Prajnaparamita

Prajñāpāramitā means "the Perfection of (Transcendent)

Wisdom" in Mahāyāna Buddhism. Prajñāpāramitā refers to this
perfected way of seeing the nature of reality, as well as to a
particular body of sutras and to the personification of the
concept in the Bodhisattva known as the "Great Mother"
(Tibetan: Yum Chenmo). The word Prajñāpāramitā combines
the Sanskrit words prajñā "wisdom" with pāramitā
"perfection". Prajñāpāramitā is a central concept in Mahāyāna
Buddhism and is generally associated with the doctrine of
emptiness (Shunyata) or 'lack of Svabhava' (essence) and the
works of Nagarjuna. Its practice and understanding are taken to Prajñāpāramitā personified. From the
Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra.
be indispensable elements of the Bodhisattva path.

According to Edward Conze, the Prajñāpāramitā Sutras are "a

collection of about forty texts ... composed somewhere on the Indian Translations of
subcontinent between approximately 100 BC and AD 600."[1] Some Prajñāpāramitā
Prajnāpāramitā sūtras are thought to be among the earliest Mahāyāna English Perfection of
sūtras.[2][3] Transcendent
One of the important features of the Prajñāpāramitā Sutras is anutpada Wisdom
(unborn, no origin).[4][5] Sanskrit ापार मता
(IAST:
Prajñāpāramitā)

Contents Burmese ပညာပါရမီ တ

(IPA: [pjɪ̀ɰ̃ɲà
History
pàɹəmìta̰])
Earliest texts
Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā
Chinese 若波
(Pinyin: bōrě
Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā
bōluómìduō)
Overview of the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras
Commentaries and translations
Japanese 般若波羅蜜多
(rōmaji: hannya-
Prajñāpāramitā in Central Asia
haramitta)
China
Khmer រមី
Themes in Prajñāpāramitā sutras (prach-nha-
Core themes
barameida)
The Bodhisattva and Prajñāpāramitā
Other Bodhisattva qualities
Korean 반야바라밀다
(RR:
Tathātā
Banyabaramilda)
Negation and Emptiness
Māyā Mongolian Төгөлдөр билгүүн

Later additions Sinhala පඥාව

Prajñāpāramitā in visual art Tibetan ་ཤ

ེ ས་རབ་ི ་ཕ་ར
ོ ལ་ ་ི ན་པ་
Prajñāpāramitā in Ancient Indonesia (shes rab kyi pha rol
tu phyin pa)
Selected English translations Thai ปรัชญาปารมิตา
References Vietnamese Bát-nhã-ba-la-mật-đa
Literature Glossary of Buddhism

External links

History

Earliest texts

Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā
Avalokiteśvara. Aṣṭasāhasrikā
Western scholars have traditionally considered the earliest sūtra Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra manuscript. Nālandā,
in the Prajñāpāramitā class to be the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Bihar, India.
Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra or "Perfection of Wisdom in 8,000
Lines", which was probably put in writing in the 1st century
BCE.[6] This chronology is based on the views of Edward Conze, who largely considered dates of translation
into other languages. This text also has a corresponding version in verse format, called the Ratnaguṇasaṃcaya
Gāthā, which some believe to be slightly older because it is not written in standard literary Sanskrit. However,
these findings rely on late-dating Indian texts, in which verses and mantras are often kept in more archaic
forms.

Additionally, a number of scholars have proposed that the Mahāyāna Prajñāpāramitā teachings were first
developed by the Caitika subsect of the Mahāsāṃghikas. They believe that the Aṣṭasāhasrikā
Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra originated amongst the southern Mahāsāṃghika schools of the Āndhra region, along the
Kṛṣṇa River.[7] These Mahāsāṃghikas had two famous monasteries near Amarāvati and the Dhānyakataka,
which gave their names to the Pūrvaśaila and Aparaśaila schools.[8] Each of these schools had a copy of the
Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra in Prakrit.[8] Guang Xing also assesses the view of the Buddha given
in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra as being that of the Mahāsāṃghikas.[8] Edward Conze estimates
that this sūtra originated around 100 BCE.[8]

In 2012, Harry Falk and Seishi Karashima published a damaged and partial Kharoṣṭhī manuscript of the
Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā.[9] It is radiocarbon dated to ca. 75 CE, making it one of the oldest Buddhist
texts in existence. It is very similar to the first Chinese translation of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā by Lokakṣema (ca.
179 CE) whose source text is assumed to be in the Gāndhārī language;Lokakṣema's translation is also the first
extant translation of the Prajñāpāramitā genre into a non-Indic language. Comparison with the standard
Sanskrit text shows that it is also likely to be a translation from Gāndhāri as it expands on many phrases and
provides glosses for words that are not present in the Gāndhārī. This points to the text being composed in
Gāndhārī, the language of Gandhara (the region now called the Northwest Frontier of Pakistan, including
Peshawar, Taxila and Swat Valley). The "Split" manuscript is evidently a copy of an earlier text, confirming
that the text may date before the 1st century CE.

Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā

In contrast to western scholarship, Japanese scholars have traditionally considered the Diamond Sūtra
(Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra) to be from a very early date in the development of Prajñāpāramitā
literature.[10] The usual reason for this relative chronology which places the Vajracchedikā earlier is not its
date of translation, but rather a comparison of the contents and themes.[11] Some western scholars also believe
that the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra was adapted from the earlier Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā
Sūtra.[10]

Examining the language and phrases used in both the Aṣṭasāhasrikā and the Vajracchedikā, Gregory
Schopen also sees the Vajracchedikā as being earlier than the Aṣṭasāhasrikā.[12] This view is taken in part by
examining parallels between the two works, in which the Aṣṭasāhasrikā seems to represent the later or more
developed position.[12] According to Schopen, these works also show a shift in emphasis from an oral
tradition (Vajracchedikā) to a written tradition (Aṣṭasāhasrikā).[12]

Overview of the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras

An Indian commentary on the Mahāyānasaṃgraha, entitled

Vivṛtaguhyārthapiṇḍavyākhyā, gives a classification of
teachings according to the capabilities of the audience:

[A]ccording to disciples' grades, the Dharma is

[classified as] inferior and superior. For example,
the inferior was taught to the merchants Trapuṣa
and Ballika because they were ordinary men; the
middle was taught to the group of five because
they were at the stage of saints; the eightfold
Prajñāpāramitās were taught to bodhisattvas, and
[the Prajñāpāramitās] are superior in eliminating
conceptually imagined forms. The eightfold
[Prajñāpāramitās] are the teachings of the
Prajñāpāramitā as follows: the Triśatikā,
Pañcaśatikā, Saptaśatikā, Sārdhadvisāhasrikā,
Aṣṭasāhasrikā, Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikā,
Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā, and Śatasāhasrikā.[13]
Arapacana manjusri with prajnaparamita in
his left hand. Statue belongs to 18 CAD,
The titles of these eight Prajñāpāramitā texts are given Tibet. Currently at YSR state archaeological
according to their length. The texts may have other Sanskrit museum
titles as well, or different variations which may be more
descriptive. The lengths specified by the titles are given below.

1. Triśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 300 lines, alternatively known as the Vajracchedikā

Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (Diamond Sūtra)
2. Pañcaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 500 lines
3. Saptaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 700 lines, the bodhisattva Mañjuśrī's exposition of
Prajñāpāramitā
4. Sārdhadvisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 2500 lines, from the questions of
Suvikrāntavikrāmin Bodhisattva
5. Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 8000 lines
6. Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 18,000 lines
7. Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 25,000 lines, alternatively known as the
Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra
8. Śatasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 100,000 lines, alternatively known as the
Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra
According to Joseph Walser, there is evidence that the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (25,000
lines) and the Śatasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (100,000 lines) have a connection with the
Dharmaguptaka sect, while the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (8000 lines) does not.[14]

In addition to these, there are also other Prajñāpāramitā sūtras such as the Heart Sutra (Prajñāpāramitā
Hṛdaya), which exists in a shorter and longer versions. Regarding the shorter texts, Edward Conze writes,
"Two of these, the Diamond Sūtra and the Heart Sūtra are in a class by themselves and deservedly renowned
throughout the world of Northern Buddhism. Both have been translated into many languages and have often
been commented upon.".[15] Some scholars consider the Diamond Sutra to be much earlier than Conze
does.[16] Scholar Jan Nattier argues the Heart Sutra to be an apocryphal text composed in China from extracts
of the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā and other texts ca 7th century.[17] Red Pine, however, does not support Nattiers
argument and believes the Prajnaparamita Hridaya Sutra to be of Indian origin.[18]

Tāntric versions of the Prajñāpāramitā literature were produced from the year 500 CE on and include sutras
such as the Adhyardhaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā (150 lines). Additionally, Prajñāpāramitā terma teachings are held
by some Tibetan Buddhists to have been conferred upon Nāgārjuna by the Nāgarāja "King of the Nāgas",
who had been guarding them at the bottom of the sea.

Commentaries and translations

There are various Indian and later Chinese commentaries on the Prajñāpāramitā sutras, some of the most
influential commentaries include:

Mahāprajñāpāramitāupadeśa ( ⼤智度論 , T no. 1509) a massive and encyclopedic text

translated into Chinese by the Buddhist scholar Kumārajīva (344–413 CE). It is a commentary
on the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā. This text claims to be from the Buddhist
philosopher Nagarjuna (c. 2nd century) in the colophon, but various scholars such as Étienne
Lamotte have questioned this attribution. This work was translated by Lamotte as Le Traité de
la Grande Vertu de Sagesse and into English from the French by Gelongma Karma Migme
Chodron.[19]
Abhisamayālaṅkāra (Ornament of clear realization), the central Prajñāpāramitā shastra in the
Tibetan tradition. It is traditionally attributed as a revelation from the Bodhisattva Maitreya to the
scholar Asanga (fl. 4th century C.E.), known as a master of the Yogachara school. The Indian
commentary on this text by Haribadra, the Abhisamayalankaraloka, has also been influential
on later Tibetan texts.
Śatasāhasrikā-pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikāṣṭādaśasāhasrikā-prajñāpāramitā-bṛhaṭṭīkā, often
attributed to Vasubandhu (4th century).[20]
Satasahasrika-paramita-brhattika, attributed to Daṃṣṭrāsena.
Dignāga's Prajnaparamitarthasamgraha-karika.
Ratnākaraśānti's Prajñāpāramitopadeśa.

The sutras were first brought to Tibet in the reign of Trisong Detsen (742-796) by scholars Jinamitra and
Silendrabodhi and the translator Ye shes sDe.[21]

Prajñāpāramitā in Central Asia

By the middle of the 3rd century CE, it appears that some Prajñāpāramitā texts were known in Central Asia, as
reported by the Chinese monk Zhu Shixing, who brought back a manuscript of the Prajñāpāramitā of 25,000
lines:[22]

When in 260 AD, the Chinese monk Zhu Shixing chose to go to Khotan in an attempt to find
original Sanskrit sūtras, he succeeded in locating the Sanskrit Prajñāpāramitā in 25,000 verses,
and tried to send it to China. In Khotan, however, there were numerous Hīnayānists who
attempted to prevent it because they regarded the text as heterodox. Eventually, Zhu Shixing
stayed in Khotan, but sent the manuscript to Luoyang where it was translated by a Khotanese
monk named Mokṣala. In 296, the Khotanese monk Gītamitra came to Chang'an with another
copy of the same text.

China

In China, there was extensive translation of many Prajñāpāramitā texts beginning in the second century CE.
The main translators include: Lokakṣema ( ⽀婁迦讖 ⽀謙
), Zhī Qīan ( ), Dharmarakṣa (竺法護 ), Mokṣala
無叉羅
( 鳩摩羅什
), Kumārajīva ( ⽞奘
, 408 CE), Xuánzàng ( 法賢
), Făxián ( 施護
) and Dānapāla ( ).[23] These
translations were very influential in the development of East Asian Mādhyamaka and on Chinese Buddhism.

Xuanzang (fl. c. 602–664) was a Chinese scholar who traveled to India and returned to China with three
copies of the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra which he had secured from his extensive travels.[24] Xuanzang, with
a team of disciple translators, commenced translating the voluminous work in 660 CE using the three versions
to ensure the integrity of the source documentation.[24] Xuanzang was being encouraged by a number of the
disciple translators to render an abridged version. After a suite of dreams quickened his decision, Xuanzang
determined to render an unabridged, complete volume, faithful to the original of 600 fascicles.[25]

There are also later commentaries from Zen Buddhists on the Heart and Diamond sutra and Kūkai's
commentary (9th century) is the first known Tantric commentary.

Themes in Prajñāpāramitā sutras

Core themes

The Bodhisattva and Prajñāpāramitā

A key theme of the Prajñāpāramitā sutras is the figure of the Bodhisattva (literally: awakening-being) which is
defined in the 8,000 line Prajñāpāramitā sutra as:

"One who trains in all dharmas [phenomena] without obstruction [asakti, asaktatā], and also
knows all dharmas as they really are."[26]

A Bodhisattva is then a being that experiences everything "without attachment" (asakti) and sees reality or
suchness (Tathātā) as it is. The Bodhisattva is the main ideal in Mahayana (Great Vehicle), which sees the goal
of the Buddhist path as becoming a Buddha for the sake of all sentient beings, not just yourself:

They make up their minds that ‘one single self we shall tame . . . one single self we shall lead
to final Nirvana.’
A Bodhisattva should certainly not in such a way train himself.
 On the contrary, he should train himself thus: "My
own self I will place in Suchness [the true way of
things], and, so that all the world might be helped,
I will place all beings into Suchness, and I will lead
to Nirvana the whole immeasurable world of
beings."[27]

A central quality of the Bodhisattva is their practice of

Prajñāpāramitā, a most deep (gambhīra) state of knowledge
which is an understanding of reality arising from analysis as
well as meditative insight. It is non-conceptual and non-dual
(advaya) as well as transcendental.[28] Literally, the term could
be translated as "knowledge gone to the other (shore)",[29] or
transcendental knowledge. The Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā
Sūtra says:

This is known as the Prajñāpāramitā of the A Tibetan illustration of Subhuti, a major

bodhisattvas; not grasping at form, not grasping at character in the Prajñāpāramitā sutras who
sensation, perception, volitions and cognition.[30] is proclaimed as the foremost “dweller in
non-conflict” (araṇavihārīnaṃ) and “of those
A further passage in the 8,000 line Prajñāpāramitā sutra states worthy of offering” (dakkhiṇeyyānaṃ).
that Prajñāpāramitā means that a Bodhisattva stands in
emptiness (shunyata) by not standing (√sthā) or supporting
themselves on any dharma (phenomena), whether conditioned or unconditioned. The dharmas that a
Bodhisattva does "not stand" on include standard listings such as: the five aggregates, the sense fields
(ayatana), nirvana, Buddhahood, etc.[31] This is explained by stating that Bodhisattvas "wander without a
home" (aniketacārī); "home" or "abode" meaning signs (nimitta, meaning a subjective mental impression) of
sensory objects and the afflictions that arise dependent on them. This includes the absence, the "not taking up"
(aparigṛhīta) of even "correct" mental signs and perceptions such as "form is not self", "I practice
Prajñāpāramitā", etc. To be freed of all constructions and signs, to be signless (animitta) is to be empty of them
and this is to stand in Prajñāpāramitā.[32] The Prajñāpāramitā sutras state that all Buddhas and Bodhisattvas in
the past have practiced Prajñāpāramitā. Prajñāpāramitā is also associated with Sarvajñata (all-knowledge) in
the Prajñāpāramitā sutras, a quality of the mind of a Buddha which knows the nature of all dharmas.

According to Karl Brunnholzl, Prajñāpāramitā means that "all phenomena from form up through omniscience
being utterly devoid of any intrinsic characteristics or nature of their own."[33] Furthermore, "such omniscient
wisdom is always nonconceptual and free from reference points since it is the constant and panoramic
awareness of the nature of all phenomena and does not involve any shift between meditative equipoise and
subsequent attainment."[34]

Edward Conze outlined several psychological qualities of a Bodhisattva's practice of Prajñāpāramitā:[35]

Non-apprehension (anupalabdhi)
No settling down or "non-attachment" (anabhinivesa)
No attainment (aprapti). No person can "have," or "possess," or "acquire," or "gain" any
dharma.
Non-reliance on any dharma, being unsupported, not leaning on any dharma.
"Finally, one may say that the attitude of the perfected sage is one of non-assertion."

Other Bodhisattva qualities

The Prajñāpāramitā sutras also teach of the importance of the other
paramitas (perfections) for the Bodhisattva such as Ksanti (patience):
"Without resort to this patience (kṣānti) they [bodhisattvas] cannot reach
their respective goals".[36]

Another quality of the Bodhisattva is their freedom from fear (na √tras) in
the face of the seemingly shocking doctrine of the emptiness of all dharmas
which includes their own existence. A good friend (kalyanamitra) is useful
in the path to fearlessness. Bodhisattvas also have no pride or self-
conception (na manyeta) of their own stature as Bodhisattvas.[37] These are
important features of the mind of a bodhisattva, called bodhicitta. The
Prajñāpāramitā sutras also mention that bodhicitta is a middle way, it is
neither apprehended as existent (astitā) or non-existent (nāstitā) and it is
"immutable" (avikāra) and "free from conceptualization" (avikalpa).[38]

The Bodhisattva is said to generate "great compassion" (maha-karuṇā) for

Gandharan depiction of the
all beings on their path to liberation and yet also maintain a sense of
Bodhisattva (the future Buddha
equanimity (upekṣā) and distance from them through their understanding of
Shakyamuni) prostrating at the
emptiness, due to which, the Bodhisattva knows that even after bringing
feet of the past Buddha
countless beings to nirvana, "no living being whatsoever has been brought
Dipankara.
to nirvana."[39] Bodhisattvas and Mahāsattvas are also willing to give up all
of their meritorious deeds for sentient beings and develop skillful means
(upaya) in order to help abandon false views and teach them the Dharma. The practice of Prajñāpāramitā
allows a Bodhisattva to become:

"a saviour of the helpless, a defender of the defenceless, a refuge to those without refuge, a place
to rest to those without resting place, the final relief of those who are without it, an island to those
without one, a light to the blind, a guide to the guideless, a resort to those without one
and....guide to the path those who have lost it, and you shall become a support to those who are
without support."[40]

Tathātā

Tathātā (Suchness or Thusness) and the related term

Dharmatā (the nature of Dharma), and Tathāgata are also
important terms of the Prajñāpāramitā texts. To practice
Prajñāpāramitā means to practice in accord with 'the nature
of Dharma' and to see the Tathāgata (i.e. the Buddha). As
the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra states, these terms
are generally used equivalently: "As the suchness (tathatā)
of dharmas is immovable (acalitā), and the suchness
(tathatā) of dharmas is the Tathāgata.".[41] The Tathāgata is
said in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra to "neither Illustration of Bodhisattva Sadāprarudita (Ever
come nor go". Furthermore, the Aṣṭasāhasrikā weeping), a character in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā
Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra includes a list of synonyms associated Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra Avadana section, which
with Tathāgata as also being "beyond coming and going", is used by the Buddha as an exemplar of those
these include: 1. Suchness (tathatā); 2. Unarisen (anutpāda); who seek Prajñāpāramitā.
3. Reality limit (bhūtakoṭi); 4. Śūnyatā; 5. Division
(yathāvatta); 6. Detachment (virāga); 7. Cessation
(nirodha); 8. Space element (ākāśadhātu). The sutra then states:
 Apart from these dharmas, there is no Tathāgata. The suchness of these dharmas, and the
suchness of the Tathāgatas, is all one single suchness (ekaivaiṣā tathatā), not two, not divided
(dvaidhīkāraḥ). … beyond all classification (gaṇanāvyativṛttā), due to non-existence
(asattvāt).[41]

Suchness then does not come or go because like the other terms, it is not a real entity (bhūta, svabhāva), but
merely appears conceptually through dependent origination, like a dream or an illusion.

Edward Conze lists six ways in which the ontological status of dharmas is considered by the
Prajñāpāramitā:[35]

1. Dharmas are non-existent because they have no own-being (svabhava).

2. Dharmas have a purely nominal existence. They are mere words, a matter of conventional
expression.
3. Dharmas are "without marks, with one mark only, ie., with no mark." A mark (laksana) being a
distinctive property which separates it from other dharmas.
4. Dharmas are isolated (vivikta), absolutely isolated (atyantavivikta).
5. Dharmas have never been produced, never come into existence; they are not really ever
brought forth, they are unborn (ajata).
6. Non-production is illustrated by a number of similes, i.e., dreams, magical illusions, echoes,
reflected images, mirages, and space.

It is through seeing this Tathātā that one is said to have a vision of the Buddha (the Tathāgata), seeing this is
called seeing the Buddha's Dharmakaya (Dharma body) which is a not his physical body, but none other than
the true nature of dharmas.[42]

Negation and Emptiness

Most modern Buddhist scholars such as Lamotte, Conze and Yin Shun have seen Śūnyatā (emptiness,
voidness, hollowness) as the central theme of the Prajñāpāramitā sutras.[43] Edward Conze writes:

It is now the principal teaching of Prajñāpāramitā with regard to own-being that it is "empty." The
Sanskrit term is svabhāva-śūnya. This is a tatpuruṣa compound (one in which the last member is
qualified by the first without losing its grammatical independence), in which svabhava may have
the sense of any oblique case. The Mahayana understands it to mean that dharmas are empty of
any own-being, i.e.,that they are not ultimate facts in their own right, but merely imagined and
falsely discriminated, for each and every one of them is dependent on something other than itself.
From a slightly different angle this means that dharmas, when viewed with perfected gnosis,
reveal an own-being which is identical with emptiness, i.e in their own-being they are empty.[35]

The Prajñāpāramitā sutras commonly use apophatic statements to express the nature of reality as seen by
Prajñāpāramitā. A common trope in the Prajñāpāramitā sutras is the negation of a previous statement in the
form 'A is not A, therefore it is A', or more often negating only a part of the statement as in, “XY is a Y-less
XY”.[44] Japanese Buddhologist, Hajime Nakamura, calls this negation the 'logic of not' (na prthak).[45] An
example from the Diamond sutra of this use of negation is:

As far as ‘all dharmas’ are concerned, Subhuti, all of them are dharma-less. That is why they
are called ‘all dharmas.’[39]
The rationale behind this form is the juxtaposition of conventional truth with ultimate truth as taught in the
Buddhist two truths doctrine. The negation of conventional truth is supposed to expound the ultimate truth of
the emptiness (Śūnyatā) of all reality - the idea that nothing has an ontological essence and all things are
merely conceptual, without substance.

The Prajñāpāramitā sutras state that dharmas should not be conceptualized either as existent, nor as non
existent, and use negation to highlight this: "in the way in which dharmas exist (saṃvidyante), just so do they
not exist (asaṃvidyante)".[46]

Māyā

The Prajñāpāramitā sutras commonly state that all dharmas (phenomena), are in some way like an illusion
(māyā), like a dream (svapna) and like a mirage.[47] The Diamond Sutra states:

"A shooting star, a clouding of the sight, a lamp, An illusion, a drop of dew, a bubble, A
dream, a lightning’s flash, a thunder cloud— This is the way one should see the
conditioned."[48]

Even the highest Buddhist goals like Buddhahood and Nirvana are to be seen in this way, thus the highest
wisdom or prajña is a type of spiritual knowledge which sees all things as illusory. As Subhuti in the
Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra states:

"Even if perchance there could be anything more distinguished, of that also I would say that it
is like an illusion, like a dream. For not two different things are illusions and Nirvāṇa, are
dreams and Nirvāṇa."[49]

This is connected to the impermanence and insubstantial nature of dharmas. The Prajñāpāramitā sutras give the
simile of a magician (māyākāra: 'illusion-maker') who, when seemingly killing his illusory persons by cutting
off their heads, really kills nobody and compare it to the bringing of beings to awakening (by 'cutting off' the
conceptualization of self view; Skt: ātmadṛṣṭi chindati) and the fact that this is also ultimately like an
illusion, because their aggregates "are neither bound nor released".[50] The illusion then, is the
conceptualization and mental fabrication of dharmas as existing or not existing, as arising or not arising.
Prajñāpāramitā sees through this illusion, being empty of concepts and fabrications.

Perceiving dharmas and beings like an illusion (māyādharmatā) is termed the "great armor" (mahāsaṃnaha)
of the Bodhisattva, who is also termed the 'illusory man' (māyāpuruṣa).[51]

Later additions

According to Paul Williams, another major theme of the Prajñāpāramitā sutras is "the phenomenon of
laudatory self reference – the lengthy praise of the sutra itself, the immense merits to be obtained from treating
even a verse of it with reverence, and the nasty penalties which will accrue in accordance with karma to those
who denigrate the scripture."[52]

According to Edward Conze, the Prajñāpāramitā sutras added much new doctrinal material in the later layers
and the larger texts. Conze lists the later accretions as:[27]

1. Increasing sectarianism, with all the rancor, invective and polemics that that implies
2. Increasing scholasticism and the insertion of longer and longer Abhidharma lists
3. Growing stress on skill in means, and on its subsidiaries such as the Bodhisattva's Vow and
the four means of conversion, and its logical sequences, such as the distinction between
 provisional and ultimate truth
4. A growing concern with the Buddhist of faith, with its celestial Buddhas and Bodhisattva and
their Buddha-fields;
5. A tendency towards verbosity, repetitiveness and overelaboration
6. Lamentations over the decline of the Dharma
7. Expositions of the hidden meaning which become the more frequent the more the original
meaning becomes obscured
8. Any reference to the Dharma body of the Buddha as anything different from a term for the
collection of his teachings
9. A more and more detailed doctrine of the graded stages (bhumi) of a Bodhisattva's career.

Prajñāpāramitā in visual art

The Prajnaparamita is often personified as a bodhisattvadevi (female bodhisattva). Artifacts from Nalanda
depict the Prajnaparamita personified as a deity. The depiction of Prajnaparamita as a Yidam deity can also be
found in ancient Java and Cambodian art.

Prajñāpāramitā in Ancient Indonesia

Mahayana Buddhism took root in ancient Java Sailendra court in the 8th century CE. The Mahayana
reverence of female buddhist deity started with the cult of Tara enshrined in the 8th century Kalasan temple in
Central Java. Some of Prajnaparamita's important functions and attributes can be traced to those of the goddess
Tara. Tara and Prajnaparamita are both referred to as mothers of all Buddhas, since Buddhas are born from
wisdom. The Sailendra dynasty was also the ruling family of Srivijaya in Sumatra. During the reign of the
third Pala king Devapala (815-854) in India, Srivijaya Maharaja Balaputra of Sailendras also constructed one
of Nalanda's main monasteries in India itself. Thereafter manuscript editions of the Ashtasahasrika
Prajnaparamita Sutra circulating in Sumatra and Java instigated the cult of the Goddess of Transcendent
Wisdom.[53]

In the 13th century, the tantric buddhism gained royal patronage of king Kertanegara of Singhasari, and
thereafter some of Prajnaparamita statues were produced in the region, such as the Prajnaparamita of
Singhasari in East Java and Prajnaparamita of Muaro Jambi Regency, Sumatra. Both of East Java and Jambi
Prajnaparamitas bear resemblance in style as they were produced in same period, however unfortunately
Prajnaparamita of Jambi is headless and was discovered in poor condition.

The statue of Prajnaparamita of East Java is probably the most famous depiction of the goddess of
transcendental wisdom, and is considered the masterpiece of classical ancient Java Hindu-Buddhist art in
Indonesia. It was discovered in the Cungkup Putri ruins near Singhasari temple, Malang, East Java. Today the
beautiful and serene statue is displayed on 2nd floor Gedung Arca, National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta.

Selected English translations

Prajñāpāramitā statue from East Java,
Indonesia.
 Author Title Publisher Notes Year
Selected Sayings from the Buddhist
Portions of various Perfection
Edward Conze Perfection of Wisdom ISBN 978- Society, 1978
of Wisdom sutras
0877737094 London
Mostly the version in 25,000
The Large Sutra on Perfect University of lines, with some parts from
Edward Conze 1985
Wisdom ISBN 0-520-05321-4 California the versions in 100,000 and
18,000 lines
The Transcendent Perfection of
Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines (h
Dr. Gyurme
ttps://read.84000.co/translation/to
Dorje, for the 84000 (http The complete Prajnaparamita
h11.html)
Padmakara s://read.840 in 10,000 lines, translated 2018,
Translation 00.co/transl from the Tibetan. With hyper- updated
Group (http://ww (Daśasāhasrikāprajñā‐ ation/toh11. linked glossay and Tibetan 2020.
w.songtsen.org/p pāramitā) (https://read.8400 html) text.
admakara/) 0.co/translation/toh11.html)

The Heart Sutra and the

Buddhist Wisdom Books ISBN 0-
Edward Conze Unwin Diamond Sutra with 1988
04-440259-7
commentaries
The Perfection of Wisdom in
Four The earliest text in a
Eight Thousand Lines and its
Edward Conze Seasons combination of strict 1994
Verse Summary ISBN 81-7030-
Foundation translation and summary
405-9
Most of the short sutras:
Buddhist
Perfection of Wisdom in 500
Publishing
Perfect Wisdom; The Short Lines, 700 lines, The Heart
Group,
Edward Conze Prajnaparamita Texts ISBN 0- Sutra and The Diamond Sutra, 2003
Totnes.
946672-28-8 one word, plus some Tantric
(Luzac
sutras, all without
reprint)
commentaries.
A guide to the topic of
Emptiness: The Foundation of emptiness from a Tibetan
Geshe Tashi Wisdom
Buddhist Thought, ISBN 978-0- Buddhist perspective, with 2009
Tsering Publications
86171-511-4 English translation of the
Heart Sutra
Mother of the Buddhas:
Selected verses from the
Lex Hixon Meditation on the Prajnaparamita Quest 1993
Prajnaparamita in 8000 lines
Sutra ISBN 0-8356-0689-9
Foreword by H.H. the Dalai
Lama; illustrated with
The perfection of wisdom, Penguin
R.C. Jamieson Cambridge University Library -
ISBN 978-0-67088-934-1 Viking
Manuscript Add.1464 &
Manuscript Add.1643
The Heart of Buddhist Wisdom:
Plain English Translations of the
Jackson Clear translations and
Heart Sutra, the Diamond-Cutter
Richard H. Jones Square summaries of the most 2012
Sutra, and other Perfection of
Books important texts with essays
Wisdom Texts, ISBN 978-
1478389576
Geshe Kelsang Heart of Wisdom ISBN 0-948006- The Heart Sutra with a Tibetan
Tharpa 2001
Gyatso 77-3 commentary
The Heart Sutra with eight
Elaborations on Emptiness
Lopez, Donald S. Princeton complete Indian and Tibetan 1998
ISBN 0-691-00188-X
commentaries
Lopez, Donald S. The Heart Sutra Explained SUNY The Heart Sutra with a 1987
ISBN 0-88706-590-2 summary of Indian
commentaries
Echoes of Voidness ISBN 0- Includes the Heart Sutra with
Rabten, Geshe Wisdom 1983
86171-010-X Tibetan commentary
The Heart Sutra with a
The Heart of Understanding Parallax
Thich Nhat Hanh Vietnamese Thiền 1988
ISBN 0-938077-11-2 Press
commentary
The Diamond Sutra with a
The Diamond that Cuts Through Parallax
Thich Nhat Hanh Vietnamese Thiền 1992
Illusion ISBN 0-938077-51-1 Press
commentary
The Diamond Sutra: The
Perfection of Wisdom; Text and
The Diamond Sutra with
Red Pine Commentaries Translated from Counterpoint 2001
Chán/Zen commentary
Sanskrit and Chinese ISBN 1-
58243-256-2
The Heart Sutra: the Womb of
Red Pine Counterpoint Heart Sutra with commentary 2004
Buddhas ISBN 978-1593760090
Essence of the Heart Sutra, Wisdom Heart Sutra with commentary
14th Dalai Lama 2005
ISBN 978-0-86171-284-7 Publications by the 14th Dalai Lama
Thunderous Silence: A Formula
English translation of the
For Ending Suffering: A Practical Wisdom
Doosun Yoo Heart Sutra with Korean Seon 2013
Guide to the Heart Sutra, Publications
commentary
ISBN 978-1614290537
The Heart Sutra: A
English translation of the
Kazuaki Comprehensive Guide to the Shambhala
Heart Sutra with history and 2015
Tanahashi Classic of Mahayana Buddhism, Publications
commentary
ISBN 978-1611800968
Unabridged English translation
The Great Prajna Paramita Sutra,
Naichen Chen Wheatmark of Xuanzang's Chinese 2017
Volume 1, ISBN 978-1627874564
rendition (fascicles 1-20)
Unabridged English translation
The Great Prajna Paramita Sutra,
Naichen Chen Wheatmark of Xuanzang's Chinese 2018
Volume 2, ISBN 978-1627875820
rendition (fascicles 21-40)
Unabridged English translation
The Great Prajna Paramita Sutra,
Naichen Chen Wheatmark of Xuanzang's Chinese 2019
Volume 3, ISBN 978-1627877473
rendition (fascicles 41-60)

References
1. Conze, E. Perfect Wisdom: The Short Prajnaparamita Texts, Buddhist Publishing Group, 1993
2. Williams, Paul. Buddhist Thought. Routledge, 2000, pages 131.
3. Williams, Paul. Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations 2nd edition. Routledge, 2009,
pg. 47.
4. Buswell, Robert; Lopez, Donald S. Jr., eds. (2014), The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism,
Princeton University Press pg. 945 "In the PRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ literature and the
MADHYAMAKA school, the notion of production comes under specific criticism (see
VAJRAKAṆĀ), with NĀGĀRJUNA famously asking, e.g., how an effect can be produced from a
cause that is either the same as or different from itself. The prajñāpāramitā sūtras thus famously
declare that all dharmas are actually ANUTPĀDA, or “unproduced.”"
 5. King, Richard (1995), Early Advaita Vedānta and Buddhism: The Mahāyāna Context of the
Gauḍapādīya-kārikā, SUNY Press pg.113 "It is equally apparent that one of the important
features of the Prajnaparamita positition is that of the nonarising (anutpada) of dharmas."
6. Mäll, Linnart. Studies in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā and other essays. 2005. p. 96
7. Guang Xing. The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya
Theory. 2004. pp. 65-66 "Several scholars have suggested that the Prajnaparamita probably
developed among the Mahasamghikas in Southern India, in the Andhra country, on the Krsna
River."
8. Guang Xing. The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya
Theory. 2004. p. 66
9. Harry Falk and Seishi Karashima, A first‐century Prajñāpāramitā manuscript from Gandhāra —
parivarta 1 (Texts from the Split Collection 1) (https://web.archive.org/web/20131004225647/htt
p://iriab.soka.ac.jp/orc/Publications/ARIRIAB/pdf/ARIRIAB-15.pdf). Annual Report of the
International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University XV (2012), 19-61.
10. Williams, Paul. Mahāyāna Buddhism: the Doctrinal Foundations. London, UK: Routledge.
ISBN 0-415-02537-0. p.42
11. Schopen, Gregory. Figments and Fragments of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India. 2005. p. 55
12. Schopen, Gregory. Figments and Fragments of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India. 2005. pp. 31-32
13. Hamar, Imre. Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism. 2007. p. 94
14. Williams, Paul. Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations. 2008. p. 6
15. Conze, Edward. The Short Prajñāpāramitā Texts. 1973. p. 9
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42.
17. Jan Nattier. 1992. The Heart Sūtra : a Chinese apocryphal text? Journal of the International
Association of Buddhist Studies. Vol. 15 (2), p.153-223.
18. "The Heart Sutra Translation and Commentary", 2004. p.22-24
19. Lamotte, Etienne; Gelongma Karma Migme Chodron. THE TREATISE ON THE GREAT
VIRTUE OF WISDOM OF NĀGĀRJUNA (MAHĀPRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀŚĀSTRA) VOL. I
CHAPTERS I – XV COMPOSED BY THE BODHISATTVE NĀGĀRJUNA AND
TRANSLATED BY THE TRIPIṬAKADHARMĀCĀRYA KUMĀRAJIVA OF THE LAND OF
KOUTCHA UNDER THE LATER TS’IN
20. Karl Brunnhölzl "Prajñāpāramitā, Indian “gzhan ston pas“, And the Beginning of Tibetan gzhan
stong" (2011) 197p. https://www.istb.univie.ac.at/cgi-bin/wstb/wstb.cgi?
ID=78&show_description=1
21. Brunnholzl, Karl; Gone Beyond: The Prajnaparamita Sutras The Ornament Of Clear
Realization And Its Commentaries In The Tibetan Kagyu Tradition (Tsadra) 2011, page 42.
22. Heirman, Ann. Bumbacher, Stephan Peter. The Spread of Buddhism. 2007. p. 100
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criticism & hermeneutics in an early Mahāyāna sūtra. (Thesis). Page 41. University of Hong
Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR. Retrieved from https://dx.doi.org/10.5353/th_b4775259
24. Wriggins, Sally Hovey (2004). The Silk Road Journey with Xuanzang. Boulder, Colorado:
WestviewPress. ISBN 0-8133-6599-6. p.206
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WestviewPress. ISBN 0-8133-6599-6. p.207
26. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism
Connecting Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong ,
2012, page 159.
27. Conze, Edward, THE PERFECTION OF WISDOM IN EIGHT THOUSAND LINES & ITS
VERSE SUMMARY,
http://huntingtonarchive.org/resources/downloads/sutras/02Prajnaparamita/Astasahasrika.pdf
28. Williams, Paul; Mahayana Buddhism, the doctrinal foundations, pages 49-50.
29. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism
Connecting Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong ,
2012, page 176.
30. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism
Connecting Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong ,
2012, page 201.
31. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism
Connecting Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong ,
2012, page 149.
32. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism
Connecting Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong ,
2012, page 180-81.
33. Brunnholzl, Karl; Gone Beyond: The Prajnaparamita Sutras The Ornament Of Clear
Realization And Its Commentaries In The Tibetan Kagyu Tradition (Tsadra) 2011, page 28.
34. Brunnholzl, Karl; Gone Beyond: The Prajnaparamita Sutras The Ornament Of Clear
Realization And Its Commentaries In The Tibetan Kagyu Tradition (Tsadra) 2011, page 30.
35. Conze, Edward; The Ontology of the Prajnaparamita, Philosophy East and West Vol.3 (1953)
PP.117-129, University of Hawaii Press
36. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism
Connecting Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong ,
2012, page 124.
37. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism
Connecting Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong ,
2012, page 139-40.
38. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism
Connecting Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong ,
2012, page 141.
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40. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism
Connecting Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong ,
2012, page 271.
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2012, page 233.
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Connecting Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong ,
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Connecting Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong ,
2012, page 107-108.
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criticism & hermeneutics in an early Mahāyāna sūtra. (Thesis). Page 171. University of Hong
Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR. Retrieved from https://dx.doi.org/10.5353/th_b4775259
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48. Harrison, Paul (trans.) Vajracchedika Prajñaparamita Diamond Cutting Transcendent Wisdom,
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51. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism
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Literature
Karashima, Seishi (2010). A Glossary of Lokakṣema's translation of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā
Prajñāpr̄amitā (https://web.archive.org/web/20140108134404/http://iriab.soka.ac.jp/orc/Publica
tions/BPPB/pdf/BPPB-11.pdf) (PDF). Bibliotheca philologica et philosophica Buddhica. Vol XI.
The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology, Soka Univ. ISBN 978-4-
904234-03-7. Archived from the original (http://iriab.soka.ac.jp/orc/Publications/BPPB/pdf/BPP
B-11.pdf) (PDF) on 2014-01-08.
Müller, F. Max, trans (1894). Buddhist Mahâyâna texts Vol.2 (https://archive.org/details/buddhist
mahy02cowe), Oxford, Clarendon Press. (The Vagrakkedikâ, the larger Pragñâ-pâramitâ-
hridaya-sûtra, the smaller Pragñâ-pâramitâ-hridaya-sûtra)
Orsborn, M.B. (2012). Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting
Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra (https://web.archive.org/web/201410281
63743/http://hub.hku.hk/bitstream/10722/181019/1/FullText.pdf) (PDF) (PhD Dissertation). alias
釋慧峰 Shi Huifeng. University of Hong Kong. Archived from the original (http://hub.hku.hk/bitstr
eam/10722/181019/1/FullText.pdf) (PDF) on 2014-10-28. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
Qing, Fa (2001). The development of Prajna in Buddhism from early Buddhism to the
Prajnaparamita system: With special reference to the Sarvastivada tradition (PhD Dissertation).
Advisor: Kawamura, Leslie S. University of Calgary. hdl:1880/40730 (https://hdl.handle.net/188
0%2F40730). ISBN 0612648362.

Vaidya, P.L, ed. (1960). Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā with Haribhadra's Commentary Called
āloka. Buddhist Sanskrit Texts. 4. Darbhanga: The Mithila Institute.

External links
Mahāprajñāpāramitā Mañjuśrīparivarta Sūtra: English Translation (http://lapislazulitexts.com/T0
8_0232.html), Lapis Lazuli Texts
The Prajnaparamita Literature (https://web.archive.org/web/20120129205655/http://users.rcn.c
om/dante.interport/prajna.html) Bibliography of the Prajnaparamita Literature
Lotsawa House (http://www.lotsawahouse.org/topics/prajnaparamita) Translations of several
Tibetan texts on the Prajnaparamita

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