bend
into folds
• There are large-scale and small-scale folds.
Large-scale folds are found mainly along
destructive plate boundaries

- 12 destructive earthquakes
- fracturing and displacement of more brittle - except Palawan, there have been earthquakes
rock strata along a fault plane either caused in the whole Philippines
by tension or compression. - Pacific Ring of Fire
- line of fault which appears on land surface is
known as fault line. (allow molten rock to
rise up onto the earth surface when there is 1. Surigao del Sur 6. Tarlac
active volcanic activity nearby) 2. La Union 7. Ifugao
• There are three types of fault: 3. Benguet 8. Davao Oriental
- Normal fault 4. Pangasinan 9. Nueva Vizcaya
5. Pampanga 10. Nueva Ecija
- Reverse fault
- Transform fault
- usually induced by earthquakes
- greater risk in manmade embankments and
mountainous areas

1. Ifugao 6. Bukidnon
2. Lanao del Sur 7. Aurora
3. Saranggani 8. Davao del Sur
4. Benguet 9. Davao del Oriental
5. Mountain Province 10. Rizal

1. Contributor of particulate matter (e.g. volcanic - Pacific Ring of Fire = lots of volcanoes!
ash) to atmosphere. - Mt. Pinatubo (1991)
2. Ultimate contributor of salts to the ocean (ions - 22 historically active volcanoes
released from weathered rock and minerals).
3. Ultimate source of nutrients for all living
things.
 • If layers are folded, episode of deformation
must have occurred after rocks formed. Age
1. Camiguin 6. Sorsogon of folding is younger than youngest
2. Sulu 7. South Cotabato deformed rock unit.
3. Biliran 8. Laguna
4. Albay 9. Camarines Sur
5. Bataan 10. Batanes

- caused by earthquakes and other seismic

activities in bodies of water
- Mindoro (1994) – 41 dead
-
1. Sulu 6. Romblon • Rock layer above is younger than the ones
2. Tawi-tawi 7. Siquijor below it. (Oldest on bottom, youngest on top)
3. Basilan 8. Surigao del Norte • May not apply to rocks that have been folded
4. Batanes 9. Masbate (can get turned upside-down).
5. Guimaras 10. Camiguin • Nicolas Steno

- Earthquakes (geosphere) can damage

buildings which may kill people (biosphere),
as well as cause fires which release gases
into the air (atmosphere). Earthquakes in
the ocean may cause a tsunami (hydrosphere) -
which can eventually hit land and kill both • Any feature (e.g. fault or intrusion) that
animals and people (biosphere). cuts across rocks is younger than the
youngest rock that is cut.
’
- approximately 4.6B years old
- rocks of the crust provide clues to Earth’s
past
- by analyzing these clues, we can infer
events from the past
-
• Objects enclosed in a rock must be older than
- Major assumption in geology: events in the the time of rock formation.
past occurred the same way that they are
occurring today.

•
- determines how many years old something
is
- (radiometric)
•
- Radioactive decay (half-life)
- used to determine if one thing is younger or • occurs when the nuclei of unstable atoms
older than another break down, changing the original atoms
into atoms of another element.
- (superposition, index fossils, correlation of
rock layers) • half-life is the amount of time it takes for
half the atoms of a substance to decay into
another element
- different substances have different half-
-
life’s
• Sedimentary layers are deposited in
- examples are Uranium 238 and Carbon 14
approximately horizontal sheets.
- Remains of Ancient Plants and Animals,
Evidence of Life Commonly Preserved (Hard
Parts of Organisms)
• Bones, Shells, Hard Parts of Insects, Woody
Material Rarely Preserved (Easily Decayed
Parts of Organisms), Internal Organs, Skin,
Hair, Feathers
- preserved remnant, remains, or impression of
a prehistoric organism
- classified based on their formation
- – represents the first 85% of
Earth’s history (mostly devoid of fossils).
- fossils of the actual animal or animal part - Era – represents ~ 8.5% of
- formed when the tissues of animals didn’t Earth’s history (invertebrates, fishes,
decay over the years amphibians, vertebrates and land plants
- commonly found in ice, tar (natural asphalt) first appear).
and amber (tree resin)
- – rep. ~ 3.5% of Earth’s
history (dinosaurs, earliest birds, and
mammals).
- hollow impressions of living thing in a rock - – rep. ~ 1.4% of Earth’s
- formed when sediments fill the inside or history (humanoids show up late ~0.04% of
outside the dead organism history).
- the organisms remain will not persist
~ 4.1

- created when minerals and sediments enter

- Earth’s atmosphere evolves!
a cavity or a mold (sometimes from a mold
- Earth’s original atmosphere was made up of
fossil) and hardens, creating a cast
gases similar to those released in volcanic
eruptions today—water vapor, carbon
dioxide, nitrogen, and several trace gases,
- impressions of rocks that showed various
but no oxygen.
activities
- Cyanobacteria (blue - green algae) used
- fossils of footprints, burrow, trail, and or
photosynthesis and released oxygen.
other trace of the animals (but not the
- Oxygen began to accumulate in the
animal itself)
atmosphere about 2.5 billion years ago.
-
• the most common Precambrian fossils
- Almost exclusively in Sedimentary Rocks
• distinctively layered mounds or columns of
- heat of melting or metamorphism would
calcium carbonate
destroy almost every type of fossil
• they are not the remains of actual
- To be preserved, organisms have to be:
organisms but are the material deposited by
buried rapidly after death or preserved from
algae
decay
-
• lasted for 800 million years
• Earth’s surface was continually bombarded
by meteorites and the very hot mantle
caused severe volcanism
• ocean and atmosphere were formed, and the
core, as well as the crust were stabilized
-
• lasted for 1.3 billion years
• Earth was warm and the atmosphere
contained mostly methane and little to no
oxygen
• most of Earth was covered with ocean
• continent formation began
- -
• lasted for 1.9 billion years (longest period
that lasted almost half the age of Earth)
• atmosphere became oxygenated
• eukaryotic life began and diversified
(multicellularity)
• motion of continental drift
- succession of marine organisms (clams and
fishes)
- appearance of amphibians (the first animal
to succeed in adapting itself to breathe air)
- appearance of land plants and giant ferns -
succession of reptiles
- During the Cambrian, Ordovician, and
Silurian periods, the vast southern
continent of Gondwana encompassed five
continents (South America, Africa,
Australia, Antarctica, and part of Asia).
- Laurasia is the continental mass that
formed the northern portion of Pangaea,
consisting of present-day North America and
Eurasia.
- By the end of the Paleozoic, all the
continents had fused into the
supercontinent of Pangaea
• PANGAEA: “ALL LAND” PANTHALASSA: “ALL
SEA”
- Some 400 million years ago, plants that had
adapted to survive at the water’s edge began
to move inland, becoming land plants.
- The amphibians rapidly diversified because
they had minimal competition from other
land dwellers.
➢
- The world’s climate became very seasonal
plus a series of volcanic eruptions, probably
caused the dramatic extinction of many
species.
- The late Paleozoic extinction (Permian
Period) was the greatest of at least five
mass extinctions to occur over the past 500
million years.
- formation of several continents
- age of the dinosaurs (believed to be
descendants of the primitive reptiles;
current theory suggests that they were
ancestors of birds)
- existence of reptiles (first true terrestrial
vertebrates) flourished
A major event of the Mesozoic era was the
breakup of Pangaea.
- Dinosaurs were land-dwelling reptiles that
thrived during the Mesozoic era.
- Gymnosperms are seedbearing plants that do
not depend on freestanding water for
fertilization; enabled them to be the
dominant plants.
- mountains were uplifted and volcanic
activity was widespread
- succession of warm-blooded animals
(kangaroo) and primitive mammals
- development of the modern horse, modern
birds, and deciduous trees
- era that marks the existence of man
- The Cenozoic era is divided into two periods
of very unequal duration, the Tertiary
period and the Quaternary period.
- Plate interactions during the Cenozoic era
caused many events of mountain building,
volcanism, and earthquakes in the West.
- (animals that bear live young and
maintain a steady body temperature)
replaced reptiles as the dominant land
animals in the Cenozoic era.
- (flowering plants with
covered seeds) replaced gymnosperms as the
dominant land plants.
- Adaptations
like being warm blooded, developing
insulating body hair, and having more
efficient heart and lungs allow mammals to
lead more active lives than reptiles.

• Sun is at the center
• trillion of miles wide
• consists of eight planets and respective
satellites
• asteroids, comets, meteoroids
• The sun’s energy comes from nuclear fusion
(where hydrogen is converted to helium)
within its core. This energy is released
from the sun in the form of heat and light.
• Remember: Stars produce light. Planets
reflect light.
• A star’s temperature determines its “color.”
The coldest stars are red. The hottest stars
are blue.
- Planets are orbiting in the same plane.
- Orbits are nearly circular.
- Orbits of planets are in the same plane as
the rotation of the Sun.
- Planets revolve around the sun in counter-
clockwise direction.
- Planets and satellites contain rotational
motion.
’ …
• the force of gravity, combined with the
tendency of a planet to remain in straight-
line motion would result in a planet having
an elliptical orbit
• the combination of Earth’s forward motion
and its “falling” motion that defines its
orbit
- substantially smaller
- short orbital periods and less satellites
- made up mostly of rock and metal
- move slowly in space
- no rings and few moons (if any)
- have a diameter of less than 13,000 km
- substantially larger
- long orbital periods and numerous satellites
- made up mostly of gases (primarily hydrogen
& helium)
- move quickly in space
- have rings and many moons
- have a diameter of greater than 48,000 km
• Leftover Planetesimals
- “star-like”
- small bodies (planetesimals) remaining from
the formation of the solar system
- leftover debris
- 4.6 billion years old
- 2,000 Earth-crossing asteroids
’
- Both are made of rocky or metallic material,
but asteroids are larger than 100 meters in
diameter whereas meteoroids have
diameters less than 100 meters.
- interplanetary debris left from the
formation of the solar system
- material that is continually being ejected
from the asteroid belt
•
- object floating around in outer space,
asteroid or comet origin
•
- space object burning up in the atmosphere
("shooting star")
•
- space object that made impact with the
surface of another place
- remains of meteoroids, when found on Earth
•
- swarm of meteoroids traveling in the same
direction at nearly the same speed as Earth
- loose collections of rocky material, dust,
water ice and frozen gases (ammonia,
methane and carbon dioxide)
- leftover material from the formation of the
solar system
- surfaces are dry and dusty (ices are hidden
beneath a rocky layer)
• –
- take hundreds of thousands of years to
complete a single orbit around the Sun
• –
- orbital periods of less than 200 years
- Halley’s Comet (76 years)
- Encke’s Comet (3 years)
•
- Jan Oort
- cosmographical boundary of the solar
system
- source of long-period comets
•
- Gerald Kuiper
- hosts short-period comets

• Smaller Worlds
- celestial bodies that orbit the Sun
- essentially spherical due to their own
gravity
- but are not large enough to sweep their
orbits clear of other debris
- “cleared the neighborhood”
• Eris, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, Ceres
- If the universe was denser, hotter, in the
past, we should see evidence of left-over
heat from early universe.
- Abundance of light elements confirms the
occurrence of nucleosynthesis
- The universe is said to be composed of 73%
hydrogen and 25% helium by mass

- “The universe has no beginning and no end.”

- observational evidence points to a hot Big
Bang cosmology with a finite age of the
universe
 6.
- Angular Momentum
- Offers solution to unresolved problems of - Condensation of Gas and Dust
the big bang theory. - Explosion of a star (Supernova) caused the
• collapse
- Big bang states there should be curvature - Accretion- creation of planetesimals
- Things will appear flat even though it is - Colliding planetesimals created
curved protoplanets
• 6.1
- Big bang predicts production of magnetic • High temp gas ball collapse then heats up
poles and then become disk shape
- Monopoles dropped exponentially to 6.2
undetectable level during rapid expansion • Disk spins faster and faster and temp
• decreased
- Big bang states that space in opposite 6.3
direction are so far apart they could never • Disk become sphere due to rotation, because
have contact with each other of fast rotation, some of the fog escape
- Exponential expansion in early universe 6.4
presupposes that the distant regions were • Some fog formed the core of the largest mass
much closer to each other prior to inflation in the middle, while small part formed
around cooling process
6.5
Cores of smaller mass turns into planets, while
most remain in a high-temp flare

1.
-
• In the ancient Greeks’ geocentric model, the
moon, sun, and the known planets—Mercury,
Venus, Mars, and Jupiter—orbit Earth.
-
• In the heliocentric model, Earth and the
other planets orbit the sun.

2.
- Solar system was formed because of the
whirlpool-like motion

3. ’

- Sun collision with a giant comet

- Collision results = release of material from
the sun
- Released material = planets (condensed
material from the sun)

4.

- Planets torn out from the Sun as another

star passed through

5.

- Great cloud of gas and dust (Nebula)

- Spinning cloud