5 - Semiconductor Diodes

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JUNE 15, 2011
Semiconductor Diodes
TOPIC TITLE SY / TERM OF EFFECTIVITY PREPARED BY
Semiconductor Diodes 1st / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 1

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Have you seen a semiconductor device?

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Semiconductor Materials
NOTE: The construction of every discrete (individual) solid-

state (hard crystal structure) electronic device or
integrated circuit begins with a semiconductor material
of the highest quality.
RECALL: Semiconductors are a special class of elements having

a conductivity between that of a good conductor and
that of an insulator.

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General Characteristics of Semiconductor Materials
• Semiconductors conduct less than metal conductors but more than insulators.
• Some common semiconductor materials are silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), and carbon (C).
• Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor material in the electronics industry.
• Almost all diodes, transistors, and ICs manufactured today are made from silicon.
• The best semiconductors have four valence electron

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Two (2) General Classes of Semiconductor Materials:
• Single crystal – like Germanium (Ge) and Silicon having a repetitive crystal structure
• Compound – like Galium Arsenide (GaAs)), Cadmium Sulfide (CdS), Galium Nitride (GaN)
and Galium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) constructed of two or more semiconductor
materials of different atomic structure
NOTE: The three semiconductors used most frequently in the construction of electronic devices are Ge, Si and
GaAs.
1939 1947 1954 1970
Discovery Discovery First Silicon Development of

of Diode of Transistor Transistor GaAs Transistor
Use of Germanium
• easy to find
• available in fairly large quantities
• sensitive to changes in temperature
GaAs developed
• demand for increased
Aluminum as Material of Choice speed
• less temperature sensitive • speed 5X of Si but more
• abundant material on earth expensive

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Silicon (Si)
• Next to oxygen, the most abundant element on earth

• Refining problems prevent its use in semiconductor devices on the early days
• An isolated silicon atoms has 14 protons and electrons

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Germanium (Ge)
• Germanium is an example of a semiconductor

• Many years ago it is the only material suitable for making semiconductor devices but
was replaced by Silicon due to excessive reverse current

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Galium Arsenide (GaAs)
• It is a compound used in semiconductors: a dark gray crystalline solid containing

gallium and arsenic. Use: manufacture of semiconductors, solar cells, lasers.

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Silicon Crystal
• When silicon atoms combine to form solid, they arrange themselves into an orderly
pattern called a crystal
• Each silicon atom shares its electron with four neighboring atoms in such a way as to
have eight valence electron

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Concept of Conduction in Semiconductor Materials
Covalent Bond
• The valence electrons are the covalent bonds that hold the crystal together- that
give it solidity.
• In a covalent bond, the two bonded atoms share electrons.
• Hydrogen forms both polar covalent bonds and nonpolar covalent bonds. It forms a
polar bond when it bonds with an element, such as chlorine (Cl), that attracts the
shared electrons more strongly than a hydrogen atom, so the electrons spend more
time near the chlorine atom. It forms a nonpolar bond when it bonds with another
hydrogen atom, or with an atom of an element that attracts electrons with about
the same force as the hydrogen does. In this case, neither atom attracts the shared
electrons more strongly than the other, and the electrons are shared evenly.

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Valence Saturation
• Each atom in silicon crystal has eight electrons in its valence

• The eight electrons produce a chemical stability that results in a solid piece of silicon
material
• When the valence orbit has 8 electrons, it is saturated because no more electrons can fit
in the orbit
The Free Electron and Hole
• The ambient temperature is the temperature of the surrounding air

• When the ambient temperature is above the absolute zero (-273 C), the heat energy in this air causes the silicon
crystal to vibrate
• The higher the ambient temperature, the stronger the mechanical vibration
• In a silicon crystal, the vibrations of the atoms can occasionally dislodge
an electron from the valence orbit
• The release electron gains enough energy to go into the larger orbit
• In this larger orbit, the electron is a free electron
• The departure of the electron creates a vacancy in the valence orbit
called a hole
• This hole behave like a positive ion
• The hole will attract and capture any electron in the immediate vicinity

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Classification of Semiconductor
• Intrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors in their

purest form.
• A silicon crystal is an intrinsic semiconductor if every
atom in the crystal is a silicon atom.
• Extrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors with

other atoms mixed in.
• These other atoms are called impurity atoms.

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Semiconductor Diodes 3rd / 2013-2014 L. Valcos

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Doping of Semiconductor
• It is the process of adding impurity atoms.

1. melt the pure silicon crystal
2. The covalent bond will be break
3. The silicon changes from solid to
liquid
4. N type- increase the number of
free electron examples are
Arsenic, Antimony, Phosphorous
5. P type- increase the number of
holes example is Aluminum

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Types of Impurities
• Doping of a silicon crystal with a pentavalent impurity.

• Arsenic (As) is shown in this figure, but other pentavalent
impurities such as antimony (Sb) or phosphorous (P) could
also be used.
• One of the valence electrons in the pentavalent impurity
atom is not needed in the covalent bond structure and can
float through the material as a free electron.
• Doping of a silicon crystal with a trivalent impurity.

• Aluminum (Al) is shown in this figure, but other
trivalent impurities such as boron (B) or gallium (Ga)
could also be used.
• One more valence electron is needed at the location
of each trivalent atom in the crystal to obtain the
maximum electrical stability.

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N and P Type Materials
The PN Junction Diode
• A popular semiconductor device called a

diode is made by joining p- and n-type
semiconductor materials
• The doped regions meet to form a p-n junction.

• Diodes are unidirectional devices that allow current to flow in one direction.
• The schematic symbol for a diode is as shown.
• With the availability of n-type and p-type materials, the first solid-state
electronic device can be constructed, the SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE.
• Created by simply joining an n-type and a p-type material together.
• Can be found in numerous applications.

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• Fig. (a) shows a p-n junction with free electrons on the n side and holes on the p side.
• The free electrons are represented as dash (-) marks and the holes are represented as
small circles (○).
• The important effect here is that when a free electron leaves the n side and falls into a
hole on the p side, two ions are created; a positive ion on the n side and a negative
ion on the p side (see Fig. b).

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Barrier Potential
Each dipole has electric field

Dipole- is a pair of positive and
negative ion
Barrier potential is 0.3 V for
Germanium and 0.7 V for Silicon
Semiconductor Diodes 3rd / 2013-2014 L. Valcos

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Diodes Practical Applications

Rectifier
• A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which
periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one
direction.
• The process is known as rectification.

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Light Emitting Diodes (LED)
• A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source.[3] LEDs are used as

indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting.
• Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting,
automotive lighting, advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have
allowed new text, video displays, live video, and sensors to be developed, while their
high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared
LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products including
televisions, DVD players, and other domestic appliances.

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Photodiodes
• A photodiode is a type of photodetector capable of
converting light into either current or voltage,
depending upon the mode of operation.
• The common, traditional solar cell used to generate
electric solar power is a large area photodiode.
• Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices
such as compact disc players, smoke detectors, and the
receivers for infrared remote control devices used to
control equipment from televisions to air conditioners

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Optocoupler
• In electronics, an opto-isolator, also called an optocoupler, photocoupler, or optical

isolator, is "an electronic device designed to transfer electrical signals by utilizing
light waves to provide coupling with electrical isolation between its input and
output".
• The main purpose of an opto-isolator is "to prevent high voltages or rapidly
changing voltages on one side of the circuit from damaging components or
distorting transmissions on the other side.
• Electronic equipment and signal and power transmission lines can be
subjected to voltage surges induced by lightning, electrostatic discharge,
radio frequency transmissions, switching pulses (spikes) and perturbations
in power supply.
• The main function of an opto-isolator is to block such high voltages
and voltage transients, so that a surge in one part of the system will
not disrupt or destroy the other parts.

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Laser Diode
• A laser diode is a laser whose active medium is a semiconductor similar to that
found in a light-emitting diode.
• The most common type of laser diode is formed from a p-n junction and powered
by injected electric current.

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Biasing
The term bias is defined as a control voltage or current.
Types of Biasing
1. Forward Bias.
• The battery voltage pushes the electron to the depletion

layer
• If less than the knee voltage (barrier potential) it will not
enter the depletion layer
• If the supply voltage is higher than the knee voltage the
free electron continuously combine with holes and there is
a continuo's current flow in the diode

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• Forward-Bias Condition (VD > 0 V)

• Also known as “on” condition, and is established by applying the positive potential to
the p-type material and the negative potential to the n-type material.
IS
ID = I majority - IS
Imajority
- + + - - + - + - VD
- - ++ - + + - -+ +
+ + -
- + -+ - + - +
+ - + + + + -
+- +- - - - + - -
+ -
ID
p n
Depletion region p n
ID ID
+ -
(Similar)
+ VD
-

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• The application of a forward-bias potential VD will “pressure” electrons in the n-type

material and holes in the p-type material to recombine with the ions near the boundary
and reduce the width of the depletion region.
• The resulting minority carrier flow of electrons from the p-type material to the n-type
material (and of holes from the n-type material to the p-type material) has not changed in
magnitude, but the reduction in the width of the depletion region has resulted in a
heavy majority flow across the junction.
• An electron of the n-type material now “sees” a reduced barrier at the junction due to the reduced depletion
region and a strong attraction for the positive potential applied for the p-type material.
• As the applied bias increases in magnitude, the depletion region will continue to decrease in width until a
flood of electrons can pass through the junction, resulting in an exponential rise in current.
IS
ID = I majority -
Imajority
- IS
-+ + - -+ +- + -
+ - +++
- - -+ - + -+ +
+ +- +- + --+
- + + -
- - -+ + - -++ -
p n
Depletion region
ID ID
+ VD
-

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2. Reverse Bias
• The negative attracts the hole and the positive attract the
free electron
• The depletion layer widens
• No current flow

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• Reverse-Bias Condition (VD < 0 V)

• An external potential of V volts applied across the p-n junction such that the positive
terminal is connected to the n-type material and the negative terminal is connected to the
p-type material.
IS Minority-carrier flow
Imajority ~= 0 A
+ +- - - - ++ + +- + VD
- -- - - - ++ + - +- - +
- + + - - - ++ + +
- - - - ++ + + + +
+- + - - - - ++ + - - - IS
p n
Depletion region p n
IS
IS
- +
(Opposite)
- VD
+

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• The number of uncovered positive ions in the depletion region of the n-type material will
increase due to the large number of free electrons drawn to the positive potential of the
applied voltage.
• Similarly, the number of uncovered negative ions will increase in the p-type material.
• The net effect is the widening of the depletion region. This will establish too great a
barrier for the majority carriers to overcome, effectively reducing the majority carrier
flow to zero.
• The reverse saturation current is seldom more than a few microamperes, except for high power devices, and
typically in the nanoampere range for silicon devices.The term saturation comes from the fact that it reaches its
maximum level quickly and does not change significantly with increases in the reverse-bias potential.
IS Minority-carrier flow
Imajority ~= 0 A
+ +- - - - ++ + +- +
- -- - - - ++ + - +-
- + - - - ++ + +
- +- + - + -
- - - ++ + + +
-
+
- - ++ + - -
p n
Depletion region
IS
IS
- VD
+

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3. Zero Biasing No Applied Bias (V = 0 V)
• The diode us electrically connected to zero but the source voltage is zero.
• No Applied Bias (V = 0 V)
• The instant the two materials are “joined” the electrons and the holes in the
region of the junction will combine – resulting to lack of free carriers in the area
Depletion region
+ - + - + - - ++ + - - -
Metal
+ - - ++ + contact
- - - ++ - - +
- + - + - - - ++ + + -
- - ++ -
+ + + - - ++ +
- - - - - ++ - + -
- - ++ +
- + + - - ++ + - + -
+ - - - ++ -
p n
ID = 0 mA ID = 0 mA
+ VD = 0 V -
(no bias)

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• In the absence of an applied bias across a semiconductor diode, the net

flow of charge in one direction is zero.
+ VD = 0V- Minority Carrier flow

(no bias)
Ie Ih
ID = 0 mA
Majority Carrier flow
Ih Ie
p n

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Diode Polarity
Diodes Have Polarity

(They must be installed correctly.)

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Diode Volt-Ampere Characteristic Curve
Below illustrates a volt-ampere characteristic curve of a silicon diode.

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Region of Operation
• Forward Region- the region defined by the diode current and voltage during forward
biased
• Reverse region- the region defined by the diode current and voltage during reversed
biased
Knee Voltage
Knee Voltage-approximately equal to barrier potential

• 0.7 V for silicon
• 0.3 V for germanium
• > the diode conduct easily
• < the diode conduct poorly
Bulk Resistance Maximum Forward Current and Power Dissipation
• The sum of the resistance of the P type and N • The maximum forward current -maximum ratings
type material that can be measure directly by given on the data sheet
the ohmmeter • The IN456- 135 mA
• Rb= Rp + Rn
• The power rating is the maximum power the
• For IN4001 (part number for diode= 0.23 ohm) diode can dissipate without damage
• Less than 1 ohm
• PD= ID* VD

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Diode Approximations
• Three different approximations can be used when analyzing diode circuits.

• The one used depends on the desired accuracy of your circuit calculations.
• These approximations are referred to as
The first approximation- for troubleshooting (technician level)
The second approximation- easy solution (engineering level)
The third approximation- more accurate solution
First Approximation
• The first
approximation
treats a
forward-biased
diode like a
closed switch
with a voltage
drop of zero
volts.

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Second Approximation
• The second approximation treats a forward-biased diode like an ideal diode in series
with a battery.

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Third Approximation
• The third approximation of a diode includes the bulk resistance, rB.

• The bulk resistance, rB is the resistance of the p and n materials.
• The third approximation of a forward-biased diode is shown .

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Can you identify which approximations is used?

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Three Equivalent Model Circuits of Diode
I. Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit
This is a technique for obtaining an equivalent circuit of a diode by approximating

the characteristics of the device by straight line-segments.
ID (mA)
+ VD -
10
Ideal diode
VK rav
rav +
0.7 V
-
10 Ω
ID
0 0.7 V 0.8 V VD (V)

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• The straight line segments do not result in an exact duplication of the actual
characteristics, especially in the knee region.
• The resulting segments are sufficiently close to the actual curve to establish an
equivalent circuit that will provide an excellent first approximation to the actual
behavior of the device.
• The average ac resistance defines the resistance level of the device when it is in the
“on” state.
• The ideal diode is included to establish that there is only one direction of conduction
through the device, and a reverse-bias condition will result in the open-circuit state for
the device.
• Since the silicon semiconductor diode does not reach the conduction state until VD reaches 0.7 V with a
forward bias, a battery VK opposing the conduction direction must appear in the equivalent circuit.
• When conduction is established, the resistance of the diode will be the specified value or rav.
ID (mA)
10
+ VD -
rav VK rav
Ideal diode
+
0.7 V
- 10 Ω
0.7 V 0.8 V VD (V) ID
0

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• The approximate level of rav can usually be determined from a specified operating point
on the specification sheet.
• Example: for a silicon semiconductor diode, if IF = 10 mA at VD = 0.8 V, we know that
for silicon a shift of 0.7 V is required before the characteristics rise, hence
Δ Vd 0.8 V - 0.7 V
rav = = = 10 Ώ
ID (mA) Δ Id 10 mA - 0 mA
10
+ VD -
rav VK rav
Ideal diode
+ -
0.7 V 10 Ω
ID
0 0.7 V 0.8 V VD (V)

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II. Simplified Equivalent Circuit
• This assumes the condition in most applications where rav is sufficiently small to be
ignored in comparison to the other elements of the network.
• This approximation is frequently employed in semiconductor circuit analysis.
ID
+ VD -
Ideal diode
VK = 0.7 V
rav = 0 Ω
+ -
ID
0 VK = 0.7 V VD
• It states that a forward-biased silicon diode in an electronic system under dc

conditions has a drop of 0.7 V across it in the conduction state at any level of diode
current (within rated values).

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III. Ideal Equivalent Circuit
• This assumes that a 0.7-V level can often be ignored in comparison to the applied
voltage level.
ID
+ VD -
Ideal diode
ID
0 VD

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DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS: Summary

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Diode Ratings
• Diode ratings include maximum ratings and electrical characteristics.

• Typical ratings are
Breakdown Voltage Rating, VBR
Average Forward-Current rating, IO
Maximum Forward-Surge Current Rating, IFSM
Maximum Reverse Current, IR
Rating Abbreviation Designated As Significance

Breakdown Voltage VBR PIV, PRV, VBR, or Voltage at which
VRRM avalanche occurs;
diode is destroyed if
this rating is exceeded.
Average Forward- IO IO Maximum allowable

Current average current.
Maximum Forward- IFSM IFSM Maximum

Surge Current instantaneous current.
Maximum Reverse IR IR Maximum reverse

Current current.

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Diode Configgurations
I. Series Diode Configuration
• The forward resistance of the diode is usually so small compared to other

series elements of the network that it can be ignored.
ID +
0.7 V
- + 0.7 V -
Silicon
Si
ID ID
Si
0 0.7 V VD
ID = 0 A
ID = 0 A
ID +
0V
- + VD = 0 V -
Ideal
ID ID
0 VD
ID = 0 A
ID = 0 A

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• A diode is in the “ON” state if the current established by the applied sources is such that
its direction matches that of the arrow in the diode symbol, VD ≥ 0.7 V for silicon, VD ≥ 0.3
V for germanium , VD ≥ 1.2 V for gallium arsenide.
• This is contingent on the supply having a voltage greater than the “turn on” voltage (VK )
of each diode.
+
Si +
E R VR (a) Series-diode
- - configuration
+ I +
E R VR
(b) Determining the state of the
- - diode

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VD
+ - IR
0.7 V +
+ ID (C) Substituting the equivalent
E R VR
I model for the “on” diode
- -
The resulting voltage and current levels are the following:
VD = VK
VR
ID = IR =
R
VR = E - VK

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JUNE 15, 2011
But what if the circuit looks like this?
+ Si + (a) Series-diode
E R
configuration
- -
+ I +
E R VR
(b) Determining the state of
- - the diode
+ VD = E - IR
+
+ ID = 0 A
E R VR (c) Substituting the equivalent
- - model for the “on” diode

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EXERCISE:
Light Emitting Diodes
Determine VO and ID for the circuit shown: FORWARD
COLOR CONSTRUCTION
IR VOLTAGE
Si
Amber AlInGaP 2.1
+ 12 V VO
Blue GaN 5.0
I red
D
Green GaP 2.2
R 680 Ω
Orange GaAsP 2.0
Red GaAsP 1.8
White GaN 4.1
Yellow AlInGaP 2.1
Solution:
VO = E - VK1 - VK2 = 12 V - 2.5 V = 9.5 V
VR VO 9.5 V
ID = I R = = = = 13.97 mA
R R 680 Ω
TOPIC TITLE TOPIC TITLE SY / TERM OF EFFECTIVITY PREPARED SY

BY/ TERM OF EFFECTIVITY PREPARED BY
Diode Theory Semiconductor Diodes 1st / 201122013 L. Valcos 1st / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 53
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JUNE 15, 2011
II. Parallel and Series-Parallel Configuration
• The methods applied for Series Configuration can be extended to the analysis of parallel
and series-parallel configuration.
(a) Determining the configuration
(b) Determining the state of the diode
(c) Substituting the equivalent model for the “on” diode
EXERCISE 1:
Determine VO, I1 , ID1 and ID2 Solution:
I1 0.33 KΩ
+
R ID1 ID2
+
(a) Parallel diode configuration
E 10 V D1 Si D2 Si VO
-
-

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(b) Determine the state of the diode and

(c) Substitute the equivalent model
+ VR
I1 0.33 KΩ I1 0.33 KΩ
+ +
R ID1 ID2 R ID1 ID2
+ +
+ +
E 10 V D2 Si VO E 10 V 0.7 V 0.7 V VO
- -
D1 Si
- -
-
I1 0.33 KΩ
-
+
The voltage across parallel elements is always the same, hence… R ID1 ID2
+
VO = 0.7 V E 10 V D1 Si D2 Si VO
-

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The current is
VR E - VD 10V - 0.7 V
I1 = = = = 28.18 mA
R R 0.33 KΩ
Assuming diodes of similar characteristics,
I1 28.18 mA
ID1 = ID2 = = = 14.09 mA
2 2
EXERCISE 2:
Determine VO and I for the network. +16 V

Si I
Si Si
VO
4.7 KΩ
+12 V

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Solution:
(b) Determine the state of the diode and
(c) Substitute the equivalent model
+16 V +16 V
+
Si I
0.7 V
I
-
Si Si + +
0.7 V 0.7 V
- -
VO
VO
4.7 KΩ
4.7 KΩ
+12 V
+12 V

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JUNE 15, 2011
+16 V
+ Taking a KVL,
0.7 V
I
- 16 – 0.7 – 0.7 – (4.7k) I - 12 = 0
(4.7k) I = 2.6
+ + I = 0.553 mA
0.7 V 0.7 V
- -
To compute for Vo, take another KVL across the 4.7K
resistor
Vo – 12 - (4.7k ) I = 0
VO Vo = 12 + (4.7k )(0.553 m)
Vo = 14.6 V
4.7 KΩ
+12 V

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JUNE 15, 2011
Thank You for listening!

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5 - Semiconductor Diodes

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01

JUNE 15, 2011

TOPIC TITLE SY / TERM OF EFFECTIVITY PREPARED BY

Semiconductor Diodes 1st / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 1

Have you seen a semiconductor device?

TOPIC TITLE SY / TERM OF EFFECTIVITY PREPARED BY

Semiconductor Diodes 1st / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 2

NOTE: The construction of every discrete (individual) solid-

RECALL: Semiconductors are a special class of elements having

TOPIC TITLE SY / TERM OF EFFECTIVITY PREPARED BY

Semiconductor Diodes 1st / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 3

General Characteristics of Semiconductor Materials

TOPIC TITLE SY / TERM OF EFFECTIVITY PREPARED BY

Semiconductor Diodes 1st / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 4

Two (2) General Classes of Semiconductor Materials:

Discovery Discovery First Silicon Development of

Semiconductor Diodes 1st / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 5

• Next to oxygen, the most abundant element on earth

TOPIC TITLE SY / TERM OF EFFECTIVITY PREPARED BY

Semiconductor Diodes 1st / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 6

• Germanium is an example of a semiconductor

TOPIC TITLE SY / TERM OF EFFECTIVITY PREPARED BY

Semiconductor Diodes 1st / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 7

Galium Arsenide (GaAs)

• It is a compound used in semiconductors: a dark gray crystalline solid containing

TOPIC TITLE SY / TERM OF EFFECTIVITY PREPARED BY

Semiconductor Diodes 1st / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 8

TOPIC TITLE SY / TERM OF EFFECTIVITY PREPARED BY

Semiconductor Diodes 1st / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 9

Concept of Conduction in Semiconductor Materials

TOPIC TITLE SY / TERM OF EFFECTIVITY PREPARED BY

Semiconductor Diodes 1st / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 10

TOPIC TITLE SY / TERM OF EFFECTIVITY PREPARED BY

Semiconductor Diodes 1st / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 11

• Each atom in silicon crystal has eight electrons in its valence

The Free Electron and Hole

• The ambient temperature is the temperature of the surrounding air

TOPIC TITLE SY / TERM OF EFFECTIVITY PREPARED BY

Semiconductor Diodes 1st / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 12

• Intrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors in their

• Extrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors with

TOPIC TITLE SY / TERM OF EFFECTIVITY PREPARED BY

Semiconductor Diodes 1st / 2020-2021 L. Valcos 13

TOPIC TITLE SY / TERM OF EFFECTIVITY PREPARED BY

Semiconductor Diodes 3rd / 2013-2014 L. Valcos

• It is the process of adding impurity atoms.

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• Doping of a silicon crystal with a pentavalent impurity.

• Doping of a silicon crystal with a trivalent impurity.

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N and P Type Materials

The PN Junction Diode

• A popular semiconductor device called a

• The doped regions meet to form a p-n junction.

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Each dipole has electric field

Semiconductor Diodes 3rd / 2013-2014 L. Valcos