HBET2403

Faculty of Education and Languages
HBET2403
Teaching of Writing in ESL
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

HBET2403
TEACHING OF
WRITING IN ESL
Mariam Mohamed Nor
Abd Halim Ibrahim

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Chung Han Tek
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Mariam Mohamed Nor (Head writer)

Abd Halim Ibrahim
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris
Moderators: Dr Arshad Abd. Samad

Universiti Putra Malaysia
Assoc Prof Dr Alias Mohd Yatim
Editor: Dr Raja Mohammed Fauzi Raja Musa

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, September 2004
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), October 2011, HBET2403

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide xi-xvi
Topic 1 Theoretical Perspectives 1

1.1 Theoretical Perspectives 1
1.2 The Writing Process Model 3
1.2.1 The Task Environment 4
1.2.2 The Writing Process 5
1.2.3 The Planning Process 6
1.2.4 The Translating Sub Process 9
1.3 Reviewing 10
Summary 12
Key Terms 12
Self-Test 12
References 13
Topic 2 Approaches to the Teaching of ESL Writing 15

2.1 The Process Approach 15
2.2 The Prose Model Approach 16
2.3 The Experiential Approach 16
2.4 The Rhetorical Approach 17
2.5 The Epistemic Approach 17
2.6 The Linguistic System Approach 18
2.7 Approaches to the Teaching of ESL Writing 19
2.7.1 The Controlled-to-Free Approach 20
2.7.2 The Free Writing Approach 20
2.7.3 The Pattern-Paragraph Approach 20
2.7.4 The Grammar- Syntax-Organisation Approach 20
2.7.5 The Communicative Approach 21
2.7.6 The Process Approach 21
Summary 22
Key Terms 22
Self-Test 22
References 22
Topic 3 Writing Strategies and Skills 26

3.1 The Writing TeacherÊs Routine 24
3.2 Writing Strategies and Skills 26

iv X TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.3 Writing Strategies 28

3.3.1 Common Strategies Writing Use 28
3.3.2 Characteristics of Intertextuality 30
3.4 The Reading-Writing Connection 34
3.5 Writing Skills 34
3.5.1 Sentence Work 37
3.5.2 Paragraphing 38
3.5.3 Spelling, Punctuation, and Capitalisation Skills 41
3.5.4 Language Skills 42
3.5.5 Reference Skills 43
3.5.6 Handwriting Skills 44
3.6 Teaching Writing Strategies and Skills 45
3.6.1 Guidelines for Teaching Writing Strategies 46
and Skills
3.6.2 The Stages in a Mini-Lesson 47
3.6.3 Demonstrations and Other Teachable Moment 49
3.6.4 Rationale for Teaching Writing Strategies and Skills 49
Summary 50
Key Terms 50
Self-Test 50
References 51
Topic 4 Writing Workshop 59

4.1 Implementing the Writing Workshop 54
4.1.1 Key Points of a Writing Workshop 55
4.1.2 Designing and Managing a Writing Workshop 56
4.1.3 Features of a Writing Workshop 56
4.1.4 Introducing the Workshop 57
4.1.5 The Status of the Class 60
4.1.6 Conferencing 62
4.1.7 Revising 64
4.1.8 Editing 65
4.1.9 Spelling 66
4.1.10 Editing Guidelines 68
4.1.11 Publishing 68
4.2 Writing Practice 69
4.3 Sharing 73
4.4 Writing Centers 75
4.5 Arranging the Classroom for a Writing Workshop 76
4.6 Monitoring ChildrenÊs Progress 76

TABLE OF CONTENTS W v
Summary 77
Key Terms 77
Self-Test 77
References 78
Topic 5 Supporting Students to Write 87

5.1 Techniques to Support Students as They Learn to Write 79
5.1.1 Modeled Writing 81
5.1.2 Shared Writing 81
5.1.3 Interactive Writing at the Primary Level 84
5.1.4 Guided Writing 87
5.1.5 Independent Writing 87
Summary 88
Key Terms 88
Self-Test 88
References 89
Topic 6 Lesson Plans for Writing 100

6.1 Model Lesson Plans 91
6.1.1 A Sample Format of Lesson Plan 92
6.1.2 The Media Model 93
6.1.3 The Assure Model (Learner Centered) 95
6.1.4 GagneÊs Nine Events of Instruction 98
6.1.5 Integrating Skills in Lessons 112
6.1.6 Lessons Plan-Reading 121
6.1.7 Lessons Plan-Writing 129
6.1.8 Lessons Plan for Literature 136
Summary 149
Key Terms 149
Self-Test 149
References 150
Topic 7 Developing a Writing Syllabus 164

7.1 The English Language Curriculum 152
7.2 Primary School Writing Syllabus 152
7.2.1 Aims and Objectives of the English Language 153
Syllabus in Primary Schools
7.3 Writing 153
7.4 The Secondary School Syllabus 156
7.5 Language Use for Aesthetic Purposes 158
7.6 Thinking Skills 159
7.7 Learning How to Learn Skills 159
7.8 Information and Communications Technology (ICT) Skills 159

vi X TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.9 Values and Citizenship 159

7.10 Multiple Intelligences 159
7.11 Knowledge Acquisition 160
7.12 Preparation for the Real Word 160
Summary 161
Key Terms 161
Self-Test 161
References 162
Topic 8 Integration of Skills 178

8.1 Grammar in Writing 163
8.2 Guidelines for Integrating Grammar into 165
Writing Instruction
8.2.1 Text Analysis 167
8.2.2 Guided Writing Practice 170
8.2.3 Dictation 171
8.2.4 Text Elicitation 172
8.2.5 The Conversion 173
8.2.6 Text Completion 175
8.3 Guided Writing Activities 177
8.3.1 Editing 177
8.3.2 Error Detection/Correction Exercises 178
8.3.3 Read-Aloud Technique 179
8.3.4 Algorithms 179
8.3.5 Teacher Correction and Feedback on Errors 180
8.4 Writing About Literature 183
8.4.1 The Components of Literature 184
8.4.2 Writing A Paper on Literature 192
8.5 Model Lesson Plan for the Teaching of Grammar 193
in Writing
Summary 204
Key Terms 204
Self-Test 204
References 205
Topic 9 The Reflective Teacher 224

9.1 Reflection 207
9.2 Foundations for TeachersÊ Doctrines 207
9.3 Doctrines About Learning 208
9.4 Doctrines About Teaching 209
9.5 Doctrines About Language Teaching as a Profession 210
9.6 Self-Report Form on Student-Student Interaction 212

TABLE OF CONTENTS W vii
9.7 TeachersÊ Doctrines Inventory-Approaches to 213

ESL Instruction
9.8 The Role of Teachers in Reflective Teaching 215
9.9 The Nature of Roles 216
9.10 TeacherÊs Role in Cooperative Learning 218
9.11 TeacherÊs Role in Communicative Language Teaching 219
9.12 TeacherÊs Role in the Physical Response Method 219
9.13 Roles Reflecting a Person View of Teaching 221
9.14 Teachers May Select Roles for Themselves 222
9.15 Five Benefits of Reflective Teaching 224
9.16 Developing Reflective Abilities 226
9.16.1 Four Step in Reflective Teaching 228
9.17 Ways to Develop Reflective Thinking Skills 229
9.18 Reflective Journal Activities 229
Summary 231
Key Terms 231
Self-Test 232
References 232

viii X TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE W xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
HBET2403 Teaching of Writing in ESL is one of the courses offered by the Faculty
of Education and Languages, Open University Malaysia. This is a 3 credit hour
course and covers a period of 8 or 15 weeks. It is designed to provide the learners
with a sound knowledge in the teaching of writing in an ESL context. To
complement the knowledge imparted, this module also contains activities and
learning enhancement elements that will help you to build skills to apply the
knowledge to real-life teaching of writing in the ESL context.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This is a compulsory course for all learners of the Bachelor of Education with
Honours (Teaching English as a Second Language) at OUM. Before you begin the
course, please read through the course content, the requirements and how the
course is conducted.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please confirm the course material,
the course requirements and how the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120
study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

xii X COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study Activities Study Hours

Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial
3
discussions
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online Participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS 120
COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Identify the theories and approaches required for effective teaching of
writing;
2. Teach students to write grammatically correct English; and
3. Utilise appropriate writing techniques essential for the teaching of ESL
writing.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 9 topics. The synopsis for each topic is presented
below:
Topic 1 discusses writing from the perspective of cognitive processes.
Topic 2 explores the approaches for both L1 and L2 students.
Topic 3 provides discussions on a writing teacherÊs routine and writing strategies

and skills utilised by competent writers.
Topic 4 discusses the implementation and problems encountered in implementing the

writing workshop.
Topic 5 discusses some effective techniques to support students to learn to write.

COURSE GUIDE W xiii
Topic 6 provides some models of lesson plans to guide teachers in the teaching of
writing.
Topic 7 presents the latest writing syllabus for both primary and secondary
schools.
Topic 8 exposes learners to strategies to be employed when incorporating

grammar in writing.
Topic 9 discusses how teachers reflect on their teaching.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement should help you to organise
your study of this course to be more objective and more effective. Generally, the
text arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely gone through a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your progress of digesting the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It is inserted after you have gone through one sub-
section or sometimes a few sub-sections. It usually comes in the form of a
question that may require you to stop your reading and start thinking. When you
come across this component, try to reflect on what you have already gone
through. When you attempt to answer the question prompted, you should be
able to gauge whether you have understood what you have read (clearly, vaguely
or worse you might find out that you had not comprehended or retained the sub-
section(s) that you had just gone through). Most of the time, the answers to the
questions can be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, activities are also placed at various locations or

junctures throughout the module. Compared to Self-Check, Activity can appear
in various forms such as questions, short case studies or it may even ask you to
conduct an observation or research. Activity may also ask your opinion and
evaluation on a given scenario. When you come across an Activity, you should
try to widen what you have gathered from the module and introduce it to real
situations. You should engage yourself in higher order thinking where you might

xiv COURSE GUIDE
be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate instead of just having to recall

and define.
Summary: You can find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points inside
the summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details from the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargons used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms from the module.
References: References is where a list of relevant and useful textbooks, journals,

articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. This list can appear in a few
locations such as in the Course Guide (at References section), at the end of every
topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read and refer to the
suggested sources to elicit the additional information needed as well as to
enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge is required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
References used in this course are divided into primary and secondary references.
Learners are strongly urged to obtain the primary references as listed in the
Course Guide. Secondary references at the end of the module provide useful
additional information on the topics and issues discussed in the course.
Borich, G. (1996). Effective Teaching Methods. 4th Edition. Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Upper Saddle River.

COURSE GUIDE W xv
Calkins, L.M (1996) The Art of Teaching Writing. (2nd ed). Portsmouth:
Heinemann Celce-Murcia, M (Eds) (1991). Teaching English as a Second or
Foreign Language 2nd ed. Pub. Heimle.
Collins,J.L. (1998), Strategies for Struggling Writers. New York: Guildford.
Cruickshank, D. R., Baiber, D. L., Metcalf. K.K (1999) The Act of Teaching.2nd.
Edition. McGraw-Hill. College: Singapore.
Flower,Linda and John R.Hayes (1981),‰A Cognitive process Theory of Writing,‰
College Composition and Communication 32(4):365-387.
Heaton, J.B. (1975). Writing English Language Tests. London: Longman.
Pollard, A., Triggs.P (1997) Reflective Teaching In Secondary Education. London:
Casell.
Raimes, Ann. (1983) Techniques in Teaching Writing. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Raimes, A. (1988). Grammar Troublespots: An editing guide for ESL
students.New York: St. MartinÊs Press.
Richards, J.C., and Lockhart, C. (1994). Reflective Teaching in Second Language
Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Thompkins, G.E (2000) Teaching Writing. Balancing Process and Product. Third
Edition. Prentice Hall. New Jersey.

xvi X COURSE GUIDE

Topic X Theoretical
1 Perspectives
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Identify the stages of the writing process; and
2. Create activities for each stage.
X INTRODUCTION
This topic introduces the concept of writing from the perspective of Cognitive
Processes in writing. It provides a discussion on three major processes that are
involved in writing, namely planning, translating and reviewing.
1.1 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

Writing is said to be a messy process that leads to clarity. The process approach
to writing involves selecting a topic, generating ideas, organising ideas, drafting,
revising, proofreading and publishing. An environment in which the desire to
write and learn about writing should be created. The writing process is not just
confined to writing. It involves the writers in thinking, discussing, reading,
planning, writing, editing and re-writing. It is a recursive process in which the
writer may begin to write, then make changes and rewrite parts of the text before
the final paper is produced. The writer may even stop in the middle of writing
and confer with friends or refer to books for more ideas.

2 X TOPIC 1 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
Generally, writing is perceived as a process of generating and editing a text

based on the aspects of structure (features of good sentence forms, paragraph
forms and text forms), content (what and how ideas are expressed and how to
relate them in order to achieve coherence) and purpose (the writerÊs goals for
writing and his/her perception of the reader/audience). During the process of
writing, teachers should be aware of difficulties students may face and provide
guidance on how to overcome them.
The process approach has numerous features that help the writer to cope with
the writing process itself. The features are as follows:
• It focuses on the writing process and not the finished written product.
Teachers intervene during the writing process by correcting mistakes and
praising things well done.
• The emphasis and attention is on the act of writing. This often involves
students sharing their works in writing workshops.
• It teaches strategies for invention and discovery. Teachers help students to
discover the purpose for writing and generate content.
• In the writing tasks, rhetoric, audience, purpose and occasion are important
elements.
• The writing process is not linear but is recursive and activities may overlap.
• Writing is perceived as a way of learning and developing communication
skills.
• Writing is viewed as a disciplined and creative activity that can be analysed,
described and taught.
• There is less emphasis on grammar especially during the initial sessions.
• It is based on linguistic and composing process research.
• StudentsÊ essays are developed through multiple drafts.
These features indicate the importance of experiencing the stages in the process
of writing.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
What do you think are the theoretical perspectives behind the

teaching of writing?

TOPIC 1 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES W 3
1.2 THE WRITING PROCESS MODEL

The concept of writing as a „process‰ means that writing is a succession of
actions undertaken to produce a piece of writing. These actions may include
planning, generating ideas, organizing, analyzing, synthesizing, and revision.
Writing is not a simple act and most novice writersÊ attention is typically focused
on the product or the text, and not on the process, specifically, the cognitive
strategies that they utilise while writing. Moreover, most novice writers transfer
what they know about writing from L1 to L2, without realizing that they involve
different processes and strategies. A theory central to an understanding of the
writing process is the idea that writing is an activity that brings about the
discovery of meaning (Scott, 1996).
„Writing processes may be viewed as the writerÊs tool kit. In using the tools, the
writer is not constrained to use them in a fixed order or in stages. And using
any tool may create the need to use another. Generating ideas may require
evaluation, as may writing sentences. And evaluation may force the writer to
think up new ideas‰ (Flower and Hayes, 1981:376)
Flower and Hayes (1981), proposed a model of the writing process (Figure 1.1).
This model illustrates the sub processes and the organisation of the composing
process, as well as the individual differences in the writerÊs composing styles.
Generally, the model facilitates the analysis of writing by dividing the writerÊs
world into three major parts:
• The task environment;
• The writerÊs long-term memory; and
• The writing process.

Figure 1.1: Structure of the writing model

Source: Gregg, L.W and Steinberg, E.R (1980)
Cognitive Processes in Writing. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc
1.2.1 The Task Environment

The task environment and the writerÊs long-term memory are the contexts in
which the model operates. Basically, the task environment influences the writerÊs
performance of the writing task, especially the text which the writer has
produced. The text is of utmost importance because the writer refers to it
repeatedly during the process of writing the composition. Additionally, the
writerÊs long term memory is composed of knowledge of various topics and
intended audiences as well as the outline of the essay, be it a descriptive,
narrative or argumentative genre. Most importantly, the thinking processes
involve questions in the writerÊs mind: who, so what, where, when, how and
why? Also, the task environment includes the writing assignment, the topic, the
intended audience, and what motivates the writer to write. A writerÊs motivation
can be intrinsic or extrinsic.

ACTIVITY 1.1
In your opinion, how does the task environment influence the writer
during the writing process? Discuss.
1.2.2 The Writing Process

The writing process as advocated by Flower and Hayes is composed of three
major processes: planning, translating and reviewing. The planning process
consists of generating, organising, and goal-setting sub processes. During the
planning process, information from the task environment and from long term
memory is utilised to set goals and to formulate a writing plan to guide the
production of a text.
The translating process is part of the writing plan. It assists in producing

language that corresponds to the information in the writerÊs memory. For
example, the writer may be thinking in the first language but has to write in the
target language. Hence, here, translating plays a crucial role. The translating
process can occur automatically in the writerÊs mind or it can be done manually
with the aid of a dictionary or a thesaurus.
The reviewing process is composed of two sub processes: reading and editing.
Both functions to improve the quality of writing by detecting and correcting
errors, such as, language conventions, accuracy of meaning, grammatical aspects
and the writerÊs intended goals.

1.2.3 The Planning Process

The structures of the various processes in planning are shown in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2: The structure of the generating process

Source: Gregg, L.W and Steinberg, E.R (1980) Cognitive
Processes in Writing. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc.

The generating process functions to retrieve information from long term

memory. The information has been accordingly accumulated during the task
environment. Items are retrieved from memory in associative chains. This
retrieval chain is broken whenever an item is retrieved but is not relevant to the
writing task. A search is then restarted with a new memory probe. When a
relevant item is retrieved, the generating process produces a note in the form of
single words, phrases, sentence fragments or sometimes complete sentences.
The function of the organising process, the second sub process of planning is to
select the most essential and relevant materials retrieved by the generating
process and to organise them into a writing outline or plan (Figure 1.3).
Organising is done by the operators as shown in Figure 1.3. The first four of these
operators act on single topics or pairs of topics; for example, the second operator
decides which of two topics to discuss first. The last operator, identifies a
category and may act to classify a large number of topics that were generated
separately under the same heading. Notes generated by the organising process
often have an organisational form, such as systematically indented, numbered or
alphabetised.

Figure 1.3: The structure of the organising process

Source: Gregg,L.W and Steinberg,E.R (1980) Cognitive Processes in Writing.
Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc.
During goal setting, some of the materials retrieved by the generating process
become the criteria used to evaluate the text. The criteria are based on the
writerÊs consideration of the text features or the audience. The same criteria later
can be utilised for editing.

ACTIVITY 1.2
How important is the generating process, and what is the outcome if it is
dismissed? Discuss.
1.2.4 The Translating Sub Process

As for the translating process, information from memory is translated into
written English sentences. It is assumed that information in memory is stored as
propositions. By a proposition, we understand a structure, such as, where
concepts, relations, and attributes are memory structures, perhaps complex
networks or images. To illustrate the operation of the translating process, see
Figure 1.4. Writing conducted during the translating process depicts two
features. Firstly, it comes in the form of complete sentences and secondly, it is
often associated with a protocol segment that contains an interrogative reflecting
search for the next sentence part. This includes questions such as „How can I
expand on this idea?‰, „How can I make this more captivating?‰, „In what way
can this section be made more challenging or to induce the audience to think?‰
Translating is one of the subprocesses of planning, especially for second
language learners.

Figure 1.4: The structure of the translating process

Source: Gregg, L.W and Steinberg,E.R (1980) Cognitive Processes in Writing.
1.3 REVIEWING
The function of the reviewing process is to improve the quality of the written
text. It comprises two sub processes: reading and editing (see Figure 1.5: The
structure of the reviewing process). The editing process evaluates the
information the writer constructs in writing. The purpose is to detect errors in
writing conventions, appropriateness of meaning and the writerÊs intended goal.
These evaluations can be reflected in questions such as: Do I need to add in

more? Have I covered all the section of the writing outline? Have I utilised
sufficient and relevant information?
Figure 1.5: The structure of the reviewing process

Source: Gregg,L.W and Steinberg,E.R (1980) Cognitive Processes in Writing.
Editing comprises two parts: language and error identification. Language

editing, for instance, considers the type of language used, whether it is formal or
informal. Error editing, considers grammatical errors, inappropriate words and
writing conventions. In some cases, editing may trigger the whole writing
process to be repeated recursively. For example, if the writer feels that he needs
to add in more information to support his ideas, then he will have to go back to
generate more ideas. If he feels that his approach is not appropriate, he will have
to reorganise his outline and start from a different perspective so that his writing
is more convincing for the intended audience. Likewise, if he thinks that the
words he had used are too technical, he will have to edit the words and use
common words so that the audience can relate to what he intends to convey. In
short, whatever part of the writing process the writer wants to redo will depend
onhis/her goals for writing, audience type, as well his/her writing style. To

conclude, the writing process is dynamic, with the writer and the text interacting
actively, searching for ways to organise, synthesise, restate, and clarify. This
consequently enhances cognitive strategies and composing behaviors which
complement each other in a quest for meaning and better writing.
To test your understanding, please answer the following activity.
ACTIVITY 1.3
1. Describe the Writing Process Model in your own words.
2. Is the writing process practical to be implemented in your

classroom? If yes, give two reasons. If not, what adjustment can
be made to make it more practical/feasible?
• One approach to teaching writing is the Writing Process Approach.
• It is a cognitive process which guides students to write through a recursive

cycle of planning, translating and reviewing.
Generating Reviewing
Memory probe Task environment
Organising Translation
1. State three features of the process writing approach.
2. Where does the Flower and Hayes (1981) model work?
3. What happens in the translating process?

4. What are the two parts of the editing process?
5. Why do we review?
6. Describe the generating process.

(a) How does a person execute a memory probe?
(b) How would you run a generating process in a small class?
7. What is the basic assumption of the process writing model?

(a) What theory would help in understanding the process writing model?
(b) In your opinion, can the process writing approach be enriched by the
cultural diversity in Malaysian classrooms?
Gregg, L.W and Steinberg, E.R (1980) Cognitive processes in writing.

Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc.( p. 10-23)
Flower, Linda and John R.Hayes (1981),‰A Cognitive process Theory of Writing,‰
College composition and communication 32(4):365-387.
Scott, V.M (1996) Rethinking foreign language writing. Singapore: Heinle &
Heinle Publishers.

Topic X Approaches to
the Teaching
2 of ESL Writing
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe several approaches to L1 and L2 writing and identify the
ones most appropriate to your learnerÊs level; and
2. Describe briefly the approaches and rationalise whether they are
relevant to your learnersÊ needs.
X INTRODUCTION
This topic discusses some approaches to L1 and L2 writing. The approaches to
teaching L1 writing are the Process Approach, the Prose Model Approach, the
Experiential Approach, the Rhetorical Approach, the Epistemic Approach and
the Linguistic System Approach. Hence, teachers can have a repertoire of
approaches to choose from to teach writing.

TOPIC 2 APPROACHES TO THE TEACHING OF ESL WRITING W 15
2.1 THE PROCESS APPROACH
ACTIVITY 2.1
What do you think of the quality of your studentsÊ writing? Why is it

is? Discuss.
Teachers at higher learning institutions are frequently disappointed by the

quality of studentsÊ writing. They complain that students are not adequately
trained and prepared for the kinds of writing assignments that are required in
their courses.
One of the objectives of foreign language instruction is to get students ready to

write in upper level courses. In order to do so, teachers must reexamine their
approaches to teaching writing from the early stages of language study. In other
words, teaching writing should be given high priority at all levels of language
study. While Topic 1 describes numerous considerations with regard to teaching
writing, this topic will review diverse approaches to teaching ESL writing.
Until quite recently, writing was regarded as a kind of production with specific
steps and procedures of achieving it. Current views of writing, which is gaining
acceptance, gives priority to the writing process more than the aspects of finished
texts.
It (art of writing) is occupied with the writerÊs choice making in the

development of texts, the exploratory movement of mind, the discovery of
connections among ideas, the progressive testing and reformulating of
statements. Having had little preparation in the history of discourse theory,
teachers tend to be unfamiliar with the richer concepts of modern rhetoric-
‰composing process,‰ writing-as-learning,‰ coherence,‰ „revision,‰⁄
(Knoblauch and Brannon, 1984: 4-5).
Prevailing views in L1 composition instruction indicate that teachers are

accountable to teach the conventions of writing, the form and the discourse
modes, while not forsaking the individualised cognitive processes of writers.
This viewpoint depicts a smooth transfer in the instructional paradigm from the
idea that writing is a skill that is developed and trained (Knoblauch and
Brannon, 1984).

16 X TOPIC 2 APPROACHES TO THE TEACHING OF ESL WRITING
A multitude of approaches to teaching writing in English has been created and

developed during the past years. Even though the approaches are generally
dissimilar, there is a conception among teachers that awareness of both the
writing process and the product is essential. According to Donavan and
McClelland (1980), the most common approaches to teach composition are the
process approach, the prose model approach, the experiential approach, the
rhetorical approach, and the epistemic approach.
The process approach postulates that teachers should preferably concentrate on

what students are required to experience not just on what they need to know.
Also, teachers and students have to cooperate to develop a meaningful writing
task.
2.2 THE PROSE MODEL APPROACH

According to this approach, students replicate their writing after the model text.
Here, students are guided based on various rhetorical modes. The prose model
approach is often disapproved of because it places emphasis on form, not on
content and this can discourage the students. Eschholz (1980) proposes an
approach that integrates the prose model approach with the process approach to
teaching writing. Here, students have to practice writing many drafts, and then
have group conferences with peers.
2.3 THE EXPERIENTIAL APPROACH

This approach is founded on four assumptions:
• The foremost studentÊs writing is stimulated by personalised experience;
• Writing from experience is executed in various modes of discourse, for
instance expository and academic modes;
• Writing from experience generally necessitates that students write for an
audience other than the teacher; and
• The writing framework is learned as one moulds ideas for an audience.
This approach commonly integrates the process approach for it focuses on
learning by doing (rather than studying rules), peer editing, and self-
assessment (Stephen, 1980).

2.4 THE RHETORICAL APPROACH

According to this approach, writing is not an obscure process but rather an art
that requires practice. This approach is unique in a sense that it requires students
to start writing with questions when they are shaping and developing their
thoughts. In addition, this approach views teaching writing as a rhetorical art by
demonstrating to students how description, narration, classification, and
evaluation can be exploited to structure writing.
For example, a student who is writing about the confidential world of

relationships may choose to write about a relationship with a high school friend
who finally ended up committing suicide. While engaging in this expressive
writing, the student is guided in her exploration of the topic, working through
several stages of recalling the relationship in order to clarify it and discover new
dimensions. The teacher directs her to first define the relationship, state her own
values, and put into words the question she has often asked herself regarding
why her friend had killed herself. She then writes a static view, or a description
of her friend, and a dynamic view, or a narration of the events in their
relationship. In the relative view, she compares herself with her friend, classifies
the type of person her friend was, and writes an analogy comparing her friend to
a coconut ă rough on the outside and sweet on the inside. At this point, it is
suggested that the teacher interact with the student, pointing to avenues for
further inquiry.
ACTIVITY 2.2
What is the difference between the experiential approach and the
rhetorical approach?
2.5 THE EPISTEMIC APPROACH

Dowst (1980) describes the epistemic approach to begin by analysing the basic
features of each approach to writing such as:
• Formalistic (emphasizing language);
• Referential (emphasizing language and reality);
• Expressive (emphasizing writer and language); and
• Rhetorical (emphasizing writer, language and reader).

In addition, he believes that the epistemic approach comprises of writer,

language, and reality that connects writing with knowledge. Here, students
study knowledge of the world and knowledge about the language and prose. For
example, they may first describe the exterior of a building followed by the
procedures of describing it.
2.6 THE LINGUISTIC SYSTEM APPROACH

Horning (1987), proposes that the development of writing proficiency in formal
academic English involves learning a new linguistic system which is similar to
the procedures adults use to learn a second language. In other words, novice
writers develop writing skills and achieve proficiency in the same way that
adults develop second language skills. This is because for novice writers, formal
written English is a recent and discrete linguistic system.
To support her views, Horning cited KrashenÊs Monitor Theory of second

language acquisition. The Monitor Theory is based on five hypotheses:
• Learning and acquisition are two well-defined processes;
• There is a natural order in the acquisition of grammatical structures;
• Learning (as opposed to acquisition) functions only as a monitor for output;
• Language is best acquired when the input is comprehensible yet challenging;
and
• Acquisition takes place when the acquirer is stimulated, self-confident, and
has a low anxiety level.
Based on KrashenÊs Monitor Theory, Horning advocates five components that

relate to L1 writing:
• The written form of language makes up a second language.
• Writing skill progresses through processes of acquisition and learning
• The acquisition of writing skills occurs in a systematic mode.
• The lessons students learn in a basic writing classroom functions only as a
monitor on the product of the writing skills they have acquired.
• To ensure that language acquisition takes place comprehensible input is
important. In order for students to acquire writing skills the affective filter
must be brought down (Horning).

In addition, she maintains that written language is acquired through reading,

internalizing patterns and principles of redundancy, and through a process of
hypothesis testing:
Writers formulate hypotheses about written forms and then test and revise
their production in order to develop their own systems of written language
use. Writers must have an opportunity to test their writing on readers and
get feedback, particularly if they are basic writers (Horning,1987:25).
Although the approaches to teaching L1 writing are different, they intersect and
overlap in many ways. Teachers and researchers who prefer one approach over
another can be assertive in their choices. To conclude, teachers might disagree
about the most advantageous approach to teaching writing, but most would
agree that writing is a crucial skill for ensuring academic success.
2.7 APPROACHES TO THE TEACHING OF ESL

WRITING
One distinct difference between teaching L1 writing and L2 writing is proficiency
in the language of expression. In L1 writing instruction, the teacher takes for
granted that students have some basic command of the language. However, in L2
writing instruction, studentsÊ command of the language plays a critical role.
Raimes (1983) indicates that there are many features that writers have to cope
with when writing in a second language: mechanics, word choice, grammar,
syntax, content, organisation, the writing process, and the audience. Thus, most
approaches to teaching ESL writing will need to focus on both form and content.
Raimes (1983), discusses six different approaches to teaching ESL writing:

• The controlled-to-free approach;
• The free-writing approach;
• The pattern-paragraph approach;
• The grammar-syntax-organization approach; and
• The communicative approach.
• The process approach

ACTIVITY 2.3
What do you think is the difference between teaching L1 writing and L2
writing?
2.7.1 The Controlled-to-Free Approach

This approach heightens the importance of grammar, syntax, and mechanics.
Teaching writing first involves lessons on sentence exercises and then followed
by paragraph writing. For the most part, students practise changing words or
clauses or combining sentences. Later, when students are adept at these kinds of
exercises, they are instructed to do independent writing.
2.7.2 The Free Writing Approach

Here, teachers value quantity over quality in writing and do minimal error
correction. The focus of instruction is on content and audience. Students are
encouraged to be concerned about fluency and content and give fleeting
attention to form. It is believed that studentsÊ grammatical accuracy will develop
over time after much practice.
2.7.3 The Pattern-Paragraph Approach

The analysis and imitation of model texts as well as organisation are the main
aspects of this approach. Here, students have to reproduce model paragraphs,
arrange scrambled sentences, identify or write topic sentences, and insert or
delete sentences. In short, students are taught to establish an awareness of the
features of writing in English.
2.7.4 The Grammar- Syntax-Organisation Approach

This approach requires students to focus on grammar and syntax. Also, they
learn some transitional words, such as: first, then, after that, besides, moreover,
in addition, conversely and finally to organise their texts to be grammatically
coherent.

2.7.5 The Communicative Approach

In this approach the main features are purpose and audience. Specifically,
students are engaged in real-life tasks, such as persuasive writing, writing to
inform, as well as writing informal and formal letters.
2.7.6 The Process Approach

Currently, there has been a shift in focus in ESL writing instruction from product
to process. In the process approach, teachers guide students to discover ideas,
plan, draft, revise, and edit their writing. Here, students are to write numerous
writing drafts until they are satisfied with their product. Teacher feedback is
tailored to assist students reorganise their writing outline; discover new ideas,
words, and sentences to use on subsequent drafts.
Generally, the process approach in ESL has been approved by most schools of
thought. However, some teachers question the validity of this approach
especially for developing writing skills necessary to survive in the academic
community. In reaction to the process approach, some ESL writing teachers have
advocated an approach called „English for academic or special purposes,‰ in
which the focus is on academic writing tasks designed to teach students to write
prose that will be acceptable in the American academic setting
(Silva,1990;Leki,1992).
To test your understanding, please answer the following activity.
ACTIVITY 2.4
1. Choose one approach that is most relevant for your students.
Give two reasons for your choice.
2. Do you know of other approaches which are more appropriate
for your student?

• There are a few approaches to teach writing, relevant to specific contexts.
• You can select the most appropriate approach for your studentsÊ needs and
proficient level.
Communicative Pattern
ESL Prose Model
Experiential Rhetorical
1. What is the major critique of prose model approach?
2. What does the experiential approach focus on?
3. What are the main components of the epistemic approach?
4. What is the basic assumption of the linguistic system approach?
5. What is the free writing approach?
6. Why does the rhetorical approach see writing as an art that requires
practice? Describe how a class using this approach will proceed.
7. How would a student learn under the experiential approach?
Knoblauch, C.H. and Lil Brannon (1984), Rhetorical traditions and the teaching of
writing. Upper Montclair, NJ:Boynton/Cook Publishers, Inc.
Donavan, T.R and B.W, McClelland (Eds.) (1980). Eight approaches to teaching
composition . Urbana IL: National Council of Teachers England.

Eschholz, Paul. A (1980)‰The Prose Models Approach: Using Products as

Process. „ In T.R. Donawan and B.W. McClelland, (Eds.), Eight approaches to
teaching composition: Urbana.IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
Stephen, Judy (1980).The Experiential Approach: Inner Worlds to Outer Worlds.‰

In T.R. Donowan and B.W.. McClelland, (Eds.) Eight approaches to teaching
composition: Urbana.IL: National Council of Teachers of English
Dowst, Kenneth (1980). „The Epistemic Approach: Writing Knowing and

Learning.In T.R.Donawan and B.W.McClelland (Eds.) Eight approaches to
teaching composition: Urbana.IL: National Council of Teachers of English
Horning, Alice, S (1987). Teaching writing as a second language. Carbondale and

Edwardsville,IL: Southern Illinois University Press.
Raimes, Ann. (1983) Techniques in teaching writing. New York: Oxford

University Press.
Silva, Tony. (1990).‰Second Language Composition instruction: Developments,

Issues and Directions.‰ In B. Kroll, (ed.) Second language writing research
insights for the classroom. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Leki, Ilona. (1992). Understanding ESL writers: A guide for teachers. Portsmouth.
NH: Boynton/Cook Publishers.

Topic X Writing
3 Strategies and
Skills
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Compare and contrast a writing teacherÊs routine with your writing
class routine; and
2. Identify ten writing strategies that you can implement in your writing
class.
X INTRODUCTION
This topic provides discussions on a writing teacherÊs routine and writing
strategies and skills utilised by competent writers. It also provides writing skills
that can be implemented by teachers of writing in both the primary and
secondary schools, as well as mini-lessons for writing.
3.1 THE WRITING TEACHER’S ROUTINE
ACTIVITY 3.1
Ponder on your routine as a teacher of writing. What is involved in your
daily routine? Discuss with your coursemates.

TOPIC 3 WRITING STRATEGIES AND SKILLS W 25
The writing teacherÊs job is never-ending. Firstly, he/she models and shares
writing lessons and thinks aloud about what writers do as they write. Secondly,
she guides her students through the writing process, including how to revise and
edit. Her third priority is to read lots of literature to and with her students. While
reading the students focus on sentences in the books they read and learn to
identify examples of figurative language. For instance, students can manipulate
sentences and replicate them according to the structures found in the literature.
The teacherÊs goal is to provide lots of writing practice. In short, she plans lessons
using modeled, shared, interactive, guided, and independent writing. She
structures the studentsÊ writing so that they can apply what they are learning
about writing and what writers do as they write.
The teacher also collects writing samples each month to detect and find
significant changes or improvements in her studentsÊ writing. Improvements in
writing can be as follows:
It (art of writing) is occupied with the writerÊs choice making in the

development of texts, the exploratory movement of mind, the discovery of
connections among ideas, the progressive testing and reformulating of
statements. Having had little preparation in the history of discourse theory,
teachers tend to be unfamiliar with the richer concepts of modern rhetoric-
‰composing process,‰ writing-as-learning,‰ coherence,‰ „revision,‰⁄
(Knoblauch and Brannon, 1984: 4-5).
• StudentsÊ sentence lengths increase and they use more specific and
descriptive words;
• Students construct mind-maps before writing and categorise their writing
into paragraphs according to the sections on their mind-maps;
• Students become more confident in themselves as writers and add wordplay
to their writing;
• Students also become more aware of their audience because they are
beginning to read a sentence or two aloud in their small group each week;
and
• Students begin to engage readers by asking questions such as „So, do you
understand what I mean?‰.
By the end of the first semester, these students are writing, revising and editing
their first drafts. By now, they have learnt about writing strategies and can talk
about what they do as writers. They can consider options, for instance, purpose
and audience when they write instead of writing whatever comes to mind. At the
26 X TOPIC 3 WRITING STRATEGIES AND SKILLS
end of the school year, the writing teacher makes her students write for the
school magazine about a topic that they like.
ACTIVITY 3.2
What are the similarities and differences between this teacher and you?
Your might want to share this with your coursemates.
3.2 WRITING STRATEGIES AND SKILLS

In this section, you will learn about strategic writers and ways to teach students
to use strategies and skills effectively.
Perhaps the most remarkable difference between competent and incompetent

writers is that those who are less successful are not strategic. The writers seem
reluctant to use unfamiliar strategies or those that require much effort. They do
not seem to be motivated or do not expect to be successful. These writers do not
understand or use all stages of the writing process effectively. They also do not
monitor their writing (Garner, 1987). If they do use strategies, they remain
dependent on traditional strategies. Incompetent writers go through the writing
process in a lockstep, linear approach. They use a limited number of strategies,
most often a „knowledge-telling‰ strategy in which they list everything they
know about a topic with little thought given to choosing information that meet
the needs of their readers organizing the information (Dudley-Marling, 1996).
In contrast, competent writers understand the recursive nature of the writing

process and turn to peers for feedback about how well they are communicating.
They are more responsive to the needs of the audience who will read their
papers, and they work to organise their paper in a cohesive manner.
The difference between strategies and skills are as shown in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: The Difference Between Strategies and Skills
Strategies Skills
Strategies are problem-solving behaviors Skill are information-processing

that writers use thoughtfully and techniques that writers use automatically
conciously. and unconsciously

Teachers model skill and strategy use and take advantage of teachable moments
to explain their use.
Table 3.2 shows some differences between competent and incompetent writers. It
is a comparison between capable and novice writers (Adapted from Faigley,
Cherry, Jolliffe, & Skinner (1985).
Table 3.2: Differences Between Competent and Incompetent Writers
Competent Writers Incompetent Writers
Competent writers adjust how they write Incompetent writers disregard audience,
depending on their purpose for writing purpose, and form.
and the audience who will read the
composition.
Competent writers use the writing Incompetent writers go through the

process flexibly. writing process in a lock-step, linear
approach.
Competent writers focus on developing Incompetent writers regard writing as

ideas and communicating effectively. printing words on paper.
Competent writers refer to peers for feed- Incompetent writers are uncooperative.
back on how they are communicating.
Competent writers monitor how well Incompetent writers are unable to

they are communicating in the piece of evaluate their writing.
writing.
Competent writers use formats and Incompetent writers do not know how to
structures for stories, poems, letters, and acclimatize their writing structure
other texts. according to the assignment.
Competent writers utilize a variety of Novice writers use few strategies, most
strategies and monitor their strategy use. often a knowledge-telling strategy.
Competent writers disregard or pay less Novice writers are more concerned with
attention to mechanical correctness until mechanics than ideas.
the end of the writing process.
Competent writers evaluate their writing Novice writers assume that longer is
according to how well they communicate better and neater is better.
with their audience.

3.3 WRITING STRATEGIES
SELF-CHECK 3.1
What do you think is the purpose of writing strategies?
Students learn and use strategies for writing. Writing strategies are „deliberate
thinking procedures writers use to solve problems that they encounter while
writing‰ (Collins, 1998, p. vii). Strategic writers take conscious and deliberate
control of the writing process. They select and use appropriate strategies,
organize ideas for writing, monitor the development of their compositions, and
revise their meaning as they refine their writing (Lewin, 1992).
3.3.1 Common Strategies Writing Use

Five common strategies that writers use are shown in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1: Five common strategies that writers use

(a) Exploit Prior Knowledge

Students think about what they already know about the topics as they
prepare to write. This knowledge includes information and vocabulary
about the topics as well as information about authors and literary genres.
StudentsÊ knowledge is stored in schemata (or categories) and linked to
other knowledge through a complex network of interrelationships. As
students learn, they add new information to their schemata. Students
brainstorm ideas, draw pictures, reread books and notes they have written,
and talk with classmates as they exploit prior knowledge.
(b) Plan Their Writing

Students make clusters, data charts, and outlines to plan ideas and to group
ideas and words before writing, and they often refer to their organisational
plans as they write. The way students plan ideas varies depending on
whether they are writing stories, informational books, letters, or poetry.
Each type of text has unique organisational patterns. When students write
stories, for example, they often organise the events into the narrative genre :
the beginning, middle, and end. When they write informational books, they
often use sequence, comparison, or cause-and-effect structures. When they
write poetry, students use various poetic forms, including haiku and „I
Am‰ poems.
(c) Visualising
Students write descriptions and sensory details to make their writing more
vivid and bring it to life for the people who will read it. Sometimes teachers
have students brainstorm lists of words related to each of the five senses
and then incorporate some of the sensory words into their writing. Adding
dialogue is another way that students make their characters more vivid.
Teachers also teach mini-lessons on figurative language, including
metaphors, similes, personification, alliteration, and onomatopoeia, and
encourage students to use figurative language to strengthen their writing.
(d) Summarising
Students select the main ideas and write a condensed version when they
summarise. When they take notes, use the note-taking/note-making
activity, or write summaries in journal entries, students are using
summarising as a learning tool. They also summarise when they write
reports, letters, or other formal pieces of writing.
(e) Making Connections

Students recall similar experiences and make associations to these
experiences when they write. Making these associations personalises and
enriches studentsÊ writing. Similarly, students recall books they have read

as they write similar books. The associations students make to books they
have read previously are called „intertextuality‰ (de Beaugrande, 1980).
Students also use intertextuality as they incorporate ideas and structures
from the stories they have read into the stories they are writing.
ACTIVITY 3.3
In your opinion, what is the purpose of visualising in writing

strategies? Discuss.
3.3.2 Characteristics of Intertextuality

The Characteristics of Intertextuality (Cairney, 1990, 1992) is shown in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2: Characteristics of intertextuality (Cairney, 1990, 1992)
(a) Individual and Unique

In most cases studentsÊ literary experiences and the connections they make
among them are different. For instance, it will depend on their educational
and social backgrounds.

(b) Dependent on Literary Experiences

Intertextuality is dependent on the types of books students have read, their
purpose for and interest in reading and writing, and the literary
communities to which students belong. For one thing students who have a
home library that is stocked with a wide array of literary texts will be at an
advantage.
(c) Metacognitive Awareness

Most students are aware of intertextuality and consciously making
associations among texts. This is particularly true of competent writers and
readers.
(d) Links to the Concept of Story

StudentsÊ connections among stories are linked to their knowledge about
literature. In fact students who had read literature books from varied
settings will be more openminded in their thinking.
(e) Reading-Writing Connections

Students make associations between stories they read and stories they
write. They make associations as they brainstorm ideas for writing and
visualise stories they are writing based on their wide and diverse reading.
(f) Revising Meaning

Writing is a process of making meaning, and as students write they are
continually revising the compositions they are creating. As they reread their
compositions, they ask themselves if what they are writing fits their
purpose and meets the needs of their audience. Students meet in writing
groups for classmates to read and react to their rough drafts so that writers
can revise their writing and make it stronger. Writers revise on the basis of
the feedback they get from classmates. As they revise, students add words
and sentences, make substitutions and deletions, and move text around to
communicate more effectively. They also add titles and illustrations to
clarify meaning.
(g) Monitoring
Students coordinate all writing-related activities and check on how well
they are communicating as they monitor their writing. They ask themselves
questions and use fix-up strategies, such as seeking help from peers or
doing more prewriting when they are experiencing ÂwriterÊs blockÊ.

(h) Playing with Language

By and large, students incorporate figurative and novel uses of language in
their writing. They use metaphors and similes, write idioms, alliterations,
and personification, add jokes, riddles, and rhymes, and invent new words.
(i) Generalising
In general, students draw out main ideas and details and use the main ideas
to make inferences to direct readers through the text. Students identify
main ideas as they make clusters, write topic sentences to organise
paragraphs, and write conclusions. To illustrate they create graphic
organisers based on the reading text and use that as an overview to the
chapter.
(j) Evaluating
Students make judgments about, reflect on, and evaluate their writing.
They use selfassessments, rubrics, and checklists to reflect whether their
writing is effective. They think about what they have experimented with in
a particular piece of writing and reflect on the writing processes that they
used. As a strategy, evaluation is the studentsÊ own thinking about their
goals and accomplishments.
Being strategic is an important characteristic of learning. There are many reasons

why it is important that students become strategic writers. Consider five of the
most important ones. First, effective strategies allow students to generate,
organise, and elaborate meaning more expertly than they could otherwise.
Second, children learn all sorts of cognitive strategies, including reading,
mathematical, and scientific investigation strategies, during the elementary
grades, and the acquisition of writing strategies coincides with this cognitive
development. As students learn to reflect on their learning, for example, they
learn to reflect on themselves as writers; and as they learn to monitor their
learning, they learn to monitor their writing. Many of the cognitive strategies that
Students learn have direct applications on writing. In this way, childrenÊs
growing awareness about thinking and their writing are mutually supportive.
Third, strategies are cognitive tools that students can use selectively and flexibly.
In order for students to become independent writers, they need to be able to
apply these thinking tools. Fourth, writing is a tool for learning across the
curriculum, and strategic writing enhances learning in math, social studies,
science, and other content areas. ChildrenÊs competence in writing affects all
areas of the curriculum.
Teachers can teach students how to apply writing strategies (Paris, Wasik, &
Turner, 1991). They can demonstrate and explain strategic writing and provide

students with lots of guided practice. Table 3.3 illustrates the strategies used by
writers and sample activities that teachers can implement to teach the strategies
used.
Table 3.3: Strategies Used by Writers and Sample Activities
Strategy Explanation Sample Activities

Tapping prior Students think about what they already Brainstorm ideas.
Knowledge know about the topic. Draw pictures.
Talk with classmates.
Organising StudentÊs group and sequence ideas Cluster ideas.
ideas before writing. Make data charts.
Make an outline.
Visualising Students use description and sensory Add sensory words.
details to make their writing more vivid. Write dialogue.
Use metaphors and
similes.
Summarising Students write the main ideas or events Take notes.
in a text they have read or written. Take notes/Make notes.
Write journal entries
Making Students recall similar experiences or Brainstorm ideas.
connections similar books they have read as they Write books pattern.
write.
Revising Students add words and sentences,make Reread.
meaning substitutions and deletions, and move Participate in a writing
texts around to communicate group.
more effectively. Make revisions.
Monitoring Students coordinate all writing-related Reread.
activities, check how well they are Ask self-questions.
communicating, and ask selfquestions.
Playing with Students incorporate figurative and Cluster ideas.
language novel uses of language in their writing. Write topic sentences.
Write conclusions.
Generalising Students draw out main ideas and Self-assess the writing.
details and use main ideas to direct Use rubrics.
readers through the compositions. Write reflections.
Evaluating Students make judgments about,
reflect on, and value their writing.

3.4 THE READING-WRITING CONNECTION

Writing strategies are utilised when students read and use other language skills
(Tompkins, 1997). Consider one strategy-organising ideas. Students organise
ideas before writing, and this organisation facilitates readersÊ understanding of
the written text. Readers also organise ideas as they read, and this organisation
facilitates their comprehension. When students are reading stories, for example,
they organise ideas into the beginning, middle, and end, and they understand the
roles of foreshadowing, plot development, setting, point of view, and theme.
They expect stories to be structured in specific ways, and they use this
organisation to understand the stories.
Students also use the organisation of other types of texts to aid comprehension.
When students read informational books, they use expository text structures, and
when they read poetry, they recognise and use poetic structures. Students also
use the organizing strategy when they listen, talk, and view. When they view
videos, for instance, students organise ideas in much the same way as when they
read. Similarly, when they talk, they use the strategy much like the ones they use
in writing. As they plan their projects, they use the organising strategy to
structure the information they will present.
3.5 WRITING SKILLS

Skills are information-processing techniques that writers use automatically and
unconsciously as they construct meaning. Many writing skills focus on words
and parts of words, but some require writers to attend to larger chunks of text.
For example, writers employ word-level skills such as forming contractions,
choosing the appropriate homophones, and capitalising peopleÊs names, but they
use sentence-level skills when they punctuate sentences, combine sentences, and
write alliterative sentences. Other skills focus on paragraphs, as when students
formulate topic sentences, indent paragraphs, and keep to a single topic in a
paragraph.
During primary school, students learn to use five types of writing skills:
(a) Structuring skills.
(b) Spelling, punctuation, and capitalisation skills.
(c) Language skills.
(d) Reference skills.
(e) Handwriting skills.

Students use some of these skills, such as spelling skills, almost every time they
pick up a pencil to write, but they use other skills only for one type of writing or
another. When they write in reading logs, for example, students underline titles
of books and sequence events. In contrast, when students write letters, they write
dates and use commas after the greeting and the closing. Even though students
do not use every skill listed for any particular writing task, competent writers are
familiar with most of these skills and can use them automatically whenever they
are needed. The following lists each of the writing skills and sub-skills in more
details.
(a) Structuring Skills

Students use structuring skills as they construct sentences, categorise
sentences into paragraphs, and organise the entire composition. By the time
children come to school, they have developed a sophisticated system of
syntactic rules. In fact, kindergarten and primary level learners use most of
the sentence structures that adults use. They have developed a concept of
story and can distinguish between stories and informational books (Pappas,
1993). Above all, during the primary levels students learn written-language
structures through reading and writing.
The structuring skills and sub-skills are as follows:

• Use simple, compound and complex sentences.
• Imitate, combine and expand sentences.
• Avoid fragmented sentences.
• Combine sentences into paragraphs.
• Use topic sentences in paragraphs.
• Sequence ideas.
• Categorise information.
• Identify cause and effect.
• Compare and contrast ideas.
• Use organisational patterns of poetry, plays, business and friendly
letters, stories, essays and reports.
• Use genre characteristics in writing folktales.
• Tell tales, myths, science fiction, informational books, ABC books,
biography, autobiography and poetry.

ACTIVITY 3.4
Why are structuring skills essential in writing? Discuss.
(b) Spelling, Punctuation, and Capitalisation Skills

• Say out words.
• Apply spelling rules.
• Divide words into syllables.
• Recognise root words.
• Add affixes.
• Choose among homophones.
• Proofread.
• Consult a dictionary.
• Use a spell-checker.
• Use abbreviations.
• Punctuate the end of sentences with periods, question marks, or
exclamation points.
• Use quotation marks to mark dialogue.
• Use commas and semicolons within sentences.
• Use commas in dates and letters.
• Use apostrophes in possessives and contractions.
• Capitalise words at beginning of sentences.
• Capitalise proper nouns and adjectives.
(c) Language Skills

• Use similes and metaphors.
• Use alliteration.
• Use idioms and slang appropriately.
• Play with rhyme and other poetic devices.
• Choose synonyms and antonyms.
(d) Reference Skills

• Sort in alphabetical order.
• Use a dictionary.
• Locate information in an encyclopedia, atlas, almanac, or other
reference book.
• Locate synonyms in a thesaurus.
• Read and create tables of contents.
• Read and create indexes.
• Read and create graphs, tables, and diagrams.
• Read and create timelines and lifelines.
• Read newspapers and magazines.
• Use bibliographic forms.
(e) Handwriting Skills

• Form manuscript letters legibly and fluently.
• Form and connect cursive letters legibly and fluently.
• Space appropriately between letters, words, sentences and paragraphs.
3.5.1 Sentence Work

The four types of sentence work (Killgallon, 1998) that can be implemented by
teachers to allow students to practise the structuring skills are as follows:
(a) Sentence Unscrambling

The teacher selects a sentence from a book children are reading and breaks
it apart into phrases and clauses. Then students rearrange the parts to make
a sentence and compare the sentence they have formulated with the
original sentence.
(b) Sentence Imitating

Students write a new sentence that models the structure of a sentence taken
from a book they are reading.
(c) Sentence Combining

The teacher takes a sentence from a book children are reading and breaks it
into several simple sentences. Then students combine the short sentences to

make a more sophisticated sentence. They also compare the sentence they
construct with the original sentence.
(d) Sentence Expanding

The teacher selects a complex sentence from a book children are reading and has
students expand the nucleus of the sentence into a longer sentence in the
authorÊs style. Then students compare their sentence with the original sentence.
3.5.2 Paragraphing
This is an important structuring skill. Children in the primary school learn that a
paragraph is a group of sentences that tells about one idea, and that the first
sentence is indented five spaces from the left margin. They analyse paragraphs to
learn that each sentence in the paragraph contributes to the development of the
idea, and that the sentences must be in a logical order so that readers understand
the information. They also learn about the following parts of a paragraph:
(a) Topic sentence

A paragraph begins with a topic sentence that tells readers what the
paragraph is about. A topic sentence has two main parts: a specific subject
and a focus. The subject has to be small enough to be explained in one
paragraph. A focus is usually a feeling or attitude about the subject.
(b) The body

The middle of the paragraph is the body. It includes sentences between the
topic sentence and the closing sentence. These sentences give readers all the
information needed to understand the topic.
(c) The closing sentence

The paragraph ends with a closing sentence which sums up the information
in the paragraph or tells what the information means.
Of course, not all paragraphs follow this basic structure, but many do, and this
structure is a useful one for young writers.
Writers vary the information they put into paragraphs, particularly the body of
the paragraph, according to their purpose for writing. When students are writing
a descriptive paragraph, for example, they include sensory and figurative
information, as this „snapshot of life‰ paragraph written by one of the students
shows:

The baby loves to eat strained squash. He smiles as he sits in the high-chair,
watching Mom heat the jar of squash in the microwave. ItÊs his fa-vorite
food! He claps his little fists together like he is applauding when Mom takes
the baby spoon to scoop up his first mouthful of stuff that looks like orange
mashed potatoes. And it smells worse. Mom lifts the spoon. He opens his
mouth. In goes the first spoonful of squash. Then another and another. Now
and then the baby spits some out. There are morsels of orange everywhere
even on the tip of his nose.
(Source: Thompkins, 2000)
In contrast, when students write a persuasive paragraph, they state their view-
point and try to persuade readers to their point of view. For narrative
paragraphs, students write events to tell a story. And for expository paragraphs,
students provide information using sequencing, comparison, or other text
structures.
Students use hierarchical structures to organise their writing, and these

structures vary depending on the genre of their composition. Students use story
structures such as beginning, middle, and end when they write stories, and use
expository structures such as sequencing, comparison, and cause and effect for
ABC books, reports, and informational books. They also use poetic structures
when they write poems. In upcoming topics, you will learn more about narrative,
expository, and poetic structures.

Table 3.4: Summary of Information about Four Types of Paragraphs
Type Description Applications
Descriptive A descriptive paragraph describes a • Observe scene and

person, place, thing, or idea. Writers use write a description.
the five senses and figurative language, • Describe photographs
including personification, onomatopoeia, and pictures.
and comparisons, so that readers will feel • Observe plants and
as though they are right there with the animals and write
author. descriptions.
Narrative A narrative paragraph tells a story by • Narrate historical

sharing the details of an experience, events.
including the beginning, middle, and end. • Rewrite familiar
Writers answer the five W's (who, what, stories.
when, where, and why) and include • Observe events and
colorful details. write a narration.
Persuasive A persuasive paragraph gives the writer's • Write a letter to the

opinion on a topic and tries to get readers editor of a local
to agree with it. Writers present facts and newspaper.
examples to back up their opinions. • Write persuasive letter
to parents Write a
book or movie review.
Expository An expository paragraph presents • Write steps in the life
information about a topic. It may explain cycle of an animal or
ideas, give directions, or show how to do plant.
something. Writers often use cue words • Write directions for
(e.g., first, second, third, in contrast, making something.
therefore).
• Compare book and
video versions of a
story.
• Write scientific cause
and effect.
• Write about historical
problems and
solutions.

3.5.3 Spelling, Punctuation, and Capitalisation Skills
ACTIVITY 3.5
At which stage of the writing process is the spelling skill
important?
Spelling, punctuation, and capitalisation are the traditional „mechanics‰ of

writing. Students apply spelling patterns, add affixes to root words, use
abbreviations, and use the dictionary to check spellings as they write words and
when they proofread. Students focus on these skills during the editing stage of
the writing process.
During the primary stage, students learn that capital letters divide sentences and
signal important words within sentences. Consider how the use of capital letters
affects the meaning of these three sentences:
They were going to the garden seafood for dinner. They were going to the
Garden Seafood for dinner.
(S. Wilde, 1992: 18)
Capital letters also express loudness of speech or intensity of emotion because

they stand out visually.
Children often begin writing during the preschool years using only capital
letters; during kindergarten and first grade, they learn the lowercase forms of
letters. They learn to capitalise, the first word in a sentence, and names and other
proper nouns and adjectives. By the upper primary stage, the most common
problem is overcapitalisation, or capitalising too many words in a sentence. This
problem tends to persist into adolescence and even into adulthood because
students have trouble differentiating between common and proper nouns
(Shaughnessy, 1977). Too often students assume that „important‰ words in the
sentence should be capitalised.
ItÊs a common assumption that punctuation marks signal pauses in speech, but
punctuation plays a greater role than that, according to Sandra Wilde (1992).
Punctuation marks both signal grammatical boundaries and express meaning.
Some punctuation marks indicate sentence boundaries. Periods, question marks,
and exclamation points mark sentence boundaries and indicate whether a
sentence makes a statement, asks a question, or expresses an exclamation. In
contrast, commas, semicolons, and colons mark grammatical units within
sentences. Quotation marks and apostrophes express meaning within sentences.

Quotation marks are used most often to indicate what someone is saying in a
dialogue, but a more sophisticated use is to express irony, as in My son „loves‰ to
bake cakes. Apostrophes are used in contractions to join two words and in
possessive nouns to show relationships.
Consider the different meanings of these phrases:
The dogÊs barking (and itÊs running around the house).

The dogÊs barking (irritate us; we wanted to kill it).
The dogsÊ barking (irritate us; we wanted to kill them).
(We listened all night to) the dogÊs barking.
Researchers have documented that learning to use punctuation, like spelling and
capitalisation, is a developmental process. Beginning in the preschool years,
children notice punctuation marks and learn to discriminate them from letters
(Clay, 1975, 1991; Ferreiro & Teberosky, 1982). In kindergarten and first grade,
children are formally introduced to the end-of-sentence punctuation marks and
learn to use them conventionally about half the time (Cordeiro, Giacobbe, &
Cazden, 1983). Many beginning writers use punctuation marks in more
idiosyncratic ways, such as between words and at the end of each line of writing,
but over time, childrenÊs usage becomes more conventional. Edelsky (1983)
looked at first through third-grade bilingual writers and found similar
developmental patterns for second-language learners.
3.5.4 Language Skills

Writing involves choosing precise and imaginative language, and children learn
language skills to make their writing more interesting during the elementary
grades. They learn about synonyms and how to use a thesaurus to choose exactly
the right word. For example, children learn more precise words for said, such as
cried and mentioned, and more descriptive words for noise, such as racket and
uproar. They also learn to use these five types of figurative language:
(a) Alliteration
Writers use several words that begin with the same sound side by side in a
sentence. Third graders wrote silly sentences such as The king sat in the
kitchen with a kangaroo, tying a key on a kite and included two or three
words beginning with the same sound in more serious sentences, such as
The fox with orange fluffy fur trotted out of sight behind the barn.

(b) Onomatopoeia
Writers use sound words rather than descriptions of sounds to enliven their
writing. A fifth grader wrote, for example, The truck coughed and then the
engine died.
(c) Personification
Writers attribute human characteristics to inanimate objects, and then use
words normally used to describe people to describe the inanimate objects.
Eighth graders wrote The pigeon tiptoed across the telephone wire and The
moon winked and then a cloud covered it.
(d) Similes
Writers create comparisons using like or as to compare two things. In this
example written by a seventh grader, The jet was as sleek as a porpoise, the
student compares an airplane to an aerodynamic animal.
(e) Metaphors
Writers create comparisons, and these comparisons are stronger because
like or as is not used. Compare these two versions of the same idea: The
ballerina was as graceful as a swan (simile) and The ballerina was a graceful
swan (metaphor). The metaphor is more powerful than the simile, donÊt
you think? Most students write similes more easily than metaphors, but
they can be helped to turn their similes into metaphors during the revising
stage of the writing process.
ACTIVITY 3.6
How does figurative language enhance studentsÊ writing? Discuss.
3.5.5 Reference Skills

Writers use a variety of reference tools, and elementary students learn about the
useful information in dictionaries, thesaurus, and other reference books, as well
as how to use these resources. Students also learn to use atlases and almanacs,
and the Internet is becoming increasingly useful as a reference tool. Students
enjoy using computers to conduct research; they can locate all sorts of
information on-line.
Students also learn reference skills to locate and read information in

informational books. The index is probably the most common reference tool, but

students also learn to locate information in photos and their captions, charts,
figures, maps, and other diagrams.
3.5.6 Handwriting Skills

Students develop effective manuscript and cursive handwriting skills so that
they can write legibly and fluently. They learn how to form upper and lowercase
forms of the letters and how to join cursive letters. Students develop preferences
for using manuscript or cursive writing, and they learn to vary how neat their
writing is, depending on whether their purpose is public or private.
The goal is for students at the primary level to develop legible and fluent
handwriting. Their handwriting must be legible so that readers can understand
what they have written, and fluent so that their writing is not laborious and slow.
There are six elements of legible and fluent handwriting, namely:
(a) Letter Formation

Letters are formed with specific strokes. Letters in manuscript handwriting
are composed of vertical, horizontal, and slanted lines plus circles or parts
of circles. Cursive letters are composed of slanted lines, loops, and curved
lines. An additional component in cursive handwriting is the connecting
stroke used to join letters.
(b) Size and Proportion

During the primary stage, studentsÊ handwriting becomes smaller, and the
proportional size of upper-case to lowercase letters increases from 2:1 to 3: 5.
(c) Spacing
Students leave adequate space between letters in words and between words
in sentences.
(d) Slant
Letters should be consistently parallel. Letters in manuscript handwriting
are vertical, and letters in the cursive form slant slightly to the right, or
vertical or slightly to the left for left-handed writers.
(e) Alignment
For proper alignment in both manuscript and cursive handwriting, all
letters should be uniform in size and consistently touch the baseline.

(f) Line Quality

Students should write at a consistent speed and hold their writing
instruments correctly and in a relaxed manner to make steady, unwavering
lines of even thickness.
3.6 TEACHING WRITING STRATEGIES AND

SKILLS
Teachers can use both direct and indirect instructions to teach writing strategies
and skills. When teachers teach mini-lessons and other lessons, they directly and
explicitly provide information and guide students as they explore skills and
strategies. Also, as part of direct instruction, students apply concepts they are
learning in their own writing. In contrast, through indirect instruction, teachers
model skills and strategies or implicitly or informally explain skills and
strategies.
All five types of writing provide opportunities for instruction; sometimes the
instruction is direct, but at other times it is indirect. When teachers design a
modeled writing lesson to write a poem, for example, they demonstrate writing
strategies and skills for students, and when they teach a guided writing lesson to
create an innovation on a book, students practice using writing strategies and
skills with teacher guidance. Even when students are doing independent writing,
they are applying strategies and skills they are learning. When students confer
with the teacher during independent writing, teachers use teachable moments
created when students make comments and ask questions to teach brief lessons.
The purpose of instruction is to enhance studentsÊ awareness of strategic writing

so that they can plan, evaluate, and regulate their own thinking. Through both
direct and indirect instruction, students learn information about strategies and
skills, and then they learn when and how to use them during writing (Duffy &
Roehler, 1991; Duffy et al., 1987). Teachers scaffold and support studentsÊ
developing writing strategies and skills through interaction with authentic and
meaningful texts. As Kucer (1991) explains, „the ability to link classroom-based
literacy lessons with real-world, authentic reading and writing experiences is
critical if our instruction is to promote literacy development in the children we
teach‰.

3.6.1 Guidelines for Teaching Writing Strategies and

Skills
Ineffective instruction often focuses on isolated skills followed by lots of practice
on worksheets. In contrast, effective instruction orientates students to the task of
constructing meaning from texts and provides a variety of tactics to use during
the writing process. In a study of two third-grade classes, Calkins (1980) found
that the students in the class who learned punctuation marks as a part of editing
conferences during writing workshop could define or explain more marks than
the students in the other class who were taught punctuation marks in a more
traditional manner, with instruction and practice exercises on each punctuation
mark. Calkins concluded that a functional approach to the teaching of the
mechanics of writing is more effective than practice exercises. This research
documents that childrenÊs knowledge of how to use punctuation marks, like
other skills, develops from an early awareness through exploration and gradual
refinement to increasingly conventional use during the elementary grades
(Wilde, 1992).
(a) Teach Mini-lessons

Mini-lessons (Atwell, 1998) are brief, 15 to 30-minute direct-instruction
lessons designed to help students learn writing skills and become more
strategic writers. Sometimes the strategies and skills are taught in a single
lesson, and at other times the lessons are extended and take place over
several days. Students are made aware of why it is important to learn the
strategy or skill, and they are explicitly taught how to use a particular
strategy or skill. While teachers sometimes use mini-lessons to teach
concepts listed in the syllabus, the best time to teach a mini-lesson is when
students ask questions, demonstrate the need for instruction, or are
developmentally ready to learn a skill or strategy. Teachers who carefully
observe and listen to their students recognise when students are ready for
mini-lessons on particular skills and strategies.
(b) Differentiate Between Strategies and Skills

Teachers understand that strategies are problem-solving tactics, while skills
are automatic behaviors that writers use, and they differentiate between
strategies and skills as they teach mini-lessons and demonstrate writing.
They are also careful to use the terms strategies and skills correctly when
talking to students.
(c) Provide Step-by-Step Explanations

Teachers provide step-by-step explanations of the skills and strategies so
that it is sensible and meaningful to students. For skills, teachers
demonstrate how experienced writers use skills in modeled and shared
writing. For strategies, they use think-aloud procedures to show how

experienced writers solve problems and monitor their writing. Teachers
also explain to students why they should learn the strategy or skill, and
how using it will make writing easier.
(d) Model How to Use Strategies

Teachers model using strategies in the context of authentic writing
activities, rather than in isolation, and students are also encouraged to
model using strategies for classmates.
(e) Provide Practice Opportunities

Students have opportunities to practice the strategy or skill in meaningful,
authentic writing activities. Teachers need to ensure that all students are
successful in using the strategy or skill so that they will be motivated to use
it independently. The more opportunities students have to use the strategy
or skill, the more likely they are to learn it.
(f) Teach Students to Reflect

Teachers teach students how to reflect on their use of strategy and skills,
and then as part of publishing, students are to reflect on and assess their
use of strategy and skill use in the writing project.
(g) Post Charts About Strategies and Skills

Teachers hang lists of skills and strategies students are learning in the
classroom and encourage students to refer to them when writing. Separate
charts should be used for strategies and skills so that students remember
which are which.
3.6.2 The Stages in a Mini-Lesson

The following illustrates what goes on during the different stages of a mini-
lesson. They are as follows:
(a) Introduce the Strategy or Skill

The teacher reminds students that they have been learning new ways to
make their writing more powerful, and today theyÊre going to learn about
similes. She explains, „Writers often compare one thing to something else. If
writers want to say that an old man was very quiet, they might say that Âthe
old man was as quiet as a clam,Ê which means he didnÊt say much because
clams donÊt talk.‰ The Teacher writes the sentence on the chalkboard and
underlines the simile. Then she continues, „But we might write Âthe old
man was as quiet as fog because we know how quiet it becomes when the
fog rolls in.‰ She writes this sentence on the chalkboard and underlines the
simile, too. She identifies the similes in each sentence and explains that they
are called similes. Then she steps back and rereads the two sentences and
announces to the class that she likes the „fog‰ comparison better than the
„clam‰ comparison because it is fresher and cleverer. She concludes by
saying that „quiet as a clam‰ is so common that it has become a cliche.
(b) Demonstrate the Strategy or Skill

The teacher continues with similes about quiet and asks students to help
her list other things that are quiet. They suggest death, sleep, a mouse, an
angry parent, night, whisper, a cloud, a bug, and a telephone when you
donÊt have any friends. She asks students to choose one of the quiet words
and uses it to complete the sentence „the old man was as quiet
as_____________‰
Several students suggest „the old man was as quiet as death,‰ but they
decide that sleep is a more appropriate comparison. Then she outlines the
steps in creating a simile:
• Write the beginning of the comparison sentence using like or as.
• Brainstorm a list of ideas to represent the comparison.
• Choose the most appropriate comparison.
• Finish writing the sentence.
(c) Provide Guided Practice using the Strategy or Skill

The teacher passes around pictures she has cut out of magazines and asks
students to select a picture to use in writing a comparison. Then students
create similes and write them on index cards which they attach to the
pictures. As they work, she walks around the classroom, providing
assistance and encouraging students to write strong comparisons, not
cliches. Then, students share their similes in small groups, and one student
from each group shares his or her simile with the class.
(d) Review the Strategy or Skill

The next day the teacher asks students to locate similes in books they are
reading and to copy at least two simile sentences on a note card to share
with the group. She also asks them to search through their portfolios and
locate one simile they have written or could have used in their finished
writings. Students share the similes they located in small groups with the
teacher on the following day and talk about how they can use similes in
their writing. Then she asks students to make notes about similes in their
writing notebooks.

(e) Apply the Strategy or Skill

The teacher encourages students to use similes in their writing, and several
days later during writing workshop she asks students to share similes they
have written. Teachers often give impromptu lessons during writing
conferences. The teacher answers studentsÊ questions, models how to use
strategies and skills, provides brief explanations, and encourages students
to talk about the strategies they use. She explains a concept, makes a
graphic to represent the concept, and then applies the concept to the
studentÊs own writing.
3.6.3 Demonstrations and Other Teachable Moment

Teachers demonstrate writing skills and strategies through modelled, shared,
and interactive writing. These demonstrations are an important component of the
writing instruction because students need to watch experienced writers as they
write and solve problems during writing.
3.6.4 Rationale for Teaching Writing Strategies and

Skills
Some teachers raise questions as whether or not to teach strategies and skills-
and, if they are taught, whether students should learn them inductively or
whether teachers should teach explicitly. In my opinion, teachers have the
responsibility to teach students how to write, and part of that responsibility is
teaching students the strategies and skills that competent writers use. While it is
true that students learn many things inductively through meaningful literacy
experiences, instruction is important. Effective teachers do teach strategies and
skills. The question is not whether to teach strategies and skills, but how and
when to teach them (Dudley- Marling & Dippo, 1991). Researchers have
compared classrooms in which teachers focused on teaching skills with other
programmes in which strategies and skills were taught inductively or using a
wholepart- whole instructional sequence, and they concluded that the
transitional skills programmes were no more effective according to studentsÊ
performance on standardised tests. Moreover, researchers suggest that
traditional skills programmes may be less effective when you take into account
that students who read and write for authentic purposes also think of themselves
as readers and writers and have more knowledge about the written language.
Freppon (1991), compared the reading achievement of first graders in traditional

and literature-based classrooms and found that the literature group was more
successful. Similarly, Reutzel and Hollingsworth (1991), compared students who
were taught skills with students who spent an equal amount of time reading
books and found that neither group performed better on skill tests. This research
suggests that students who do not already know skills and strategies can benefit
from instruction, but the instruction must stress the application of to authentic
reading and writing activities.
• Carefully planned instruction is specially important for minority students.

Lisa Delpit (1987), cautions that many students who grew up outside the
dominant culture are disadvantaged when certain knowledge, strategies, and
skills expected by teachers are not made explicit in their classrooms.
• Explicitness is crucial because people from different cultures have different

sets of understandings. When they teach children from other cultures,
teachers often find it difficult to get their meaning across unless they are very
explicit (Delpit, 1991).
• Too often teachers assume that children make the connection between the
strategies and skills they are teaching and the future use of those strategies
and skills in writing.
Descriptive Persuasive
Expository Skills
Narrative Strategies
1. What is a strategy?
2. What is a skill?
3. Describe a commonly used writer strategy.
4. Give three samples of organising ideas.
5. Give two generalising strategies.

6. What are the five writing skills students learn in primary school?
(a) Elaborate the structuring skills.
(b) Explain how these skills can be integrated.
7. What can be considered an ineffective teaching skill?

(a) What does teaching mini-lessons mean?
(b) Describe the stages of mini-lessons.
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readers. In R.Barr, M.L.Kamil, P.B.Mosenthal & P.D. Pearson (Eds.)
Handbook of reading research (Vol.2, pp.609-640). New York:
Longman.Reutzel, D.H. & Hollingsworth, P.M. (1991). Reading
Comprehension Skills: Testing the skills distinctiveness hypothesis. Reading
Research and Instruction, 30, 32-46.
Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (1986). Written Composition. In M.Wittrock (Ed.),
Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed., pp.778-803). New York:
Macmillan.
Schmitt, M.C. (1990). A questionnaire to measure childrenÊs awareness of
strategic reading processes. The Reading Teacher, 43, 454-461.
Shaughnessy, M.P. (1977). Errors and expectations: A guide for teachers of basic
writing. New York: Oxford University Press.
Tompkins, G.E.(1997). Literacy for the twenty first century: A balanced approach.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill
Thompkins, G.E (2000). Teaching Writing. Balancing Process and Product. Third
Wilde, S.(1992). You kan red this! Spelling and punctuation for whole language
classrooms,K-6. Portsmouth, NH : Heinemann.

Topic X Writing
4 Workshop
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe how to implement a writing workshop;
2. List five problems that writing teachers may face in implementing a
writing workshop at their respective schools; and
3. Make recommendations on how to address these problems.
X INTRODUCTION
This topic gives a detailed description of how to conduct a writing workshop,
namely the workshop schedule, conferencing, revising, editing, publishing and
steps to implement it in a writing class. Also discussed are some models of
writing workshops conducted by a few writing teachers.
4.1 IMPLEMENTING THE WRITING

WORKSHOP
In this topic you will learn how to set up a writing workshop and to implement
the writing process. Many teachers use writing workshops to provide an
opportunity for students to write on self-selected topics and for them to work
independently. Other teachers use writing workshops for their students to write
stories, reports, poems, and other forms of writing as part of literature focus units
and thematic units. No matter how teachers use the writing workshop, its great
benefit is that students become familiar with the ebb and flow of the writing
process and experience the exhilaration that all writers feel.

TOPIC 4 WRITING WORKSHOP W 55
According to Calkins (1986), during the writing workshop students write about
what is vital and real for them, and their writing becomes the curriculum. They
assume ownership of their learning and choose what they write and how they
will write. At the same time, the teacherÊs role changes from being a provider of
knowledge and writing topics to serving as a facilitator and guide. The classroom
becomes a community of writers who write and share their writings.
Self-selection, ownership, self-monitoring, feedback, and individualized

instruction are the hallmarks of the writing workshop (Atwell, 1998). Classrooms
are social environments, and children are active participants as they choose the
direction of their writing, consciously monitor their writing processes, and turn
to classmates and the teacher for feedback and guidance. These characteristics
define the workshop environment, whether students are writing, reading, or
spelling (Barnes, Morgan, & Weinhold, 1997; Opitz & Cooper, 1993).
ACTIVITY 4.1
Discuss of how you would go about in implementing the writing
workshop.
4.1.1 Key Points of a Writing Workshop

The key points of writing workshops are:
(a) The components of a writing workshop are writing, sharing, mini-lessons,
and reading aloud to students.
(b) The purpose of a writing workshop is to provide students with
opportunities to use the writing process to create books and other
compositions.
(c) Students can write about self-selected topics or write as part of a literature
focus unit or thematic unit.
(d) Writing workshop and reading workshop are complementary activities.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
What are the key points of a writing workshop? Explain.

56 X TOPIC 4 WRITING WORKSHOP
4.1.2 Designing and Managing a Writing Workshop

There are no specific rules here but a writing workshop should accommodate
you and your studentsÊ needs. For example, at the beginning of the year, you can
shorten most of the periods, extending them as the students become more
comfortable with the process. It depends on what else is going on and how the
class and you feel that day. It is recommended to have your clear plan outlined
and stick to it as close as possible, yet the plan should also be flexible to
accommodate your needs. You, too, will learn to adjust your schedule according
to your studentsÊ needs.
4.1.3 Features of a Writing Workshop

The heart of a writing workshop is independent writing, and teachers provide 30
to 60 minutes or more each day for this activity. The four activities that are
associated with writing workshops are shown in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Features of a writing workshop
(a) Writing
Students spend 30 to 60 minutes working on writing projects. They use the
writing process as they develop and refine their writing.
(b) Sharing
The class gathers together to share their new publications, often during the
last 5 to 15 minutes of the writing workshop. Students take turns reading
their writing aloud to classmates, who respond to the writing and offer
compliments.

(c) Mini-lessons
Teachers provide 15 to 30 minute lessons on writing workshop procedures,
information about authors, literary concepts, and writing strategies and
skills.
(d) Reading aloud to students

Teachers read aloud picture books and chapter books to students to share
examples of good writing and teach children about authors. It is important
to have a clear, simple structure for a writing workshop so that students can
anticipate the writing activities in which they will be involved.
4.1.4 Introducing the Workshop
(a) Topic Selection

Begin by sharing with the students how you prepare the writerÊs workshop
schedule. Then, generate three or four writing topics that you would want
to write and tell them, how you finally settled on one topic. Also, you can
even ask them to advise you on which topic sounds the most interesting.
For example, you can first narrate to students about a serious and
potentially gripping story, like a visit to the dentist, speak softly and tell
them how scary it is. By this time, you would have their full attention.
Then, you quietly tell them that this is a very important story for you, but
you are not quite ready to write about it, yet. Perhaps you will be prepared
later in the year.
Then, you talk about a potentially exciting idea that you have seen or heard
about on television, like the „believe-it-or-not‰ or „survivor series‰. You
explain that it really looked exciting, and just watching it, you could almost
imagine yourself doing it. Unfortunately, you tell them, you do not have
any personal experience with it so you are not sure that you could write
effectively about such a topic.
Finally, tell them a funny story, for example some terrible incidents or
experience you had encountered in the past. After choosing your topic,
invite your students to experience the same process, telling their stories to a
partner or to the whole class.
Encourage students to talk to each other about their stories. Do this for at
least a week before commencing writing. It is really important for these
students to talk first. Talking and sharing enable the double purpose of
allowing students to see that they, too, have stories to write. It also helps
them build their classroom community. As a student talks about a
particular event in his or her life, you can see the others nodding their
heads in agreement as they recognise a similar event in their lives.
Teachers can suggest students to construct a semantic map or web of their

stories (Calkins, 1991). This is a simple chart with the title in the middle and
bubbles or circles coming off it with key words or phrases. The idea is to
have some kind of plan before they start writing. They can share their
semantic maps with the whole class, and it is a great way to build
confidence as they speak to everyone. However, creating a semantic map
can also be counterproductive, especially on the first few stories, so you
have to be flexible and take your cues from your own students.
After the students have discussed, chosen topics, and webbed their stories,
they can finally start writing. Some teachers stop their students soon after
they have started writing and ask them to read the beginnings of their
compositions to a partner and then try to write a new lead. It is a way to
help them discover the different options for beginning a story. Some
teachers just let their students write until they stop. It is up to you. Try it
out and have fun!
Let us assume that somehow you have gotten through the introduction to
writerÊs workshop, and it is the second day. Inevitably, one or two or huge
masses of students will tell you they have finished their story. Tell them,
they are never finished in the class.
Try to structure your curriculum so students can finish projects, but not
processes. Congratulate them on their effort. Tell them to choose another
topic and start another writing project.
For the first two weeks, you just tell your students to keep writing one
written composition after another. You do this for two reasons. First, you
want to have a number of compositions from which to choose before
getting to the conference and editing stages.
Second, you want to build up the anticipation to a fever pitch before

proceeding to the other stages of the writing process. Second drafts and
proofreading are not their favourite steps, so try to make it seem as exciting
as possible. It is a fine line. You do not want to postpone it too long or they
will get bored and stop writing.
Start by writing about yourself first. Most students, given a chance, would
write a fantasy story or a ghost story or a super-hero model. Some believe
in letting them write whatever they want because they will be motivated.

The other school says hold off on the fiction for a while because even the
best fiction draws from the authorÊs own experience, and itÊs best to work
on that first.
Usually, first drafts are messy, and a corollary, erasers are illegal on first
drafts. This one can get you into trouble if the students take the „messy‰
part literally, which many of them are naturally inclined to do. The idea is
to loosen up the writer, unleash the potentials of the artist, and all that
creative ability. The rationale is to discourage the students from trying to be
perfect the first time and allowing you, as the teacher and chief editor, to
follow their thought processes through all their writing. When they erase
things, it is impossible to tell what changes have been made. Suggest a neat
line through parts that are changed, but take a sloppy, scratchy scribble
over erasing. It is not that you examine in detail every change every writer
makes, but sometimes you can learn things about a writerÊs thinking that
you would never discover if the change was erased.
ACTIVITY 4.2
How would your students benefit from the writerÊs workshop?
(b) Mini-Lessons
Mini-lessons should be what they sound like, short lessons. Whenever
possible and appropriate, try to demonstrate an instructional point using
studentsÊ writing or your own. Having students conduct the lesson,
showing some skills they have mastered or some ideas they have
discovered can be particularly effective. Only use studentsÊ writing for
positive reasons, for instance, to demonstrate a writing breakthrough or
triumph, but never to show mistakes a student has made.
You use the same mini-lessons repeatedly. The following suggestions will
assist you to keep track of your mini-lessons.
• Buy a notebook and keep track of mini-lessons; date each entry and
provide a rationale for the lesson. For example, what does it teach?
• Use studentsÊ writing samples for use in your next yearÊs class; make
sure the samples are anonymous.
• Classify lessons; put all your paragraph lessons in one section, topic
sentence in another, and so on.

• Make overheads of your most effective lessons so as to be ready when

the need arises.
4.1.5 The Status of the Class

This can take anywhere from three to thirty-three minutes. It is supposed to be a
quick check-in where students tell you what they will be doing during the writer
workshop period. Do a quick run around the room, and every student explains
his or her plans for the writerÊs workshop that day. You quickly jot down their
plans on your chart, which you can keep handy on a clipboard. When check-in
takes three minutes, it is great. It focuses the students, it focuses you, and it
provides a record so you can keep track of students who have trouble finishing
stories. Figure 4.2 shows an example of the assessment form which can be used
during the writing workshop.

Figure 4.2: Assessment for students during the writing workshop

Language Catalog: Forms for Authentic Assessment @ 1994 edited by Lois Bridges Bird,
Kenneth S. Goodman, and Yetta

4.1.6 Conferencing
Conferences can be with partners, with small groups, or with the whole class.
Regardless of the grouping, the format is the same:
(a) The writer reads the story aloud.
(b) The writer tells what they heard.
(c) The audience makes comments or suggestions.
(d) The writer tells what she or he will do next, which comments she or he will
respond to, and what changes will be made.
You can use the conferencing form as shown in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3: Conferencing form

The writer fills in the form because it is hard to understand another personÊs
handwriting and unconventional spelling. This also ensures that the writer really
pays attention to what their partners say. The point of a content conference is
constructive criticism. This is not a familiar concept for most students.
Conferencing can easily degenerate into an attack on the author that rarely, if
ever, has anything to do with the story that was written.
You want to encourage student writers to read their stories, and they would not
do that unless they are reasonably sure that the response will be gentle and
supportive. It is another one of those fine lines. You do not want to set anyone up
for an attack, but you also want the audience to be helpful. When someone tells
the writer that everything she writes is wonderful and perfect, that is not much
better than putting it into the shredder. It may be good for maintaining cordial
relationship in the classroom but not for developing writing skills.
Suggested Questions During Conferencing
SELF-CHECK 4.2
What is the purpose of asking questions during conferencing?
Generally, the question focuses the writer and the audience on the words in the
story, for instance, what happened, how it happened, whom it happened to, and
so on, rather than whether the characters and actions are serene or crude. You
want conference partners to tell the writer what they heard, so the writer can tell
if that is the same story that he or she intended to write.
• „What did you like about the story?‰
• „What did you hear about the story?‰
• „Is that what you really wanted to say? Because, that is our interpretation...‰
Later, after the students get comfortable with the process, introduce comments
and suggestions and show them ways you might guide the writer. For some
students, being told how to change their writing can be a very delicate issue.
Hence, your next step: „You could change this, not you should change this.‰
Encourage possible improvements but do not dictate them. Make students think
and evaluate their work. If you strongly suggest a change, there is a risk that the
writer will make the change just to please you. Other times, a studentÊs

suggestion to a writer may be correct, but the writer might disregard it because
the suggestion hurts his or her feelings.
One final point: students generally love hearing and responding to their group
membersÊ writing, but are not as fond of listening to the teacher pointing out
things. In wholeclass conferences, try to have the writer run the show while you
record comments on the conference form. The student reads the story, everyone
else listens, and the class applaud, and then responds with their comments and
suggestions. Teacher speaks up to move things along or to elaborate on
particular comments. The teacher also highlights concepts or skills as the
students come up in the sharing, and point out that the particular idea they are
talking about is relevant to everyoneÊs writing.
4.1.7 Revising
Predominantly, teachers find that students expect their work to be perfect the
first time. Advise the students to revise not only in the writerÊs workshop, but in
all the writing they do across the curriculum. You try to develop the idea that
second, third, and even further drafting is not merely making corrections, but is a
natural and desirable part of the writing process.
Stories can go through more than one conference and more than two drafts, but
nothing gets published with a single draft. Second drafts for primary students
are not usually true second drafts as adult writers think of them. Frequently, you
have a student who gets it and makes substantive changes.
Generally, students who participate in a writerÊs workshop for several years

begin to understand more fully the revision process. The teacher introduces
revision by demonstrating the process with his/her own writing. Start by
reading your first draft to the class, accept their comments, and go home to write
the second draft based on their comments. A few days later, read your second
draft to the students, showing them on an overhead projector how you have
incorporated their suggestions and altered your text. Students can see that it
takes time and work to revise a piece of writing.
ACTIVITY 4.3
What is the importance of revising? Discuss.

4.1.8 Editing
This involves a lot of tedious work for everyone. Here, students have to examine
and correct grammar, punctuation, and spelling. My best advice is to keep it as
simple as possible. You can use the „Editing Checklist‰ to help the students
proofread and edit their own writing. Secondary students do not get much
further than the items on the checklist. In addition, teach basic grammar,
focusing on verb tenses, verb agreements, and proper use of adjectives and
adverbs.
Figure 4.4: Editing checklist
During the editing stage students learn to heed conventions in their writing, and
increase their comprehension. On any individual story, you also limit the types
of corrections, besides spelling, to one or two. Any more than that would
suffocate most student writers. Students can edit their own work or another
studentÊs work, alone or in small groups, once a day or once a week. Some
teachers have rotating „editors-of-the-week‰ and editing tables. It seems more
difficult to spot your own errors than someone elseÊs. Encourage students to
value their mistakes as learning tools, formulating sentences and paragraphs as
they progress, moreover, it makes more sense to have them identify and correct
their own errors.

When a story has been revised and edited, it can be put in the „To Be Published‰
tray for the editor-in-chief to evaluate. Most of the stories that are put in this tray
are immediately returned to the student because very little or no proofreading
has been done. This happens a lot. You have to be really ruthless or you will be
inundated with hundreds of quickly written and quickly edited stories. You
make sure that from the start, you are observant about students demonstrating
their best before you consider reading the story.
Before requesting a classmate to help them edit, or have an editing conference

with the teacher, insist that they independently proofread their pieces for missing
words. They also underline words that they know are misspelled. Before they
can do this, make sure you have had several mini-lessons modeling on how to
proofread. An editing checklist is displayed in the room which lists the skills that
are expected of everyone. As students learn new skills, they add those skills to a
personal checklist in their writing folders.
This may seem difficult at first, but after seeing a few dozen texts with mixed up
time frame and finding simple words misspelled, it gets easier to evaluate stories
with a quick look. Eventually, though, a story will make its way into the tray that
merits your full attention because it is ready to be published. Limit this to ten
texts per student per year.
4.1.9 Spelling
Students can learn to spell by trying out their own versions of spelling a word
(invented spelling), testing and confirming those spellings with a dictionary, and
mostly by reading a lot and seeing conventional spelling. Good spellers can see,
almost feel in their stomachs, a misspelling; something does not appear or sound
right about the word. That comes from lots of experience of having seen
conventional spelling in published books and practicing writing on their own.
Some people simply are not good spellers and will never be. That is where
dictionaries and spell-checkers come into play. We spend a lot of time working
on spelling. The students write for at least an hour a day, and spelling is a very
important part of writing.
Spelling is important, but do not emphasise it on first drafts. It is a difficult issue.

If you have to give spelling tests, go ahead. It would not hurt the students to
memorise a few words each week, but it has little to do with becoming a good
speller and even less to do with becoming a good writer.
„DonÊt spell it yourself!‰ (you being the teacher) „Spell it yourself!‰ (you being
the student). Never spell a word for students. Encourage using the dictionary
and tell students to use their own heads (that feeling that a word does not look
right) or just guessing. Do encourage students to teach grammar and punctuation

to each other, but try to instill self-sufficiency (and encourage the use of a
dictionary) for spelling.
Teachers can prompt by enquiring:

Ć How do you spell it?
Ć How do you think it is spelled?
Ć What do you think the first/second/next letter is?
Most of the time the students have a good idea of the correct spelling or
something close. If they are close, tell them to write it three times on scratch
paper, see which one looks best, and confirm it with a dictionary. This is
remarkably effective, but it does take time, and the time spent doing it rather
than the job per se is what most of your students will fight. If they can learn
strategies for quick use of a dictionary, they will be more apt to use one. Spell-
checkers are another matter. H is like calculators-you cannot fight progress. But
at least students have to try spelling the word before they can use the spell-
checker.
Table 4.1: Proof ReadersÊ Marks
Delete There were cots to sleep on and
food to eat at the shelter.
Insert Mrs. KimÊs cat is the
colour carrots.
Indent paragraph
Riots are bad. People can get
hurt and buildings can get burned
down but good things can happen
too. People can learn to be friends.
Capitalize Daniel and his Mom didnÊt like
Kim or her cat.

Change to lowercase
People were because
they were angry.
Add period I think DanielÊs mom and Mrs. Kim

will become friends.
Add comma
People hurt other people , they
steal things and they burn
down buildings in a riot.
Add apostrophe
Daniel s cat was named Jasmine.
Source: Tompkins, 2000
Teachers can follow these guidelines when editing. First, count the misspelled
words and write the number in a circle at the top of the page. The next step
would be to circle some of the words. The most intrusive method is to correct it
yourself. Only do that at certain points on certain stories for certain students
only. Try to keep a separate colour for your editing marks.
4.1.10 Editing Guidelines

Always keep a binder where you can make notes about each studentÊs work, for
instance, how they have improved, where they need improvement, a few
comments about their writing and its style. These notes need to be brief and
written at the time you look at the story.
4.1.11 Publishing
Try to make publishing a composition like creating a work of art. At this point,
all revising and editing should be completed. Computers are wonderful for
publishing. Students love to type and print out their stories. Problems arise,
however, if you do not have access to computers. Computer publishing can be
time consuming. Publish on halfsize sheets of paper whether it is by hand or on
the computer. The small size is convenient because it is similar to the paperback
novels they read. Moreover, it does not take up as much room on a bulletin board
or shelf, and because it makes the book look more like a book and less like a
report.

Most importantly, the writing teacher must have a good attitude about writerÊs
workshops. That means encouraging your students to write, respecting their
ideas and stories, and providing them with support without doing it for them.
This is what it takes to have a successful writing programme. If you have a bad
attitude, it does not matter how clever and logical your systems and charts and
folders are, the writing will still suffer. When you are enthusiastic, so will the
students be. Provide time for your students to write, allow them to make
mistakes, and, if possible, show them that you do all these things, too. There is
nothing like firsthand experience to see what it is like for your students,
especially if you have not written much before. They will love it when you show
them all the mistakes you make and all the pitfalls you have encountered with
your own writing. Sharing your writing with your students is a very effective
teaching tool. If you perceive writing as natural, enjoyable, and therapeutic, they
will, too.
4.2 WRITING PRACTICE

To write well, students need frequent and regular times to write. During the
independent writing time, students spend 30 to 60 minutes working on writing.
Below are 4 writing workshop mini-lesson schedules conducted by four teachers.
Pn. Sharifah AliwiyahÊs Standard Four Schedule
During the first 90 minutes of the school day, she has students working at
literacy centres while she conducts guided reading lessons in small groups. After
a short recess, students assemble in the writing workshop. Her schedule is:
Time Activity
10:00 - 10:15 Reading aloud to students.
10:15 - 10:30 Guided writing.
10:30 - 11:00 Sharing.
11:00 - 11:15
During the guided writing activity, her students, with Pn. SharifahÊs guide, write
a sentence together based on the book she reads aloud. She emphasises using
conventional spelling, capitalisation, and punctuation during guided writing.

En. Suresh KumarÊs Form One Schedule
His students spend the first hour of the school day working at reading and
writing workshops. Students alternate between reading and writing projects
during this time. His schedule is:
Time Activity
8:45 - 8:50 Status of the class independent
8:50 - 9:40 reading or writing .
9:40 - 9:45 Sharing.
During the independent writing period, students move through the drafting,
revising, and editing stages of the writing process, and the conferences with
students as they work.
Miss LimÊs Form Five Schedule
Her class begins with students reading a book in a small group. During the
writing workshop, the second half of the literacy block, students spend 75
minutes learning about authors, practising writing skills, and writing
independently. Her schedule is:
Time Activity
10:30 - 10:50 Mini lesson.
10:50 - 10:55 Status of the class.
10:55 - 11:55 Independent writing.
11:55 - 12:05 Sharing.
During the mini-lesson, she alternates lessons on authors, spelling and

mechanics, and sentence building using sentences from books students are
reading.
Mrs. IndraniÊs Form Six Schedule
She teaches writing as part of a two-hour language arts and social studies block.
She alternates reading and writing workshop, depending on the other activities
in which students are involved. When they are working on writing projects,
students often spend 60 minutes in the writing workshop. Her schedule is:

Time Activity
1:05 - 1:10 Status of the class.
1:10 - 1:55 Independent writing.
1:55 - 2:05 Sharing.
During the sharing period, she asks students to read aloud a sentence they have
written since no one has completed the project yet.
Graves (1994), emphasises that students must write about things they know well
so that they can produce quality work. Students are „experts‰ when they write
about theirhobbies, their family, or something they have learned in other subject
areas. They usually move through all five stages of the writing process-
prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing at their own pace as they
write books and other compositions.
During the prewriting stage, the students are free to choose topics to write about.
They may refer to their notebooks in which they had brainstormed lists of
possible writing topics, drawn pictures, gist of conversation, and described
settings and events. Students also draw pictures and reread favourite books
when they are looking for a topic. They might also write a retelling of a favourite
story, jot down the verses of a familiar songor poem, or play with the sentence
patterns from a favourite book.
Teachers help children learn to identify their own topics for writing. Encourage
children to „read the world‰ (Graves, 1994), by demonstrating how to develop
topics using the ordinary events of daily life and school life. Also, talk about
things that interest them, stories they have enjoyed, ideas they might want to
share with their classmates. Out of these conversations, topics emerge.
Sometimes classmates can help students identify topics to write about. Graves
(1983) explains that students come to school wanting to write, but too often
teachers ignore the studentÊs wish to show what they know.
At other times, children have broad topics assigned to them. They were writing
about families, but they chose the family member they wanted to write about and
organized the information for their books as they wanted. Young students use
drawings to organize their ideas, and older students use mapping and other
graphic organisers to organize their ideas for writing.

Once students have gathered and organised their ideas, they begin to draft their
compositions. Students work independently but often share their ideas with the
teacher or classmates working nearby. They focus on the development of their
writing rather than worrying about spelling each word correctly or making sure
to capitalise and punctuate correctly. Students understand that in the drafting
stage writers generate and brainstorm ideas. They double-space their writing and
mark their papers as „rough drafts‰.
As they are writing, students pause to think of ideas, reread their piece, or ask
group members a question. Sometimes they decide to make changes or start over
if the writing does not sound right. The teacher walks around the classroom,
enquiring, „Tell me about your piece‰ and praising. Through brief conferences,
teachers provide support for young writers and are available to help students
when their writing is not going smoothly. Teachers and students must recognise
that writing rarely goes smoothly; it develops with stops and starts, and a few
dead ends.
Students are constantly revising. They revise in their minds, even before they
write a word, and they revise as they write, often stopping to reread what they
have written, making changes and adding words, phrases, and sentences. After
finishing their first draft, students reread it at least once to themselves and make
some revisions. Subsequently, they may notice that some words were omitted as
they wrote hastily or they do not use suitable link words. They may think of a
better way to express an idea, or discover that they need to check their facts.
They make necessary changes before meeting with a writing group.
In the writing group, students share their rough drafts with a small group of
classmates and get compliments and other comments from them. These
comments give the writer ideas for revising. Sometimes the teacher meets with
the group; at other times students meet by themselves. It is crucial that students
know how to conduct a writing group and how to give constructive suggestions
to classmates. Many teachers have found that it is more effective for students to
meet in a small group rather than pair work because a group can provide more
feedback than a single student can. An ideal group has about five members with
roles assigned on rotation basis.
After sharing their compositions in a writing group, students make some

revisions. They may choose to make revisions based on feedback they received
from classmates in the writing group, or other ideas may come to mind. Some
teachers have students use a blue pen to make revisions so that the changes will
be highlighted. Rather than erasing the original, students cross out and make
revisions so that the student and the teacher can track the childÊs use of revision

strategies. Sometimes the revising stage leads to more prewriting and drafting; at
other times, students move on to editing after they have made revisions.
During editing, students proofread their compositions to locate mechanical

errors and then correct as many errors as they can. Many teachers have students
use a red pen to make the corrections. Classmates help proofread each otherÊs
papers, and students often meet with the teacher for an editing conference to
identify and correct any remaining errors.
After studentsÊ rough drafts have been edited, they make their final copies. Many
times students compile their final copies to make books during writing
workshop, but sometimes they attach their writing to artwork, make posters, and
write letters that are mailed, or perform scripts as sketches or puppet shows.
4.3 SHARING
For the last 5 to 15 minutes of writing the workshop, the class gathers together so
that students can share their new publications and make other related
announcements. A student who has just finished writing a puppet show script
may ask for volunteers to help make puppets and perform the puppet show,
which could be presented several days later during sharing time. Younger
students often sit in a circle or gather together on a rug for sharing time, and
students take turns sitting in the authorÊs chair to read their compositions. After
reading, classmates clap and offer compliments. They may also make other
comments and suggestions, but the focus is on celebrating completed writing
projects, not on revising the composition to make it better.
The steps in conducting a mini-lesson are as follows:
(a) Introduce the Topic

Teachers identify the topic for the mini-lesson and often write the name of
the topic on chart paper or on the chalkboard. It may be a writing
workshop procedure, a literacy concept, or a writing strategy or skill. After
identifying the topic, teachers briefly define the topic or mention the
characteristics, and they write this information on the chart paper or on the
chalkboard.
(b) Share Examples of the Topic

Teachers provide examples of the procedure, concept, strategy, or skill
using studentÊs own writing or books written for students. Then they invite
students to identify other examples. Students can write some examples on
the chart paper or on the chalkboard.

(c) Provide Additional Information about the Topic

Teachers provide additional information about the topic and how it is used
in writing, or they review information presented in the first step. This is the
step where teachers clarify misconceptions and contrast the topic with
related topics. The teacher may model using the topic in a writing activity
or have the students sort examples and non-examples.
(d) Create a Poster

Students create a class poster or work in small groups to create posters
about the topic that will be displayed in the classroom. Students may also
make individual posters in their writing notebooks.
(e) Have Students Reflect on Their Learning

Teachers instruct students to reflect on or speculate on how they can use
this information as they write. These reflections can be oral or written.
The following are some suggestions for revising procedures.
(a) Introduce Revising

Gather together a group of students and explain that they will spend
approximately 15 minutes in a mini lesson on revising. Remind them that
revising is the third stage of the writing process and it is the stage when
students revisit their rough drafts. They reread and make revisions to make
their writing better.
(b) Share Examples of Revision using StudentsÊ Writing Samples

Instruct students to identify changes they noted between the drafts. Also
read group memberÊs rough draft to see how the changes were made by
crossing out and adding words and phrases and using arrows to move
texts. The revisions were written in the spaces between lines in blue pen.
The editing corrections are made in red pen.
(c) Provide Information about Revising

The teacher explains that there are four kinds of revision students can make
in their writing: adding, deleting, substituting, and moving. This
information chart is placed on the wall. Then students look at the
classmateÊs rough draft and classify his revisions into the four categories.
(d) Students Make Notes about Revising in Their Writing Notebooks

The teacher instructs students to list the four kinds of revision in their
writing notebooks, and asks them to return the next day with a composition
(rough draft and final copy) that they have written so that they can analyse
their own revisions.

(e) Students Reflect on How They Revise

The next day the small group of students gather together for another 15-
minute mini lesson and they examine their own revisions.
4.4 WRITING CENTRES

Teachers set up a writing centre to provide a supportive environment for small
groups of students as they write. A writing centre is a designated area in the
classroom, often a table where writing supplies, including papers, pens and
pencils, art supplies, bookmaking materials, and staplers are stored. Dictionaries,
thesaurus, computerized spell-checkers, and word books are also available at the
writing centre.
Students come to the writing centre to work on writing projects. At the primary
level, they may write in journals or make books, and the teacher is often at the
centre to provide additional guidance to students as they write. Primary students
work through an abbreviated version of the writing process, gathering and
organising ideas, often by drawing a picture, and then writing words using
invented spelling. As the student writes, the teacher often guides the student,
helping him or her connect words intosentences, and sounding out the spelling
of some words and applying other strategies for spelling other words. After
writing, students read their compositions to classmates at the writing centre. At
other times children write notes to classmates at the writing centre and then „E-
mail‰ the notes to classmates or by tacking them to a „Message Centre‰ board.
Secondary students participate in a variety of writing activities at writing centres.

Often they write books on topics they have chosen using materials supplied at
the writing centre, but at other times they may work on a particular writing
project that is part of a literature focus unit or thematic unit. Students work side-
by-side with classmates, talk with them to brainstorm ideas, get feedback, and
share their writing.
Generally, teachers think of writing centre as a way to organise in primary

classrooms, but writing centres can be used effectively at any school level. One
benefit is the support and guidance provided by the teacher. As students work in
centres, they have support and guidance to move through the writing process
and share writing. A second benefit is that children learn the routines of writing
workshop as they work at a writing centre. There are benefits for teachers, too.
Sometimes teachers are overwhelmed with the idea of „turning their students
loose‰ for writing workshop, and permitting a small group of students to work at
a writing centre while other students are involved in other writing activities.

4.5 ARRANGING THE CLASSROOM FOR A

WRITING WORKSHOP
The classroom atmosphere should be free enough for students to converse
quietly with classmates and move around the classroom to assist classmates or
share ideas. Students often sit at desks or tables arranged in small groups as they
write, and the teacher circles around the classroom, conferencing with students.
There is a space for students to meet together for writing groups, and often a
sign-up sheet for writing groups is displayed in the classroom. A table is
available for the teacher to meet with individual student or small groups for
conferences, writing groups, proofreading, and mini-lessons.
In a writing workshop classroom, children have writing folders in which they

keep all papers related to the writing project they are working on. They also keep
writing notebooks in which they jot down images, impressions, dialogue, and
experiences that they can build on for writing projects (Calkins, 1991). Children
have access to different kinds of paper, some lined and some unlined, and
writing instruments, including pencils and red and blue pens. Art supplies for
illustrating books and bookmaking supplies are also available in the classroom.
Children also have access to a well-stocked classroom library. Many times a
childÊs writing project will grow out of a favourite book. The child may write a
sequel to a book or retell a story from a different point of view. Primary students
often use patterns from a book they have read to structure a book they are
writing.
ACTIVITY 4.4
How should you arrange your classroom so that it will be conducive for
the writing workshop?
4.6 MONITORING CHILDREN’S PROGRESS

Monitoring is an essential component of the writing workshop because students
are working on different projects and moving through the writing process at
different speeds. When teachers do not monitor studentsÊ learning, they often feel
as though they are not in control, and students often feel a loss of control.
Teachers use three management strategies to monitor studentsÊ work. The first
strategy is status of the class (Atwell, 1998). Before students begin to write, the
teacher or a student calls roll and students each respond with a word or phrase
about their progress on their writing project, such as „Making my final copy,‰
„Clustering,‰ „Ready for a writing group,‰ or „IÊm still drafting.‰ The person

calling role writes a word or code number by each studentÊs name on a chart.
Many teachers use numbers representing the five stages of the writing process on
their status of the class charts. Some teachers write status of the class charts on
transparencies which they display using an overhead projector, and other
teachers make paper charts which they post in the classroom.
To test your understanding, please complete the following activity.
ACTIVITY 4.5
Compare and contrast the writing workshop described in this topic with
your writing workshop. Discuss. Are there any differences? Suggest ways
to improve it.
• To conclude, you have learned how to set up a writing workshop and

essential aspects related to it.
• Explanation is also given on how to conduct mini-lessons, writing workshop

conferencing, for writing as well as for revising, editing, spelling, publishing
and finally, the setting up of writing centres in the ESL classroom.
Conferencing Revising
1. What are the four elements of a writing workshop?
2. Who suggests the use of semantic charts in writing?
3. Name and describe the conferencing steps.
4. Is spelling important?
5. What are the steps in conducting mini-lessons?

6. What is a writing centre? What does it do? Can setting one up in a school help?
7. What is a writing workshop? Describe the writing workshop.
Atwell, N. (1998). In the Middle: New Understanding about writing, reading and
learning (2nd Ed.). Portsmouth: Henemann.
Barnes, D. Morgan, K. & Weinhold, K (eds.) (1997). Writing Process Revisited:
Sharing our stories. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
Bridges, L.B. (1994). Language Catalog: Forms for Authentic Assessment edited
by, Kenneth S. Goodman, and Yetta.
Calkins, L.M (1996) The Art of Teaching Writing. (2nd Ed). Portsmouth:
Heinemann.
Calkins, L.M (1991). Living between the lines. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Graves, D. H (1994). A Fresh Look at Writing. Portsmouth: Heinemann.
Opitz, M.F., & Cooper, D (1993). Adapting the Spelling basal for spelling
workshop. The Reading Teacher, 47,106-113.
Rief, J. (1992) J. Seeking diversity: Language Arts with adolescents. Portsmouth,
NH: Heinemann.
Tompkins, G.E. (2000). Teaching Writing: Balancing process & Product. Prentice
Hall: Singapore.
Wilde, J. (1993). A Door Opens: Writing in Fifth Grade. Portsmouth: Heinemann.

Topic X Supporting
Students to
5 Write
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe some techniques for teachers to support students in their
writing; and
2. Provide a step-by-step instruction on how to conduct the five types of
writing.
X INTRODUCTION
This topic examines some techniques to support student in learning to write. It
gives a comprehensive description of some writing techniques such as,
interactive writing, guided writing and independent writing.
5.1 TECHNIQUES TO SUPPORT STUDENTS AS

THEY LEARN TO WRITE
Typically, teachers support or scaffold studentÊs writing as they demonstrate,
guide, and teach. They gradually provide the appropriate amount of support
according to their instructional purpose and studentsÊ needs. Sometimes teachers
model how experienced writers write or they write along with students. At other
times they carefully guide children as they develop ideas for their writing, record
ideas on paper, and proofread to correct errors. Teachers also provide plenty of
time for children to write independently, to experiment with writing, and to
practise skills they have learned.

80 X TOPIC 5 SUPPORTING STUDENTS TO WRITE
Fountas and Pinnell (1996), proposed five levels of support, moving from the
highest level to the lowest level of support as students assume more and more of
the responsibility for themselves. The five levels of support are modelled writing,
shared writing, interactive writing, guided writing, and independent writing (see
Table 5.1). It is advisable that teachers working with students through secondary
schools use all the five levels. For instance, when teachers introduce a new
writing form or teach a writing strategy or skill, they use demonstrations or
modeled writing. The purpose of the activity determines which level of support
is used. The teacher is less actively involved in directing the writing activity in
independent writing, but the quality of instruction that students have received is
most obvious in independent writing because they are applying what they have
learned.
Table 5.1: A Continuum of Teacher Support for Student Writers (Fontas & Pinnell, 1996)
Modelled Shared Interactive Guided Independent

Writing Writing Writing Writing Writing
• Teacher • Teacher and • Teacher and • Teacher presents • Students use
demonstrates students students create the a structured the writing
writing in construct the text and share the lesson and process to
front of text together; pen to do the supervises as write stories,
students and then the teacher writing. students write. informational
What thinking aloud demonstrates • Teacher and • Teacher also books, and
is it? about writing writing. students discuss teaches writing other
strategies and • Students may writing strategy, or skill. compositions
skills. assist by spelling conventions. • Teacher
words. monitors
students'
progress.
Who • Teacher • Teacher • Teacher and • Students • Students
writes? students
• Whole class • Whole class • Whole class • Small group • Pair
What
• Small group • Small group • Small group • Pair • Individuals
size
• Pair • Pair • Individuals
groups?
• Individuals • Individuals
• Demonstrations • Language • Predictions • Class • Writing
Experience • Daily news collaborations centres.
Approach. • Class ABC books • Writing
Which • Innovations
• K-W-L charts • Formula poems workshop.
activities? • Letters
• Writing In
journals.
• Letters.

TOPIC 5 SUPPORTING STUDENTS TO WRITE W 81
ACTIVITY 5.1
Can students use the writing process for all kinds of writing?
5.1.1 Modeled Writing

The greatest level of support is when teachers demonstrate or model how
competent writers write while students observe. Teachers usually decide what
they will write and create the text themselves, although they do accept
suggestions from students. Then teachers either write on the white board or use
an overhead projector so that all students can see what is being written. Teachers
use modelled writing to demonstrate writing workshop procedures, such as how
to make small books and how to do new writing forms and formats. Often
teachers talk aloud or reflect on their writing processes as they write to show
students how competent writers think as they are writing and the types of
decisions they make and strategies they use.
Three purposes of modelled writing are as follows:

• To demonstrate how to do writing activity before instructing students to do
the writing activity independently or in small groups.
• To demonstrate how to use writing strategies, such as proofreading,
monitoring, sentence combining, and revising.
• To demonstrate writing conventions and other writing skills.
5.1.2 Shared Writing

In shared writing, the teacher and students work together to compose a text. As
they write, teachers demonstrate how competent writers write while the students
observe. They also teach the conventions of written language. Also, teachers
write the texts on the whiteboardc so that students can observe what is being
written. Likewise, teacher instructs individual students to write small parts of the
text to be compiled into a class book.
The three purposes for shared writing are as follows:

Ć To demonstrate writing through thinking aloud;
Ć To generate studentsÊ ideas; and
Ć To create written texts for students who could not write independently.
One noticeable feature that differentiates shared writing from modelled writing
is that the teacher writes the text with input from the students. However, in
modelled writing, the teacher does everything.
Teachers can utilise shared writing in a variety of ways. Primary teachers often
write studentsÊ dictation on paintings and brainstorm lists of words on the
chalkboard, while secondary teachers may take studentsÊ dictation when they
make K-W-L charts, draw maps and clusters, and write class collaboration
poems.
The language experience approach (LEA) is one type of shared writing. It is

based on studentÊs language and experiences (Ashton-Warner, 1965; Stauffer,
1970). Students dictate words and sentences about their experiences, and the
teacher writes the dictation. As they write, teachers model how written language
works. The text the class develops becomes the reading material because it has
been written with conventional English spelling. Since, the students formulate
the language and the content is based on their experiences, they are usually able
to comprehend the text easily.
The steps in the language experience approach as advocated by Ashton-Warner

(1965) and Stauffer (1970) are shown in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1: Steps in the language experience approach

(a) Provide Some Background Knowledge Before Writing

The purpose of the background knowledge is to provide the stimulus for
writing. For group writing, it can be an experience shared with peers, story
books read, a field trip, or incidents during the semester break. For
individual writing, the stimulus can be any personal experience that is
significant to the student.
(b) Discuss and Share the Experience

Students generate ideas as they talk and reflect on their experience.
Through this talk, students refine and organise ideas, use more specific
vocabulary, and extend their understanding.
(c) Record the ChildÊs Dictation

Here, teachers conduct dictation for the studentsÊ writing. Texts for
individual students are written on sheets of writing paper or in small
booklets, and group texts are written on chart paper. Teachers print neatly,
spell words correctly, and preserve studentÊs language as much as possible.
It is a great temptation to change the studentÊs language to the teacherÊs
own, in either word choice or grammar, but editing should be kept to a
minimum so that students do not feel belittled and discouraged to write.
For individual texts, take the studentÊs dictation and write until the student
finishes. If the student hesitates, the teacher rereads what has been written
and persuades the student to continue. For group texts, students take turns
dictating sentences. After writing each sentence, the teacher rereads it. For
editing purposes, teachers often put a sheet of plastic over class charts so
students can underline key words or other familiar words in the text.
(d) Read the Text Aloud, Pointing to Each Word

Teacher demonstrates how to read the text aloud with correct intonation.
Then students join in the reading. After reading group texts together,
individual students can take turns to reread.
(e) Widen and Develop the Writing and Reading Experience

Students can be encouraged to draw pictures or scenes to accompany their
writing text. This can assist to heighten the underlying meaning of the text
that the writers want to convey. When they write individual texts, students
can also read their texts to peers. Students can take their own individual
texts and copies of the class text home to share with family members.
(f) Assemble Sentence Cards

Teachers rewrite the text on sentence strips. They read and sequence the
sentence strips accordingly. When the sentence strips are ready, students
can cut the strips into individual word cards. Then students can rearrange

the words and create new sentences with the word cards. Later the word
cards can be added to studentÊs word banks. The language experience
approach is often used to create texts students can read and use as a
resource for other writing tasks.
ACTIVITY 5.2
What is the purpose of background knowledge before students begin
their writing assignment?
5.1.3 Interactive Writing at the Primary Level

Teachers and children create a text and „share the pen‰ to write the text on chart
paper (Button, Johnson, & Furgerson, 1996). The text is composed by the group,
and the teacher guides the students as they write the text word-by-word on a
chart paper. Students take turns writing known letters and familiar words,
adding punctuation marks, and marking spaces between words. The teacher
assists students to spell the words correctly and use written language
conventions so that the text can be easily read. All students participate in creating
and writing the text on the chart paper, and they also write the text on small
white boards. After writing, students read and reread the text using shared and
independent reading.
During interactive writing, teachers provide instruction and assistance to

students as they write. It is quite similar to shared writing except that the
students are doing much of the actual writing.
(a) Purposes of Interactive Writing

Four purposes of interactive writing areas follows:
• To demonstrate how to write words and sentences.
• To teach how to use capital letters and punctuation marks.
• To demonstrate how to use phonics and spelling patterns to spell words.
• To create written texts for students who could not write independently.
When students begin interactive writing in kindergarten, they write letters

to represent the beginning sounds in words and familiar words such as the,
a, and is. The first letters that students write are often the letters in their
own names, particularly the first letter. As students learn more about
sound-symbol correspondences and spelling patterns, they do more of the

writing. As they do interactive writing, students gain valuable experience

applying the phonics skills and writing the high-frequency words they are
learning. Once students are writing words fluently, they can do interactive
writing in small groups. Each student in the group uses a particular colour
pen and takes turns writing letters, letter clusters, and words. They also get
used to using white correction tape to correct poorly formed letters and
misspelled words. Students also sign their names in colour on the page so
that the teacher can track which students wrote which words.
(b) Suggested Activities for Interactive Writing

• Write predictions before reading.
• Write responses after reading.
• Write letters and other messages.
• Make lists.
• Write daily news.
• Rewrite a familiar story.
• Write information or facts.
• Write recipes.
• Make charts, maps, clusters, data charts, and other diagrams.
• Create innovations or new versions of a familiar text.
• Write class poems.
• Write words on a word wall.
• Make posters.
Interactive writing includes many of the features of Language Experience

Approach (LEA), but in interactive writing, students do much of the
writing themselves.
(c) The Steps in Interactive Writing

• Collect Materials for Interactive Writing
Teachers use chart paper, coloured marking pens, white correction tape,
an alphabet chart, magnetic letters or letter cards, and a pointer for
interactive writing. Also collect these materials for individual students
writing: small white boards, dry-erase pens, and erasers.

• Offer Stimulus
Often teachers read or reread model text as a stimulus, but students can
also write daily news, compose a letter, or brainstorm information they
are learning in other subject areas.
• Work out a Text

Students create a text, often a sentence or two, to use for the writing
activity. They repeat the sentence several times and segment the
sentence into words. Students also count the number of words in the
sentence. This practice helps children remember the sentence as it is
written.
• Distribute Materials for Students to Exploit

Students use individual white boards, dry- eraser pens, and erasers to
write the text individually or together as a class on chart paper.
Teachers periodically ask students to hold up their white boards so they
can see what the students are writing.
• Write the First Sentence Word-by-Word

Before writing the first word, the teacher and students slowly
pronounce the word. Then students take turns writing the letters in the
first word. The teacher chooses students to write the letters that
represent each sound or spell the entire word, depending on studentÊs
knowledge of phonics and spelling. Teachers often have students use
one colour of pen for the letters they write and then use another colour
to write the parts of words that students do not know how to spell. In
this way, teachers can keep track of how much writing students are able
to do. Teachers keep a poster with the upper- and lowercase letters of
the alphabet to refer to when students are unsure about how to form a
letter, and they use white correction tape (sometimes called „boo-boo‰
tape) when students write a letter incorrectly or write the wrong letter.
After writing each word, one student serves as the „spacer.‰ This
student uses his or her hand to mark the space between words (and
sentences). Teachers have students reread the sentence from the
beginning each time a new word is completed. When appropriate,
teachers call studentÊs attention to capital letters, punctuation marks,
and other conventions of print. Repeat this procedure to write
additional sentences to complete the text. When teachers are using
interactive writing to write a class collaboration book, this activity can
take up to a week to complete.

• Display the Completed Writing Chart on the Class Notice Board

Students reread the completed writing chart using shared or
independent reading. They may also want to add artwork to augment
the writing chart. Also, students can use the words and sentences for
other writing activities.
5.1.4 Guided Writing

Teachers scaffold or support studentÊs writing during guided writing, but
students do the actual writing themselves. Teachers plan structured writing
activities and then supervise as students do the writing. For example, when
students make pages for a class ABC book or when students write formula
poems, they are doing guided writing because the teacher has set up the writing
activity. Teachers also guide the writing when they conference with students as
they write, participate in writing groups to help students revise their writing, and
proofread with students. With incompetent writers, teachers use guided writing
to help students choose what they want to write, organise their ideas into a
sentence, and then transcribe each word onto paper.
Teachers read with small groups of students and provide assistance as it is

needed.
The five purposes of guided writing are:

• To scaffold a writing experience.
• To introduce different types of writing activities.
• To teach student to use the writing process especially, how to revise and edit.
• To teach procedures, concepts, strategies, and skills during mini--lessons.
ACTIVITY 5.3
How does guided writing help the weaker students?
5.1.5 Independent Writing

In independent writing, students do the writing themselves and often use the
writing process to write books. They practice the writing strategies and skills
they are learning. Often students do independent writing in writing centres and
during writing workshop, but they can also use independent writing when they
write in reading logs, make posters, and do other types of writing activities.
The six purposes for independent writing are:

(a) To provide an authentic context for writing practice.
(b) To give students opportunities to choose writing topics and forms.
(c) To gain writing fluency and stamina.
(d) As a tool for learning, such as when students write in reading logs and
other
(e) types of journals.
(f) To make and publish books.
(g) To document learning in literature focus units and thematic units.
Students often write independently, whether they are writing in reading logs,
making projects, or writing books during writing workshop.
• This topic describes some levels and types of support teachers can perform in
a writing class as a proposed by Fontas and Pinnell (1996) and the Language
Experience Approach (Ashton, 1965 and Stauffer, 1970).
Collaboration Interactive
Independent Modeled
1. Who writes in modelled writing?
2. How does a teacher help in shared writing?
3. What enhances activities are involved in guided writing?
4. How big are guided writing groups?
5. Which supporting model would you choose to get students to write?

6. Describe how independent writing can be used to help larger groups of

people to write.
7. How does the experience approach (Ashton, 1965 and Stauffer, 1970) make
use of prior experience to help students write?
Tompkins, G.E (2000). Teaching Writing. Balancing Process and Product. Third
Fontas, I. C. & Pinnell, G.S (1996). Guided Reading: Good first teaching for all
children. Portsmouth: Heinemann.
Ashton, W. S. (1965). Teacher. New York: Simon & Shuster.
Atwell, N. (1998). In the middle: New understanding about writing, reading and
learning (2nd ed.) Portsmouth: Heinemann.
Stauffer, R.G. (1970). Directing the reading thinking process. New York: Harper
& Row.
Button, K., Johnson, M.J. & Ferguson, P. (1996). Interactive Writing in a primary
classroom. The Reading Teacher, 49, 446-454.

Top i c X Lesson Plans
6 for Writing
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Construct lesson plans for the teaching of writing based on the three
models given; and
2. Construct lesson plans for the teaching of writing by incorporating
the language skills of listening/speaking, reading, grammar and
literature.
X INTRODUCTION
This topic gives an overview of lesson plans for the teaching of writing. It starts
with a sample format of a lesson plan followed by three Models of lesson plans:
Media, Assure and Gagne. Then, it presents four types of lesson plans,
specifically, for the teaching of writing with other language skills:
listening/speaking, reading, grammar and literature. Finally, it offers an
evaluation form that guides teachers to reflect and evaluate their lesson plans.

TOPIC 6 LESSON PLANS FOR WRITING W 91
6.1 MODEL LESSON PLANS

There are many models used in lesson plans, namely:
(a) A Sample Format of a Lesson Plan
(b) Media Model
(c) Assure Model
(d) Gagne Model
(e) Listening & Speaking Model
(f) Reading Model
(g) Writing Model
(h) Grammar Model
(i) Literature Model
(j) Evaluation Form
(k) Appendices
Now letÊs take a look at each of the lesson plans mentioned.

92 X TOPIC 6 LESSON PLANS FOR WRITING
6.1.1 A Sample Format of Lesson Plan

Figure 6.1 shows a sample lesson plan that teachers can utilise as a guide when
writing lesson plans for the teaching of writing.
Class:
Time:
Subject:
Level:
Topic:
Specific objectives:
Thinking skill:
Previous knowledge:
Moral value:
Teaching aids:
ACTIVITY/ PERSENTATION/
STAGE/ TIME
CONTENT AVA
PRE-WRITING
(minutes)
Rationale:
WHILE WRITING
STAGE 1
(minutes)
Rationale:
STAGE 2
(minutes)
Rationale:
STAGE 3
(minutes)
Rationale:
POST WRITING
STAGE 1
(minutes)
Rationale:
CLOSURE
(minutes)
EXTENDED
ACTIVITY
Figure 6.1: Sample of format of lesson plan

6.1.2 The Media Model

Media or medium means communication channel. It is derived from a Latin
word, which means mediator.
Thus media refers to whatever carries information from the conveyer to

the receiver.
Example of media includes film, television, radio, audio, photograph, printed

matters, computers and teachers. Rosini, Abu et. al, (2002) says media is used to
aid in the communication process.
However, media still carries many meanings and can be classified into two
categories:
(a) Educational Technology Physical Components
This includes printed matter, film, tapes, records, slides and the
combination of these items.
(b) Various Mass-communication Channels
This includes newspaper, radio and television.
Gagne (1989), defines media as any physical action that enables the
message of any lesson being conveyed.
Therefore teachers, printed matters, audio slide shows and anything that can
convey the message is classified as media. Looking from another point of view, a
media is like a pipeline. The focus is the tools that carry the message. This
concept however is neglecting the role of the message itself. For what gives the
most effect to humans is the message. Hence, this concept is considered
incomplete. The concept, which was proposed by Torkelson; 1967, is very
interesting. He classifies media into three components, which are message, forms
of message and message channel. This is illustrated in Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2 Components of media
Message is the content. Whatever is in the media whether the message is

informing, motivating or otherwise is considered as the message.
Form of message is how the message is stored. It comprises one large component
starting with the actual materials to the abstract form. Therefore, the message can
be stored in the form of words or oral, pictures, objects, symbols and etc.
Message channel is physical equipments of either electrical or mechanical forms

which enables the message being presented to students, for example television,
film projector, etc.
With this classification, therefore, a media that will be used needs to take into
consideration the message and forms of the message. If the message, forms of the
message and the channel of the message are not compatible, therefore, it is
unlikely to be the message that is being conveyed to be understood. For example,
if the message needs the receiver to distinguish between wild animals and tame
animals but the forms of the message used are only a radio, therefore, the
message is likely to fail. To distinguish the animals you need a set of pictures and
video recording to view the animal for more understanding.
In short, this concept will help the media from being misunderstood as being
only a tool. This is because the thing that makes up learning, for example the
message or content is not a tool. Looking at the effect of the role of message
therefore, some of the specialists in this field believe that media is a message.
This opinion opens up the scope of media more widely as it does not stress only
on the aspect of the tools, but also the technique and the whole process of
learning. Conversely, stressing on the audio and visual aspect is inadequate
because humans learn through all the senses.

However, all the definitions above stresses on the educational media as an

important element in teaching and learning. It is a bridge between the teacher
and students and whoever is involved in the process of teaching and learning.
This explanation might help to change the view that the teaching media is the
same as AVA (Audio Visual Aids).
The term AVA has long been obsolete since 1960s because the term failed to
stress on:
Ć Students;
Ć Teaching scopes; and
Ć Evaluation aspect.
This term is also inappropriate in the current education situation as it is getting

more open to the various alternatives. The current education system does not
rely totally on tools. Education, nowadays, does not need the presence of
teachers at all times. Therefore, the connotation that audio visual aids are helping
teachers is less accepted.
ACTIVITY 6.1
When do you apply the Media Model in the classroom?
6.1.3 The ASSURE Model (Learner Centered)

Assure stands for
A Analyse learners
S State objective
S Select media and material
U Utilise media and materials
R Require learner participation
E Eveluate and revise
In making full use of all the technology in our classroom, we must draw a line
between the learner, the content and all forms of media, technology and non
technology. The ASSURE model serves as a guideline for planning and

delivering instructions that integrate technology and media into the teaching
process. It also functions as an approach used in preparing lesson plans. Besides
that, it is also used to help teachers organize instructional procedures assessment
of student learning and is used by all presenters.
(a) A: Analyse Learners

Analysing learners means that you must know your target audience. You
need to know their background, prior knowledge, socioeconomic factors
and cultural and ethnic background. You must also take into account the
learning styles of your students. The main choices are auditory, visual and
tactile kinesthetic. Slower learners tend to prefer kinesthetic experience.
They enjoy lessons that involve a lot of movements. Teachers must then
determine the motivational and physiological factors of the learners. The
most prominent influences in physiological factors are sexual differences,
health and environmental conditions.
(b) S: State Objectives

After knowing your students, you can write the objectives of the lesson. It
must be clear and precise. When writing your objective you must keep in
mind to focus on the learner. Objectives are descriptions of the learning
outcomes and are written using the ABCD format.
A- Audience (Who is the audience?)

B- Behavioural (What do you want them to do?)
C- Condition (Under what condition can the learners demonstrate the
skill being taught?)
D- Degree (How well do you want them to demonstrate their mastery?)
Examples of objectives statement

By the end of the lesson, students should be able to construct at least 5
grammatically correct sentences using the modal „could‰ based on the situations
given, with 80% accuracy.
Use as many objectives statements needed in order to meet the different

objectives for the lesson. Use the following questions to assess objectives.
Do the objectives allow you to do the following with your lesson?

Ć Identify what the expectations of the learner.
Ć Identify the necessary requirements for the learning environment.

Ć Assess learning.
Ć Determine needs for appropriate media or materials.
How would you classify your objective?

Ć Cognitive
Ć Affective
Ć Psychomotor
Ć Interpersonal
Ć Intrapersonal
(c) S: Select Media Material

You need to select appropriate media material to suit the needs of your
lesson. Make sure you have prepared the materials before you start the
lesson. The selection criteria must include the following.
• The media should be based on the needs of the student.
• Consider the learning environment.
• In line with the learning objectives.
• In line with the teaching format.
• Consider studentsÊ abilities and learning styles.
• Choose objectively.
• In line with the syllabus.
• Language used must be grammatically correct.
• Motivating.
• Provide learner participation.
(d) U: Utilise methods, Media and Materials

Plan how you are going to carry out your lesson. You should always
preview the materials before using them in class and you should use the
equipment in advance to test how and if it works. You must also prepare
the setting of your activity. Make sure if you are using electronic device, the
classroom have enough power supply. You must also providethe learning
experience for your students. Give them equal chance to try out the
equipments that you have prepared but you must facilitate the activity.

(e) R: Require Learner Participation

As mentioned earlier you need to give student a chance to participate.
Therefore you have to describe how you are going to get each learner to be
involved specifically whether it is through pair work, group work,
presentation, role play, games and etc. Whatever your teaching strategy
you must make sure your students can have full participation in it. Listen to
your students but always relate them to your lessons.
(f) E: Evaluate and Revise

Finally you have to evaluate all the activities and the lesson that you have
carried out. Describe how you are going to measure whether you have
achieved your objectives. Are all the media and instructions given effective?
A lesson may look good on paper but when you have carried out the lesson
it can fail. You might have high expectations and you might have too many
activities in one lesson. You must also evaluate you and your students
performance. Plan on how you are going to improvise your lesson in
future.
6.1.4 Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction

Robert Gagne is considered to be the proponent of the systematic methods of
instructional design and training. Gagne and his supporters are known as
behaviourists and they focus on outcomes, and behaviours that succeed training.
GagneÊs (1965), The Condition of Learning, acknowledged the mental conditions

for learning. It was based on the information processing model of the mental
events that occur when adults are tested with various stimuli. Gagne advocated
nine events of instruction, which is related to and addresses the conditions for
learning.
These are the instructional events and the associated mental processes.
Table 6.1: GagneÊs Instructional Events
Instructions Event Internal mentel process

(a) Gain attention. Stimuli activates receptors.
(b) Inform learners of objectives. Creates level of expectationb for
learning.
(c) Stimulates recall of prior learning. Retrieval and activation of short term
memory.
(d) Present the content. Selective perception of content.

(e) Provide „learning guidance‰. Semantic encoding for storage long

term memory.
(f) Elicit performance. Response to questions to enhance
encoding and verification.
(g) Provide feedback. Reinforcement and assessment of
correct performance.
(h) Assess performance. Retrieval and reinforcement of content
as final evaluation.
(i) Enhance retention and transfer to Retrieval and generalization of learned
the job. skill to new situation.
(a) Gain Attention

For learning to occur, you need to get the studentsÊ attention. An attractive
visual or slides show from a multimedia programme can arouse the
studentsÊ interest. Another option is to provoke the students with thought
provoking questions or any interesting fact.
(b) Inform Learners of Objectives

Before starting any lesson, students must know the learning objectives. This
helps in motivating students to complete the lesson. These objectives
should be used as a benchmark for assessment and certification.
(c) Stimulates Recall of Prior Learning

Connecting prior knowledge to the present lesson can help the learning
process. It will be easier for the learner to recall and store information in
their long term memory when it is associated to their personal experience
and knowledge. One way of stimulating recall is through asking questions
about past experience and knowledge, the previous lesson concepts and the
content of the lesson.
(d) Present the Content

This is the phase where the new information is presented to the learner. It
should be chunked and arranged meaningfully, well explained and
demonstrated. To arouse interest, a variety of media should be used which
includes text, graphics, audio narration and video.
(e) Provide Learning Guidance

To help the learner store information for long term, guidance should be
given in line with the new information presented. The strategies for
guidance include usage of graphic organisers, examples, mnemonics,
analogues etc.

(f) Elicit Performance

Here, the learner is required to practice the skill they have learnt. Eliciting
performance gives a chance to the students to test their understanding of
the lesson. Repetition will increase the chances of retention.
(g) Provide Feedback

It is essential to give the learner immediate feedback when they practice
their new behaviour. Exercise should be done during the lesson itself to test
understanding and to store into memory. Additional guidance and answers
given during this stage are called formative feedback.
(h) Assess Performance

After completing the instructional modules, students should be given an
opportunity to be assessed. Mastery of material or certification is given
after getting a score of at least 80 percent correct. An accepted level is
approximately between 80 to 90% correct.
(i) Enhance Retention and Transfer to the Job

Effective training programmes have a „performance focus,‰ which includes
design and media that aids retention and transfer to the job. Repetition has
been proven to aid retention. This however is not popular among students.
Using GagneÊs nine step model in any training programme is the ultimate
way of ensuring effective learning.

The following is an example of a lesson plan adopting GagneÊs Nine Step Model
Figure 6.3: Example of a lesson plan.

STAGE/TIME TEACHERÊS ACTIVITIES STUDENTSÊ ACTIVITIES AVA
Set Induction 1. Teacher plays a 1. Students listen to the Tape recorder

(5 minutes) recorded song entitled song attentively. (appendix 1).
„They Made Me‰. 2. Students answer
(appendix 1) using teacherÊs questions.
Rationale:
tape recorder.
To stimulate
2. Teacher asks questions
studentsÊ Expected answer:
based on the song.
interest 1. (a) They made him eat
towards the things that were
E.g. : good for him.
topic.
1. What were two things (b) They made him do
they made him do work.
when he was very
young?
2. (a) They made him
2. What were two things
they made him do at sweep the factory
work? floor.
(b) They made him
make the tea.
Explanation 1. Teacher displays the 1. Students view the song Lyric of the
(7 minutes) lyric (appendix 1) of lyric on the imager. song
the song „They Made 2. Students listen to song (appendix 1).
Me‰ on the imager. and browse through Tape recorder,
Rationale:
2. Teacher plays the song the lyric. cassette.
To revise the
again and requires
grammar students to browse
items, through the lyric.
Simple Past 3. Teacher revises the usage
Tense and of Simple Past Tense
sequence and the sequence
connectors. connectors such as: (at
the beginning, next,
then, however, after
that, consequently,
eventually ).
4. Teacher emphasizes the
sentence patterns:
E.g. :
1. When I was young they
made me learn⁄
2. When I was twelve⁄
3. When I left school⁄

Practice 1. Teacher distributes 1. Students read the Worksheet 1.

(7 minutes) Worksheet (1) comprehension (Worksheet1)
consisting questions on the
Rationale: comprehension worksheet (1).
questions based on the
To enable 2. Students answer the
song.
students get comprehension
a clear questions.
E.g:
picture of the
1. What didnÊt they let
song. him do? Expected Answer:
2. What did they use to 1. They didnÊt let him
Metacognition do when they wanted play.
(7 minutes) something done? 2. They use to shout at
3. How does he feel him.
Rationale: about the words 3. He hates the words
To promote „make‰ and „force‰? „makes‰ and „force‰.
and cultivate 1. Teacher calls out 1. Students answer the
self- students at random to comprehension
confidence. answer the questions orally.
comprehension
questions.
Application 1. Teacher instructs 1. Students get into Worksheet 2
(6 minutes) students to get into groups of 5.2. Students
groups of 5. write 4 sentences on
Rationale: 2. Teacher distributes what they were asked
worksheet (2) to do by their parents
To enable
consisting of different using Simple Past
students to Tense based on the age
ages such as 6, 7, 8, 9,
apply their and 10 to each group given in the
previous and instructs them to worksheet.
knowledge to write 4 sentences on
the problem what they were asked Expected Answers:
stated. to do by their parents 6 years old
using Simple Past
Tense based on the age
stated in the 1. When I was six my
worksheet. mother taught me
swimming.
2. I was forced to learn
music at that time.
3. My mother made me
participate in drawing
contest.
4. My father insisted me

on playing tennis.
(Refer to TeacherÊs
manual ăWorksheet 2)
Evaluation 1. Teacher asks students 1. Students write a StudentsÊ
(8 minutes) to write a short short paragraph exercise book.
paragraph by choosing based on teacherÊs
a specific age from the
instructions.
age range given (11-15)
on what they were
asked to do by their
parents during the
chosen age using
Simple Past Tense and
Sequence connectors
(at the beginning, after
that, next then,
however, eventually,
consequently) based
on the song „They
Made Me‰.
Closure(2 1. Teacher wraps up the 1. Students listen
minutes) lesson in stressing the attentively to
importance of being teacherÊs explanation.
Rationale: obedient to their
To enable eldersÊ instructions or
students to orders.
know the
importance of
obeying their
eldersÊ
instructions or
orders.
Extended 1. Teacher asks students 1. Students jot the Websites
Activity to surf the internet to instructions in their
get lyrics of songs notebook to do it as
associated with
Rationale: homework.
commands or orders
To cultivate
from the elders.
ICT skills
among the
students.








6.1.5 Integrating Skills in Lessons

Lesson Plan ă Listening and speaking skills and media

TEACHERÊS STUDENTÊS TEACHING

STAGES / TIME
ACTIVITY ACTIVITY AIDS
Practice & 1. Teacher instruts 1. Students in pair, Mahjong paper
Metacognition students to work list down at least and marker pen
(5 minutes) in pairs and list 4 on how to take
down at least 4 care of a person
Rationale: steps on how to who a person
To test students take care of a with headache.
understanding of person with
the topic. has headache 2. Students present
incorporating their To test
headache. students findings
the sequence
connectors.
(Appendix 4)
2. Teacher calls at
random for
students to
present their
findings on a
mahjong paper
in front of the
class.
Application 1. Teacher instructs 1. Students listen to Worksheet

(6 minutes) students to the teacherÊs
construct five explanation
Rationale: To sentences on carefully.
enable students to how to take care
apply the skills of a person 2. Students
they have learnt. having construct five
stomachache, sentences on how
incorporating to take care of
the sequence person with
connectors „first, headache,
then,next incorporating the
and finally‰ sequence
(Appendix 5) connectors„first,
then, next,
finally‰.
Evaluation 1. Teacher instructs 1. Students prepare

(10 minutes) students to work an interview
in pairs and between a
Rationale:To prepare and doctor and a

evaluate interview newscaster on

performance and between a „How to take
understanding on doctor doctor care of wounded
what they have and a newscaster person‰
learnt. „How to incorporating
newscaster on sequence
„How to take connectors.
care of wounded
person‰
incorporating
the sequence
connectors frist,
then, next
finally.
(Appendix 6)
2. Teacher observes
studentsÊ
work.
Closure 1. Teacher instructs 1. Students read Cassette

(5 minutes) students to read aloud the jazz player.
the jazz chant chants
Extended aloud with the together.
Activity cassette player
2. Students listen
2. Teacher wraps carefully to
up the lesson by teacherÊs
stressing the explanation.
importance of
caring society.
3. Teacher tell
students to get
information on
other diseases
from the internet
or the library
to be pasted on
the bulletin
board.




APPENDIX 3
What are sequence connectors and how are they used?
Ć Phrases or words that are used to connect one idea to

the next.
Ć Used by the author to help the reader progress from

one significant idea to the next.
Ć Also show the relationship within a paragraph (or even

within a sentence) between the main idea and the
support the author gives for those ideas.
eg:
First - to show numerical events

Then, next - to show continuity
Finally - to show conclusion
APPENDIX 4
NAME : ______________________________________
CLASS : ______________________________________
List down at least four steps on ÂHow to take care of a

person having a headcheÊ.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………................

APPENDIX 4 (SUGGESTED ANSWER)
NAME : ______________________________________
CLASS : ______________________________________
List down at least four steps on ÂHow to take care of a person having a
headcheÊ.
1. First, ask him to lie down.

⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄
2. Then, give him a painkiller to ease the pain.
⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄
3. Next, ask him to take a nap if he wants to.
⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄
4. Finally, take him to a doctor if he still feels the pain
⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄
⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄
⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄
APPENDIX 5
NAME : ______________________________________
CLASS : ______________________________________
List down at least five steps on ÂHow to take care of a

person having a stomachacheÊ.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………................

NAME : ______________________________________
CLASS : ______________________________________
List down at least five steps on ÂHow to take care of a person having a
stomacheÊ.
1. Firstly, ask him what he has eaten before experiencing the pain.
⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄
2. Then, ask him to loosen his belt.
⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄
3. Next, give him some ointment or painkiller to ease the pain.
⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄
4. After that, ask him to get a rest.
⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄
5. Finally, send him to the clinic if the pain still persist.
⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄
⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄
⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄
ÂHow to Take Care of a Wounded PersonÊ

Reporter : Good morning doctor, how are you?
Doctor : Fine thank you.
Reporter : Thank you for making yourself available for this interview.
Doctor : YouÊre welcome.
Reporter : Based on your experience, can you please tell me, how to take care
of a wounded person?
Doctor : Well, firstly, clean the wound. Then, apply an antiseptic to the
wound. Next, put a bandage or a handiplast depending on how
deep the wound is. Finally, if the wound does not stop bleeding,
take the person to the hospital.
Reporter : Thank you doctor for your information.
Doctor : YouÊre welcome.

6.1.6 Lessons Plan-Reading
ENGLISH LANGUAGE LESSON PLAN 4 ă Reading
Class : Form 4
Time : 40 minutes
Subject : English
Level : Advanced
Topic : Social issues ă Gangsterism
Skill : 2.1 Obtain information for different purposes by
reading materials in print.
Specific objectives : By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
1. Write a short paragraph of not less than 100
words to suggest three solutions on how to deal
with gangsterism in school.
Thinking skill : Problem-solving skill by coming out with
solutions to deal with gangsterism in school.
Previous knowledge : Students have learnt paragraph writing.
Moral value : Respect other people.
Teaching aids : Word card, article and worksheet.
Language aspect : Simple Past Tense (Regular verb).

STAGE / TIME ACTIVITIES / CONTENT PRESENTATION
PRE-READING Whole class activity 1. Teacher shows the

(3 minutes) Aid: word card and asks
questions pertaining
Rationale: GANGSTERIS to the card.
To stimulate
students interest to (Appendix 1) 2. Students answer.
the topic
Questions:
(a) What comes to your
mind when you see
this word?
(b) In your opinion, what
are the causes of
gangsterism?
WHILE READING Whole class activity 1. Teacher distributes
the articles „Malaysian
STAGE 1 Aid: Schools
(10 minutes) Appendix 2 rapped by gangsters‰
Sign-Post Questions (Appendix 2)
Rationale:
1. What does the word 2. Students read the
Enable students to „gangsterism‰ denote? articles silently.
understand the
information found 2. Why did the Penang 3. Teacher asks Sign-
in the article. police arrest 14 teenage Post Questions to
schoolboys? students.
3. Describe the condition of 4. Students answer the

the victims. questions orally.
Suggested answers:
1. It canÊt be explained as
indiscipline or Âjuvenile
delinquencyÊ or
ÂbullyingÊ any more.
2. Penang police arrested
14 teenage schoolboys
because they assaulted
four of their
schoolmates.

3. One of the victims had a

head injury and was
admitted to the hospital
and the others had
minor injuries.
CLOSURE Whole class activity 1. Teacher emphasizes
(2 minutes) the moral values of
showing respect to
friends.
EXTENDED Newspaper cutting 1. Teacher asks
ACTIVITY students to read
STAGE 2 Whole class activity 1. Teacher asks students to read

(4 minutes) again silently.
2. Teacher introduces the sound
system alveolar /t/ and /d/.
Rationale:
Sound system:
Enable students to
pronounce the Alveolar /t/ and /d/
words correctly. The place of articulation is the
blade of the tongue is used close
to the alveolar ridge.
Example:
/t/ - arrested, assaulted
/d/ - rained, ended
3. Teacher explains about the
language aspect simple past tense
(regular verb)
4. Teacher asks students in pair to
underline the regular verb and list
down orally.

STAGE 3 Group activity 1. Teacher distributes article

(Appendix 3) and worksheets to
(5 minutes) Aids:
students.
1. Appendix 3
2. Worksheet (Appendix 4) 2. Teacher instructs students to form
Rationale: groups of four.
Encourage 3. Students discuss and complete the
students to think worksheets.
critically
4. Teacher calls groups randomly to
present their findings.
POST READING Pair work activity 1. Teacher instructs students to work

Aid: in pairs.
STAGE 1 Envelopes containing 2. Teacher asks the group leaders to
(6 minutes) tasks. come and pick up an envelope
containing their task.
Suggested answer: 3. Teacher asks students to work in
Rationale:
pairs to list down 3 ways how to
Build studentsÊ Appendix 5
prevent the gangsterism taken by :
confidence to solve
a. school authorities.
problems.
b. parents/teachers
association.
c. NGO.
4. Teacher discusses with students.
STAGE 2 Individual activity 1. Teacher instructs students to write

(10 minutes) Aid: a paragraph of not more than 100
Appendix 6 words on how to prevent
gangsterism in school.
Rationale:
To evaluate
students ability to
construct
sentences.
CLOSURE Whole class activity 1. Teacher emphasizes the moral

(2 minutes) values of showing respect to
friends.
EXTENDED Newspaper cutting 1. Teacher asks students to read

ACTIVITY newspaper and cut the articles
about gangsterism and paste
them on the class bulletin board.

Appendix 1
MALAYSIAN SCHOOL RAPPED BY GANGSTERS

PENANG, Malaysia ă For months, school officials have been denying that
student violence had become a problem, with some saying that it was just the
usual school fights and a few cases of truancy. But these same officials are now
having a hard time saying the same thing, following a series of assaults involving
students in various schools in the last several weeks. Some say what has been
happening can be no longer be explained as „indiscipline‰ or „juvenile
delinquency‰ or even „bullying‰. Rather, they say more appropriate term is
„gangsters‰.
After all, argues retired primary school official Ravinder Singh, „These boys are
not doing things individually at the spur of the moment. They are doing things in
groups. They organise and plan.‰ In mid-May, for example, police in Butterworth
in mainland Penang state arrested 14 teenage schoolboys who had apparently
assaulted four of their schoolmates. According to the police, the suspects
believed the victims had‰ratted‰ on them to a teacher for leaving school earlier
than usual. For this, they rained punched on their victims and hit them with
sticks. One of the victims ended up with a head injury and had to be admitted to
hospital while the others sustained minor injuries.
Appendix 2
MALAYSIAN SCHOOL RAPPED BY GANGSTERS

PENANG, Malaysia ă For months, school officials have been denying that
student violence had become a problem, with some saying that it was just the
usual school fights and a few cases of truancy. But these same officials are now
having a hard time saying the same thing, following a series of a assaults
involving students in various schools in the last several weeks. Some say what
has been happening can be no longer be explained as „indiscipline‰ or „juvenile
delinquency‰ or even „bullying‰. Rather, they say more appropriate term is
„gangsterism‰.
After all, argues retired primary school official Ravinder Singh, „These boys are
not doing things individually at the spur of the moment. They are doing things in
groups. They organise and plan.‰ In mid-May, for example, police in Butterworth
in mainland Penang state arrested 14 teenage schoolboys who had apparently
assaulted four of their schoolmates. According to the police, the suspects
believed the victims had „ratted‰ on them to a teacher for leaving school earlier
than usual. For this, they rained punched on their victims and hit them with
sticks. One of the victims ended up with a head injury and had to be admitted to
hospital while the others sustained minor injuries.

In another recent incident, this time in Ipoh city, north of Kuala Lumpur, 16
schoolboys allegedly beat a 17-year-old student unconscious after accusing him
of stealing RM100 from the class fund. The boyÊs father said his son, Mohammad
Razin, „still has bruises all over and the doctor says there might be internal
bleeding.‰ Razin, a high achiever, has said that his schoolmates assaulted him for
four hours ă even after he passed out ă to make him confess to stealing from the
class fund, which he kept.
„The problem started 15 years ago at least.‰ Ravinder, now a consumer rights
activist, says of the violence in schools. „But at that time, there were not many
incidents and they were not as serious as now.‰ Ravinder claims school heads,
district education officers and probably even those in the state education
department knew what was going on, but failed to give correct feedback to those
at the top. Ravinder insists though that the problem is quite widespread and
affecting many schools in major towns. He also says it began growing after
teachers were barred from using the cane and were instead expected to counsel
problem pupils in school or send them to the principal.
But social worker Catherine Selvam says sterner modes of disciplinary action
merely tackle the symptoms and not the root cause of the problem. According to
Selvam, those who are weak academically usually become frustrated when they
find it more and more difficult to cope as they go up to the higher grades. Deep
down, their self-esteem and selfworth falls instead of building up and they think
very poorly of themselves. Because of these, the only way to be recognised and to
have a sense of belonging is by belonging to a a gang or groups that they feel is
„powerful‰ says Selvam. „Peer pressure also comes into play. They feel that if
they are called to belong to a group or gang, they will get the recognition they
donÊt find anywhere else.‰
Says a teacher, „They fight about minor things ă maybe there is shoving or
staring.‰ In May, for instance, an apparent showdown between two teenage
pupils outside their classroom led to a bloody battle involving some 40 of their
schoolmates in Sungai Petani in Kedah. The boys used bricks, bottles,
screwdrivers, sticks and even chairs from the faculty room to fight, which
happened to be barely 500 meters from a police station. The scuffle, which led to
three pupils sustaining injuries to the heads and bodies, ended only when police
rushed in and detained 30 of the students. Sixteen of the boys were later held for
questioning.

Appendix 3
Group:
Read the articles and complete the exercise.
PENANG
Problem:
Action that has been taken:
IPOH
Problem:
Action that has been taken :
Appendix 4
Suggested answer
Group: XYZ
Read the articles and complete the exercise.
PENANG
Problem:
Assaulted four of their schoolmates because their
friends told their teacher that they were leaving the
school earlier than the others.
Penang police arrested 14 teenage schoolboys that
were involved in that incident
IPOH
Problem:
A 17-year-old student, Mohammad Razin had been
assaulted by his schoolmates for four hours to make
him confess for stealing class fund.
Mohammad RazinÊs father brought him to hospital.

Appendix 5
Suggested answer
List 3 solutions on how to deal with gangsterism in school.

1. Moral education for all students.
2. A lot of group (mix group) for assignments in or
outside class.
3 National Service.
Appendix 6
Suggested answer
Write a paragraph of not more than 100 words on how to

deal with gangsterism in school.
Nowadays gangsterism problems in school are increasing

each day. Therefore, the Education Ministry should take
drastic actions to deal with this problem. There are ways to
deal with it, one of it is to make moral education a
compulsory subject for all. Not just for non Muslim. By
learning the subject, the students will be more united and
creating more nation building. The government proposal
about the National Service is on the right time to deal and
to prevent from the gangsterism problem. Teachers also can
play their roles by assigning them in a group project and
the group must be mix with all the races. It is to generate
them to be more united and harmony.

6.1.7 Lessons Plan- Writing
ENGLISH LANGUAGE LESSON PLAN 5 ă Writing
Class : Form 4 (Advanced Level)

Time :
Subject : English Language
Topic : Social Issues ă Sexual Harassment
Skill : 3.13 Present opinions on social issues such as
sexual harassment
Language Aspect : Modals (should, should not)
Specific objectives : By the end of the lesson, students should be
able to:
1. write a letter to the editor on ÂHow to deal
with sexual harassmentÊ and incorporate the
modals (should and should not)
Thinking skill : Using reasoning skills to solve problems on

„How to deal with sexual harassment‰.
Previous knowledge : Students have learnt how to write a letter to the
editor
Moral value : Public Awareness
Teaching aids : A set of pictures, a text on sexual harassment,
mind map, worksheets.

Stage/Time Content/Material Presentation/Rationale

Pre Writing Whole Class Activity 1. Teacher shows a set of
(5 minutes) pictures to students.
Aids 2. Teacher asks questions.
Rationale: A set of pictures
To stimulate studentsÊ (Appendix 1) Questions
interests on the topic (a) What harm can her
dressing cause?
(b) In your opinion, who
caused Sexual
Harassment, the boys or
the girl? Why?
While Writing Individual Activity 1. Teacher displays a title on
the OHP. (Appendix 2)
Stage 1 Aids 2. Teacher tells students to
list ways of how to avoid
(10 minutes) A title of ÂAvoiding Sexual
sexual harassment.
HarassmentÊ
(Appendix 3)
Rationale: 3. Teacher explains about
To enable students to know the language aspect
about sexual harassment „should‰ and „should
and how to avoid them not‰.
Stage 2 4. Teacher introduces the

(10 minutes) sound system of ÂshÊ / »
Whole Class Activity
/
5. Teacher tells the
Rationale:
students to listen and
To introduce the sound repeat after teacher.
system ÂshÊ and the process
of producing the sound

Stage/Time Content/Material Presentation/Rationale

Post Writing Individual Activity 5. Teacher instructs students
to write a letter to the
editor in not more than
Stage 2
200 words on how to deal
(20 minutes) with sexual harassment at
school and incorporating
Rationale: the language
To evaluate students aspect learnt.
ability of constructing (Appendix 6)
sentences using the
modals should and 6. Teacher facilitates
studentÊs activity.
should not.
1. Teacher gives oral
Closure Whole Class feedback on the topic
and emphasizes the
(5 minutes) Activity importance of public
awareness.
1. Teacher instructs
students to surf the
internet for more
information on ÂHow to
Deal with Sexual
Extended Activity HarassmentÊ.
2. Teacher pastes the

materials on the bulletin
board.

APPENDIX 2
Avoiding Sexual Harassment
APPENDIX 3
SUGGESTED ANSWER
Avoiding Sexual Harassment
1. Avoid wearing sexy clothes.

2. Avoid walking alone to a deserted place.
3. Avoid walking into a crowd.
4. Avoid yourself from being mistreated by others.


APPENDIX 5
List four ways on how to deal with sexual harassment at school.
1. ___________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________________
APPENDIX 5
SUGGESTED ANSWER
List four ways on how to deal with sexual harassment at school.

1. The victim should record the incident of the harassment.
Note the names of any witnesses and specific details of the
offensive actions.
2. The victim should report the incident to the discipline
teacher.
3. Students should not go to the toilet alone.
4. Students should not talk to a stranger in the school
compound.

Appendix 6
SUGGESTED ANSWER
Write a letter to the editor on the topic ÂHow to Deal with Sexual HarassmentÊ in
school and incorporate the modals „should‰ and „should not‰.
Dear editor,
Lately I have read many stories of sexual harassment in schools. Being one of the
victims myself, I would like to share my own thoughts with the readers. There
could be nothing in this world that can compare to the agony that I am still going
through after becoming the victim of a sexual harassment.
When we face this problem, the first thing to do is to report it to the discipline
teacher. This thing should not be ignored and taken lightly. We should record
any witnesses and details of the incident. If you feel sad about the incident, you
should consult a counsellor from your school. DonÊt ever let the sadness in you
stop you from facing the world. In order to avoid any possibilities of a sexual
harassment you should not go to a deserted and quiet place in school alone.
Sexual harassment should not be taken lightly and society should play their part
to ensure that sexual harassment does not happen especially in schools.
Sexual Harassment Victim

Tanjong Malim

6.1.8 Lessons Plan for Literature
ENGLISH LANGUAGE LESSON PLAN 5 ă Writing
Class : Form Five

Level : Advanced
Time : 80 minutes
Topic : Novel: Jungle of Hope
(Compare and contrast paragraph ă Writing
skill)
General objectives : 1. Students will be able to read and understand
the novel „Jungle of Hope‰.
Specific objectives : At the end of the lesson, students should be
able to:
1. compare and contrast the new village and old
village by incorporating three points from the
novel „Jungle of Hope‰ using the paragraph frame
learnt and appropriate transitions words such as
„both, while, on the other hand, in contrast to,
and unlike‰.
2. compare and contrast between flood and drought
by incorporating at least three points from the=
novel „Jungle of Hope‰ using the paragraph frame
and appropriate transitions words such as „both,
while, on the other hand, in contrast to, and
unlike‰.
Skill : Reading and writing
Previous knowledge : 1. Students have learnt writing sequential and cause
effect paragraphs in expository writing.
2. Students have read the „Jungle of Hope‰ (Part 1).
3. Students have learnt transition words specifically
but, however, although, also, yet.
Language Aspect : 1. Transitions/signal words for compare and
contrast (both, while, on the other hand, in
contrast to, and unlike).

StudentsÊ
Stage/Time TeacherÊs Activities AVA
Activities
Set Induction 1. Teacher conducts a Students (in PowerPoint

(5 minutes) game „Uncode the pairs) participate presentation.
message‰. in the game (Appendix 1)
2. Students (in pairs) are „Uncode the
Rationale: required to decipher message‰.
To arouse the message shown
studentsÊ using the PowerPoint
interest to the presentation.
topic. 3. The winner is the pair
that completes the task Students listen
first by writing the attentively.
message on the board
correctly.
4. Teacher relates the
uncoded message
(Light at the end of the
tunnel) to the novel
„Jungle of Hope‰.
Explanation 1. Teacher explains the Students listen Compare and
(20 minutes) meaning of „compare‰ attentively. contrast
and „contrast‰. paragraph
2. Teacher describes the frame
Rationale procedures in writing (Appendix 2)
To explain the a compare and Novels
procedures in contrast paragraph. „Jungle of
writing a 3. Teacher uses the novel Hope‰ and
compare and „Jungle of Hope‰ and „The Pearl‰.
contrast „The Pearl‰ to teach
paragraph. students to write a
compare and contrast
paragraph using the
frame provided. (Refer
to Appendix 2)
4. Teacher draws
studentsÊ attention to
the novel „Jungle of
Hope‰.

StudentsÊ
Activities
Practice and 1. Teacher divides Novel

metacognition students into groups „Jungle of
(30 minutes) of six. Hope‰.
Students
2. Teacher distributes a complete the
worksheet and asks worksheet in Worksheet 1
Rationale: students to complete their respective (Appendix 3)
To practice the worksheet in their groups.
writing a groups by writing a
compare and compare and contrast
contrast paragraph of at least
paragraph using three points on the old
transitions in village and new
different context. village based on the
novel „Jungle of Group leaders
Hope‰. present their
To show that completed
students have 3. Students are reminded
to incorporate the compare and
mastered the contrast
skill of writing transitions (both,
while, on the other paragraphs
compare and orally.
contrast hand, in contrast to,
paragraphs. unlike).
4. Group leaders are to Other students
present their listen
completed paragraphs attentively.
orally.
5. Teacher acts as Group leaders
facilitator to assist the display their
students if errors completed
occur. worksheet on
6. StudentsÊ completed the „English
worksheets will be Corner‰ in
collected and class.
displayed on the
„English Corner‰ in
the class.

StudentsÊ
Activities
Application 1. Teacher tells students to Worksheet 2

(20 minutes) get into pairs. (Appendix 4)
2. Teacher distributes a Students
Rationale: worksheet and asks complete the
students to complete the worksheet in
To show that worksheet in pairs based
students have pairs.
on the novel „Jungle of
acquired the Hope‰. (Refer to
skill of writing Appendix 4).
compare and
contrast 3. Students (in pairs) are
paragraphs. selected at random to
present their completed
compare and contrast
paragraphs.
Closure 1. Teacher elicits the moral Students give

(5 minutes) value of the lesson from their responses
students. and opinions.
Example of question Expected
Rationale: posed: answer:
To elicit the a. What is the moral a. To be
moral value value related to this thankful or
(thankful/ lesson? grateful for
gratitude) of the what we
lesson taught. 2. Teacher stresses on the
importance of being have.
thankful or grateful for Students listen
what we have and also attentively.
to make the most out of
it.
Students
3. Teacher asks students to (individually)
write a diary entry each complete the
to express their gratitude task as
and thankfulness for all homework.
they have.
4. The diary entry will be
compiled at the end of
the week to be displayed
in class.

APPENDIX 1
SET INDUCTION
Power Point presentation:
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) To decipher the message, students need to replace the alphabets a to z in

the other direction. (To be done by students based on the clue given).
(f)

EXPLANATION STAGE
APPENDIX 2
Writing a compare and contrast paragraph
TeacherÊs explanation:
A compare and contrast paragraph shows the similarities and
differences between two or more things, places, people, or ideas.
A comparison shows how two subjects are similar; a contrast shows
how two subjects are different.
Procedures in writing a compare and contrast paragraph the novels

„Jungleof Hope‰ and „The Pearl‰ :
1. Identify similarities and differences of the two novels.

The focus is on the differences of the two novels:
Points „Jungle of Hope‰ „The Pearl‰
Physical aspect: thick thin
Author: famous local writer, famous foreign
Keris Mas writer John Steinbeck
Internal aspect: many illustrations no illustrations
provided
2. State the purpose in the thesis sentence.
Identify the two subjects that you will compare and state whether
you will focus on similarities, differences, or both.
3. Writing a paragraph frame using transitions/signal words (both,
while, on the other hand, in contrast to, unlike).
„Jungle of Hope‰ and „The Pearl‰ are both novels for teaching
literature in the Upper Secondary Schools, but they differ in having
different authors, thickness and illustrations provided. While „Jungle of
Hope‰ is thick, „The Pearl‰ on the other hand is thin. „Jungle of Hope‰
is written by a local author, Keris Mas, in contrast to „The Pearl‰ which
has a foreign author, John Steinbeck. Illustrations are given in „Jungle
of Hope‰ unlike „The Pearl‰ which has no illustrations.

APPENDIX 3
PRACTICE AND METACOGNITION STAGE
WORKSHEET 1
Instruction : Write a compare/contrast paragraph of at least three

points on the old village and the new village in Part One
of the novel „Jungle of Hope‰ using transitions (both,
while, on the other hand, in contrast to, and unlike). You
can focus on the differences of the old village and new
village based on the following points:
Ć houses
Ć occupation
Ć economic status
EXPECTED ANSWER
Old Village New Village
on lower ground HOUSES on higher ground
paddy-planters OCCUPATION rubber-planters
poor ECONOMIC richer and own
STATUS property
Both the old village and the new village in the novel „Jungle of Hope‰
are located in Ketari, Pahang. While the houses in the old village are
on lower ground, the houses in the new village on the other hand are
on higher ground. The people in the old village are mostly paddy-
planters that is in contrast to the people in the new village who are
mostly rubber-planters. Unlike the people in the old village who are
poor, the people in the new village are rich and some of them own
property.

APPENDIX 4
APPLICATION STAGE
WORKSHEET 2
Instruction : Write a compare/contrast paragraph of at least three
points on the drought and flood depicted in Part One of
the novel „Jungle of Hope‰ using transitions (both,
while, on the other hand, in contrast to, and unlike).
You can focus on the following points to show the
differences between the drought and flood as depicted
in the novel:
Ć rain
Ć outcome
Ć source of income
EXPECTED ANSWER
Both the drought and the flood are natural phenomena affecting the
life of the people in Ketari. While the drought is caused by long period
without rainfall, the flood on the other hand is brought about by
continuous rain. During the drought, the rice-fields are parched and
cracked in contrast to the flood where rice-fields are destroyed,
turning them into small islands. Clearing weeds and tapping rubber
are the sources of income during drought unlike catching fish
from rice-fields during the flood.

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES:
1. Can you identify which lesson plans are using the „Gagne‰ format and
which lesson plans are using the „ASSURE‰ format?
2. List the criteria of „Gagne‰ format lesson plan.
3. List the criteria of „ASSURE‰ format lesson plan.
4. What are the similarities between the „Gagne‰ format lesson plan and
„ASSURE‰ format lesson plan?
5. What are the differences between the „Gagne‰ format lesson plan and
„ASSURE‰ format lesson plan?
6. Choose one „ASSURE‰ format lesson plan and revise it into „Gagne‰
format lesson plan.
EVALUATION FORM
Reflective Schedule
Class : ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄.. Date : ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄..
Instructions :
(a) Answer the questions below thoughtfully and, if possible, fill it in as soon
as you finish the lesson.
(b) Put a tick across the relevant boxes (e.g. ) and briefly answer any
appropriate questions that follow.
(c) Simply write NA (= Not Applicable) on the spaces provided for questions
which are not applicable to the particular lesson you have just taught.
A. Objectives
1. On the whole, how would you rate the

achievement of the objectives? Well Satisfactory Poor
2. Was there any particular objective that was not

achieved? No, all achieved Yes
If YES, which one? If NOT give two reasons.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

B. Activities
1. Did you plan to attempt something Âdifferent/new‰ in

any of the activities? If YES, in which activity and was Yes No
it successful?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. Did you depart from your lesson plan in any of the

No, i did not Yes
activities? If YES, what changes did you make?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3. Do you find all the activities appropriate in achieving the

objectives? If YES, which one was not and why ? Yes No
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
4. Do you find the activities suitable for the different ability groups?
If YES, why do you think so? If NOT, what happened?
Yes No
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
5. Were the materials and/or AVA you used adequate / appropriate

for the activities? If YES, why do you think so? If NOT,
why not? What improvement could have been made?
Yes No
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

6. Did you find yourself having either too much time or too
little time?If YES, what did you decide to do?
No, jus enough
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
C. Teacher Talk and Language Use
1. Do you think the pupils understood your instructions clearly? If YES, why
do you think so? If NOT, why?
___________________________________________________________________
2. Did you feel the need to rephrase the questions you asked? If NOT, why
not? If YES, did you face any difficulty rephrasing your questions?
___________________________________________________________________
3. Did you feel confident in your use of the English

Yes, throughout
Language throughout the lesson ? If NOT, what
needs improvement?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
4. Did you use the L1 (first language e.g. BM) during

the lesson? If YES, did you use it frequently No, not at all
or frequently?
___________________________________________________________________
5. On what occasions during the lesson did you use the L1 and why do you
think it was necessary ?
___________________________________________________________________
D. Classroom interaction and management
1. Can you say that all pupils were involved (participated)

in the lesson most of the time? Yes No
2. Can you say that there were opportunities for peer

interaction? Yes No
3. Did any pupil (s) fail to participate satisfactorily throughout

the lesson? If YES, why was this so?
Yes No
___________________________________________________________________
4. What sort of grouping did you organise?
Mixed-ability Same ability Random selection
5. Was the grouping suitable for the activities? How do you know?
___________________________________________________________________
6. Describe briefly what you did during group work.
___________________________________________________________________
7. Did you encounter any disciplinary problems/incidents?

If YES, describe briefly what happened and what you
Yes No
decided to do.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
8. Do you think the problem/incident could have been

avoided? If NOT, why? If YES, how? Yes No
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

9. What will you do if it happens again?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
E. Summary/General
1. (a) When you look back at the lesson as a whole, what do you think were:
(i) the main points of strength
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(ii) the main points of weakness
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(b) What would you do differently if you were to teach the same lesson
again?
___________________________________________________________________
2. Did you discover anything ÂnewÊ about your teaching?

If YES, what? Yes No
___________________________________________________________________
3. Are there other aspects of your teaching not touched on

in the questions above (e.g. error correction, set induction Yes No
etc.)? Which did you feel, need further attention in your
case? If YES, what aspect?
___________________________________________________________________
4. State at least one aspect that you think you really should focus on/find put
more about the purpose of improving your teaching. How do you plan to
do that?
___________________________________________________________________

• In this topic, you were given several model lesson plans for the teaching of
writing.
• These lesson plans incorporate the various suggestions advocated by the

Media Model, Assure Model and GagneÊs Model.
• Generally, the Media Model focus on the message, The Assured Model focus
on the learner, whilst the Gagne Model acknowledges the mental condition
for learning.
• Included are some sample model lesson plans, as well as evaluation for
teachers to evaluate their lesson plans.
ASSURE Psychomotor
Media model Rationale
Model lesson plans
1. Name three models of lesson plans.
2. Meaning in the Media model is characterised into two categories. What are they?
3. What is the ASSURE model?
4. What are GagneÊs nine events of instruction?
5. What categories are recommended for lesson plans?
6. Construct a lesson plan for OUM learners based on the model in 6.1.5
Integrating Skills in Lessons. Bear in mind the special needs of OUM
learners.
7. Adapt GagneÊs nine step model lesson plan for use in an OUM tutorial.


Upper Saddle River.
Gagne, E., Yekovich, C., and Yekovich,F. (1993). The Cognitive Psychology of
School Learning. Boston: Little Brown.
Rosini Abu et. al., (2002) Prinsip Teknologi Pengajaran. Universiti Terbuka
Malaysia (UNITEM).
Torkelson, G.M (1967). Theoretical Cases for Research in Media. Canadian
Journal of Educational Communication. v.16.No.1. Winter.

Topic X Developing
7 a Writing
Syllabus
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the syllabus content and skills for the primary level; and
2. Describe the syllabus content and skills for the secondary level.
X INTRODUCTION
This topic briefly presents what are involved in the teaching of writing for
primary and secondary students so that teachers will have an insight to what
skills should be taught to both levels. Besides, the topic helps to discern the
gradual development of the writing skills from simple to complex as students
progress from the primary to secondary levels. At the primary level, the focus is
on basic writing skills, like copying, matching, writing simple sentences and
basic mechanics of writing. Later, it progresses to responding to real-life issues,
such as, writing messages, filling forms and writing letters to friends. Next, it
develops to writing longer texts that describe events that happen around them.
Finally, it proceeds to writing using the computer and the writing of more
complex and longer texts at the secondary level.

152 X TOPIC 7 DEVELOPING A WRITING SYLLABUS
7.1 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE CURRICULUM

English is taught as a second language in all Malaysian primary and secondary
schools in the country.
The ultimate goal of the English language curriculum for schools is to help
learners acquire the language so that they can use it in their everyday life, to
further their studies, and for work purposes. English globally used, therefore
Malaysians will need to be proficient in the language in order to communicate
with people in other countries. The use of English in Information and
Communications Technology (ICT) has also been incorporated into the
curriculum to enable learners to access knowledge on the Internet and to
network with people, both locally and overseas.
7.2 PRIMARY SCHOOL WRITING SYLLABUS

In this component, the focus is on developing learnersÊ writing ability beginning
at the word and phrase levels and progresses to the sentence and paragraph
levels. For those who are able and capable, they must be encouraged to write
simple compositions comprising several paragraphs. Attention is also paid to
penmanship so that even from a young age, learners are taught to write clearly
and legibly both in print and cursive writing. In writing simple compositions,
learners are taught the various steps involved in writing such as planning,
drafting, revising, and editing. In the process, they are also taught to use
appropriate vocabulary and correct grammar to get their meaning across clearly.
Although much of the writing at this level is guided, the amount of control is
relaxed for learners who are able and proficient in the language. All learners are
encouraged to write for different purposes and for different audiences. Spelling
and dictation are also given emphasis.

TOPIC 7 DEVELOPING A WRITING SYLLABUS W 153
7.2.1 Aims and Objectives of the English Language

Syllabus in Primary Schools
The English language syllabus for primary school aims to equip pupils with skills
and provide a basic understanding of the English language so that they are able
to communicate, both orally and in writing, in and out of school.
By the end of primary school, learners should be able to:

(a) Listen to and understand simple spoken English to be able to function in
common everyday situations;
(b) Speak and respond clearly and appropriately in common everyday
situations using simple language;
(c) To read and understand different kinds of texts (from print and electronic
sources) for enjoyment and information;
(d) Write (including e-mail) for different purposes using simple language; and
(e) Show an awareness and appreciation of moral values and love towards the
nation.
7.3 WRITING
At the primary school level, pupils should be writing simple paragraphs of
several sentences each. To make writing enjoyable, pupils should be given
opportunities to write in response to a variety of stimuli including stories,
classroom activities and personal experiences. At this stage, pupils should be
encouraged to write independently but when this is not possible, teachers need
to set guided writing exercises, gradually releasing the amount of control as
pupils demonstrate greater confidence.

Table 7.1: Sample Lesson Plan
LEARNING EXAMPLES / ACTIVITIES

SPECIFICATIONS
OUTCOMES / NOTES
By the end of their Level 1 Check pupils' handwriting
primary schooling, 4.1.1 Copy letters of the for
pupils should be alphabet in clear and − ascenders & descanters
able to: legible cursive writing: − entry
4.1 Copy correctly. − small letters − exit
− capital letters − arches
− combination of small − crossbar
and capital letters.
− slant
4.1.2 Copy words, phrases
and sentences in clear,
legible cursive writing.
4.1.3 Copy words in clear neat
legible print for
captions, labels, etc
4.2 Write at word, 4.2.1 Write clearly and legibly E.g.
phrase, sentence numerals 30-50 in both
and paragraph number and word forms 31 = thirty one
level in clear, using cursive writing for 50 = fifty
legible print and word forms.
cursive writing.
Level 2 Let pupils share their
4.2.2 Write words and writing by reading it aloud
phrases in clear and to others or by displaying
legible cursive writing. it.
Level 3
4.2.3 Write sentences in clear
and legible cursive
writing.
4.3 Match words to Level 1 E.g.
linear and non 4.6 Match phrases to pictures. fork and spoon,
linear furniture
representations: Level 2
4.6 Match words to signs. E.g.
(i) word to
word; No smoking. No food
Level 3
allowed.
(ii) word to 4.6 Match words to other
phrase; words. E.g.
(iii) word to Use picture clues to guide
picture, pupils. Black, ball, foot,
symbol. flower, sun, bird.

4.4 Complete texts Level 1 E.g.

with the missing 4.6 Provide missing letters In a message to a friend
word, phrase or in words.
sentence. De_r Julia,
Level 2 Please c-me to my ho-se
4.4.2 Complete simple at 11 oÊcloc- in the
instructions, recipes, morning⁄
descriptions, and rhymes By! Maria
with the missing word
(with guidance given in E.g.
the form of words and
First, cut the onions
pictures).
Then, fry them in oil.
Level 3 Next, add the
4.4.3 Complete simple vegetables.
instructions, texts, Stir quickly.
rhymes, notices, recipes,
stories with the missing
word(s) (with a little Do not talk to strangers.
guidance in the form of a Do not accept lifts from
composite picture). people you do not know.
Do not walk in lonely
place.
4.5 Construct simple Level 1 E. g.
and compound 4.5.1 Form simple sentences This Lisa is. She eight
sentences with and questions by old years is. She to likes
guidance and arranging wards (5-6 hides and seeks to play.
independently. words in a sentence).
Level 2 E.g.
4.5.2 Form simple sentences This is eight wheels.
by matching sentence It is a big lorry.
parts. It has used to carry
Level 3 sand.
4.5.3 Construct simple
sentences independently E.g.
(3-5 words) by looking at This is Ezra.
a picture. She has short hair.
It is good to have short
hair. It is easy to take care
of short hair.

4.6 Spell correctly Level 1 Give key words in a story

and take 4.6.1 Spell words that are to be memorized:
dictation. given to be memorized. E.g.
Level 2 magician forest wicked
4.6.2 Apply spelling rules: to
plurals: E.g.
(a) Words ending in -ss, dress - dresses
-sh, ch, -x, add -es. dish - dishes
(b) Words ending in f, witch - witches
change f to v + es. fox - foxes
Level 3 E.g.
4.6.3 Take dictation of leaf ă leaves
paragraphs given to be
learnt. E.g.
Give pupils sentences to
memorise.
4.7 Punctuate All levels E.g.
meaningfully. 4.7.1 Use full stop for initials H. S. Smith Mr. Mrs.
and abbreviations.
4.8 Give accurate Level 1 E.g.
information 4.8.1 Write a message for a writing a message to a
when writing purpose. friend telling her that
messages, teacher wants the class
instructions, Level 2
to do all the sums on
simple reports, 4.8.2 Write simple sentences page 24.
and when filling with word and picture
out forms. cues.
E.g.
Level 3 writing a story.
4.8.3 Write simple Children playing - fell
descriptions with into river - bigger boy
picture cues. pulled child out - safe.
7.4 THE SECONDARY SCHOOL SYLLABUS

English is a compulsory subject in all primary and secondary schools curriculum
in line with its status as a second language in Malaysia. The Cabinet Committee
Report on the Review of the Implementation of the Education Policy, 1979 states
that the teaching of English is to enable all school-leavers to use English in certain
everyday situations and work situations. This policy allow students to pursue
higher education in the medium of English.

At present, English is becoming increasingly important in Information and

Communications Technology (ICT) and in its role as a global language.
Therefore, the use of English for ICT has been included in the curriculum.
English for ICT will enable learners to access knowledge on the Internet and to
network with people locally and overseas.
The English curriculum uses knowledge not only from subject disciplines such as
science and geography to provide the content for learning but also from current
issues. Wherever possible, learners are to carry out project work so that they will
apply inquiry skills to solve problems and issues. Learners begin with issues and
concerns in their surroundings, i.e. the school, town and country, and later
progress to issues and concerns outside the country. These activities will assist
them to discuss and analyse issues and at the same time instill in them the habit
of acquiring knowledge throughout their lives.
With ICT, learners can share in joint activities with other schools through
networking. In this way, they will develop their interpersonal skills and be
prepared to go out into the world when they leave school. A small literature
component has been added to the curriculum. This will enable learners to engage
in wider reading of good works for enjoyment and for self-development. They
will also develop an understanding of other societies, cultures, values and
traditions that will contribute to their emotional and spiritual growth, namely by:
(a) Discerning cause-effect relationships, and sequence of ideas;
(b) Getting at the explicit and implicit meaning of various oral and written
texts;
(c) Predicting outcomes, and drawing conclusions;
(d) Deducing the meaning of unfamiliar words and metaphors by applying
word attack skills;
(e) Identifying different points of view and bias;
(f) Using print and electronic dictionaries;
(g) Interpreting non-linear texts such as maps, charts, diagrams, tables, graphs;
(h) Making short notes and mapping out ideas.
Learners will also be able to present the information to different audiences by:
(a) Writing directions, instructions, recounts, descriptions, explanations,
messages, letters, speeches, reports and articles;
(b) Instructing, describing, narrating, explaining, and reporting orally;
(c) Responding to questions and comments orally and in writing;

(d) Presenting information in non-linear forms including tables, graphs,

diagrams, charts and vice-versa;
(e) Expanding notes and outlines;
(f) Composing, revising and editing drafts; and checking accuracy of spelling,
punctuation and grammar;
(g) Summarising information;
(h) Reading aloud written material such as instructions, directions, reports
clearly and fluently; and
(i) Using appropriate format, conventions, and grammar when presenting
information.
ACTIVITY 7.1
Based on your understanding, what is the difference between the primary
and secondary school syllabus? Discuss.
7.5 LANGUAGE USE FOR AESTHETIC

PURPOSES
The aesthetic purposes of language use involve the ability to enjoy literary texts
at a level appropriate to learnersÊ ability. Learners are also expected to be able to
express ideas, thoughts, beliefs and feelings creatively and imaginatively. The
study of moral values is also given emphasis in this area of language use.
The Learning Outcomes for aesthetic use are as follows:
Express themselves creatively and imaginatively by

(a) Dramatising texts and role-playing characters;
(b) Retelling a story from a different point of view and presenting it in another
genre; and
(c) Composing simple poems, stories and dialogues.
The list of texts for study is appended with this document. The literature list may
be changed every few years. Moreover, the syllabus assigns seven pertinent
components that will assist to mould students into a holistic individual.

7.6 THINKING SKILLS

Critical and creative thinking skills are incorporated in the learning outcomes to
enable learners to analyse information, make decisions, solve problems, and
express themselves accurately and creatively in language.
7.7 LEARNING HOW TO LEARN SKILLS

Learning How to Learn skills are also integrated in the learning outcomes and
aim to enable learners to take responsibility for their own learning. These skills
incorporate information skills, library skills and study skills to enable learners to
locate sources of information more efficiently and help them become
independent lifelong learners.
7.8 INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATIONS

TECHNOLOGY (ICT) SKILLS
In line with globalisation and the ICT Age, skills relating to ICT are incorporated
in the learning outcomes. These skills include the use of multimedia resources
such as TV documentaries and Internet resources, as well as the utilisation of
computer-related activities such as e-mail activities, networking and interacting
with electronic courseware.
7.9 VALUES AND CITIZENSHIP

The values contained in the secondary Moral syllabus have been incorporated in
the learning outcomes and include patriotism and good citizenship.
7.10 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

The learning outcomes also reflect the incorporation of the theory of Multiple
Intelligences. This is illustrated, for example, in the interpersonal use of language
among people in social interactions, kinesthetic intelligence in the dramatisation
of texts, and spatial intelligence in the interpretation of maps, and other such
activities.

7.11 KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION

Learning outcomes utilise subject matter disciplines such as science, geography,
and incorporate educational emphases such as Environmental Studies and
Consumerism to provide contexts for language use.
7.12 PREPARATION FOR THE REAL WORD
The learning outcomes prepare learners to meet the challenges of the real
world by focusing on language use in society. This is achieved through
structuring the curriculum in terms of interpersonal, informational and
aesthetic uses of language.
It is also achieved by making use of real-life issues for obtaining information,

making decisions and solving problems. Also to listen to, view, read and respond
to different texts, and express ideas, opinions, thoughts and feelings
imaginatively and creatively in spoken and written form; Writing skills will
enable learners to present their ideas in a logical and organised manner.
Language for interpersonal use requires learners to speak intelligibly using
correct pronunciation, observe correct stress and intonation. Learners are also
required to write appropriately using the correct conventions and format and
with good grammar.
In addition, the Secondary school writing syllabus prepares students to present

information to different audiences by:
(a) Writing directions, instructions, recounts, descriptions, explanations,
messages, letters, speeches, reports and articles;
(b) Instructing, describing, narrating, explaining, and reporting orally;
(c) responding to questions and comments orally and in writing;
(d) Presenting information in non-linear forms including tables, graphs,
diagrams, charts and vice-versa;
(e) Expanding notes and outlines;
(f) Composing, revising and editing drafts; and checking accuracy of spelling,
punctuation and grammar;
(g) Summarising information; and
(h) Using appropriate format, conventions, and grammar when presenting.

ACTIVITY 7.2
1. Reflect on what you have taught for your writing class. Do you
follow strictly to the English syllabus specification? If yes, describe
one item that you have implemented in your writing class.
2. If not, describe one item that you have created and implemented in
your writing class. Give two reasons for your activity.
• In short, by the end of the secondary school level, students will be adequately
equipped with the relevant writing skills to prepare them for the real-life
world of work and academic studies.
Aesthetic Patriotism
Citizenship Values
Incorporate
1. What are the eight things school children should be able to do when they leave?
2. What does thinking skills teach students to do?
3. What do learning how to learn skills do?
4. How does writing help student prepare for the real world?
5. What kinds of multiple intelligences can be incorporated in teaching writing?
6. Language learning is about preparing students to meet the real world. How
does this relate to teaching of writing in the ESL context?
7. Is writing a form of learning-how-to-learn skill?


Upper Saddle River.
Gagne, E., Yekovich, C., and Yekovich,F. (1993). The Cognitive Psychology of
School Learning. Boston: Little Brown.
Rosini Abu et. al., (2002). Prinsip Teknologi Pengajaran. Universiti Terbuka
Malaysia (UNITEM).
Torkelson, G.M (1967). Theoretical Cases for Research in Media. Canadian
Journal of Educational Communication. v.16.No.1. Winter.

Topic X Integration of
8 Skills
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Devise various techniques to teach grammar in writing; and
2. Incorporate the medium of literature to teach writing skills.
X INTRODUCTION
This topic provides a brief history of utilising grammar in writing and guidelines
for the integration of grammar in writing lessons. Besides, it gives teachers
avenues to provide feedback and poses several problem-based learning activities
for discussion. This is followed by suggestion on how to utilise literature in the
teaching of writing.
8.1 GRAMMAR IN WRITING

Understanding the writing processes have helped us design and implement more
effective composition programmes and teaching materials. This is due to the
developments in composition theory and research during the past few decades.
Confusion about the role of grammar in ESL/ EFL writing instruction is a result
of the paradigm shift in composition theory from a focus on writing products to
that of writing processes. Adding to the uncertainty about whether grammar has
a place in the teaching of writing are the result of a considerable body of native
English speakersÊ writing research which indicates that formal grammar
instruction has little or no effect on writing improvement (Hillocks, 1986).

164 X TOPIC 8 INTEGRATION OF SKILLS
ESL writing teachers know from experience that their students often have
difficulties at both sentence and discourse level English grammar. Besides,
research has provided evidence that ESL writersÊ errors may negatively affect
assessments of overall writing quality. A study by McGirt (1984), showed a
statistically significant difference between holistic ratings of ESL essays with
morphosyntactic and mechanical errors of the same essays in which errors had
been corrected. In contrast, the difference in ratings for a control group of native
English speaker essays with and without errors was not significant.
It seems that misconceptions about the role of grammar in writing has resulted
from a narrowly defined view of „grammatical instruction‰ as traditional,
decontextualised grammar lessons with a focus on formal analysis of sentence-
level syntax (e.g., types of clauses) and/or a preoccupation with correcting
errors. In contrast to this view, as Widdowson (1988) discusses in his article
„Grammar, Nonsense, and Learning,‰ is one of grammar as a resource for
communication, or what Widdowson terms „the adaptation of lexis‰ (p. 154). In
other words, grammar is regarded as an aid to language users in accurately
communicating their messages, not as some isolated body of knowledge that
must be studied for its own sake. Widdowson states that „language learning is
essentially grammar learning and it is a mistake to think otherwise‰ (p. 154). This
claim might at first seem to reflect a long outdated language teaching
methodology, concerned with forms rather than functions of language, and with
discrete sentencelevel units rather than connected discourse. However,
Widdowson, who is Â known for his work in communicative language teaching
(e.g., Widdowson, 1978), is simply stressing that grammar as a component of
language enables us to make our meanings clear and precise. For example, in
English, word order is an essential determinant of meaning. The sentences „John
loves Mary‰ and „Mary loves John‰ obviously convey two different messages.
This positive orientation toward grammar points to a solution to the problem

discussed above. If grammar is seen as an essential resource for writers in the
process of shaping accurate and effective communication, ESL writing teachers
can use knowledge of grammatical forms and functions to address specific needs
of students and to guide instructional materials development for learners at all
stages of the writing process. In this way, grammar instruction is integrated with
various writing goals; it is presented to learners not just as a prescriptive model
for error correction but rather as an aid to convey meaning appropriately to
intended readers.

TOPIC 8 INTEGRATION OF SKILLS W 165
8.2 GUIDELINES FOR INTEGRATING

GRAMMAR INTO WRITING INSTRUCTION
Figure 8.1 shows the six guidelines for integrating grammar into writing
instruction.
Figure 8.1: Six guidelines for integrating grammar into writing instruction
The ESL instructor will need to assess both learner and instructional variables
when deciding what kinds of grammar-based activities are most relevant to
particular writing contexts. Celce-Murcia (1985b), suggests that the following
learner variables be considered in making choices about grammar instruction:
Ć Age;
Ć Proficiency level; and
Ć Educational background.
According to Celce-Murcia (1958), for the schema of variables influencing

grammar teaching, a focus on formal aspects of language is increasingly useful as
writers become older, more advanced in English proficiency, and more highly
educated.
In addition, the studentsÊ backgrounds in grammatical instruction should be

considered, especially with reference to knowledge of grammatical terminology.
One of the frequent criticisms of traditional grammar instruction in writing has
been its overemphasis on teaching terminology to students. It is argued that such
instruction is time-consuming and often results in confusing students rather than

helping them.
In the field of basic writing for native English speakers, the prevailing
recommendation to teachers is to use as little terminology as possible and to
keep it as simple as possible (e.g., DÊEloia, 1975; Neuleib & Brosnahan, 1987).
While this is certainly good advice for teachers in many ESL/EFL contexts, it
should be noted that some learners of English as a second or foreign language
enter the writing classroom with a sophisticated knowledge of traditional
grammar.
Since terminology can be useful in providing teacher feedback on syntactic

and morphological error patterns in studentsÊ writing, an awareness of
individual learnersÊ knowledge of grammatical terms is important.
This can be achieved at the beginning of a course by giving students a list of

terms and asking them to check ones with which they are familiar.
Furthermore, there will be some basic terms which the writing teacher will want
to familiarise all students with in order to help them edit their writing. For these,
the advice is to keep terminology simple. For example, progressive verbs,
gerunds, and present participles in adjective/ adverb phrases might be
distinguished as -ing main verbs, -ing modifiers and -ing nouns, respectively.
Relative clauses could be referred to as which/who/that-clauses used as
adjectives. Such designations link grammatical functions with actual morphemes
or words that student will see in writing so that there is less of a requirement to
memorise terms.
Moreover, instructional variables must be considered in developing grammar-

oriented writing activities. As proposed by Celce-MurciaÊs schema, the more
formal the register and the more professional the use of language, the greater the
need for focus on form. In most types of academic writing, conformity to
standard English conventions of grammar and mechanics is assumed; therefore
in this regard the ESL instructor will need to assess both learner and instructional
variables. In short, writing instructors in secondary and higher education will
need to help students become aware of the expectations of academic discourse
communities.

The specific objectives of a writing class will greatly influence the ways in which
grammar will be integrated with writing. In ESL writing programmes where
students are placed on the basis of diagnostic tests which evaluate syntactic and
rhetorical fluency, some courses may focus particularly on helping students to
reduce error frequency, while those for advanced writers may be more concerned
with the grammatical choices writers make to achieve certain stylistic effects.
Thus, courses designed for writers with numerous morphosyntactic problems
might include considerable work on editing and on guided writing practice, with
a focus on common grammatical problems such as verb forms, word classes, or
articles. Courses for advanced ESL writers with few grammatical problems,
could offer extensive practice in such activities as contextualised sentence
combining and discourse analysis/ evaluation, to help students achieve greater
stylistic sophistication and to heighten awareness of the ways in which
grammatical choices serve various discourse pragmatic considerations, such as
topic emphasis and reader expectations.
Hence, in keeping with a positive approach toward the role of grammar in

writing, it seems beneficial to include grammar-oriented activities not only to
help students edit errors in their writing, but also to provide them with a
variety of syntactic strategies for effective communication and to help them
understand how grammar contributes to meaning.
In the sections which follow, specific activities and techniques for achieving these
goals will be suggested.
8.2.1 Text Analysis

The study of text models is emphasised less in the process oriented, student-
centred writing class than it was in the past when presentational modes of
instruction predominated (see Hillocks, 1986, for an overview of instructional
modes). However, exercises based on text analysis can help ESL writers to see
how particular grammatical/ syntactic features are used in authentic discourse
contexts, which are in texts written for actual communicative purposes and not
just to illustrate grammatical points.
Text analysis can be especially useful as an inductive approach for helping

learners who are already familiar with prescriptive grammar rules, but who
still have problems understanding and using appropriately grammatical
oppositions such as definite and indefinite articles, restrictive and
nonrestrictive clauses, and present perfect and past- or present-tense verb
forms.

In selecting authentic texts for inductive exercises, the writing teacher should
keep in mind the proficiency level of students, avoiding writing that might be too
complex or lengthy, and should look for texts with ample instances of the
grammatical feature to be analysed. Since finding an appropriate text when
needed for a lesson is often difficult, it is useful to create files beforehand of short
texts (e.g., magazine and newspaper articles, advertisements) that would be good
for examining grammatical features most often problematic for ESL writers. At
least some texts should represent the kinds of writing that students will be
expected to produce. However, a variety of writing samples can help to keep
interest levels high. Especially for less advanced students, advertisements can be
excellent sources for illustrating grammatical features; they often incorporate
grammatical repetition as a rhetorical device.
Teachers often assume that the text used has sufficient instances of the particular
grammatical item or items. Text analysis in the writing class should be
subordinate to actual writing activities; exercises should usually be kept brief. If
the instructor decides to incorporate text analysis routinely into classroom or out-
of-class activities, students could be asked to purchase differently coloured pens
or pencils to highlight contrasting functions of different grammatical features.
The following are a few examples of lessons that focus on grammatical features
in texts.
(a) To help students distinguish restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses,

ask them to underline restrictive clauses in a text with one colour pen and
non-restrictive, relative clauses with another colour. Have them circle
commas to locate non-restrictive clauses. Ask them to identify which type
of relative clause is more frequent. Elicit functions of clauses (e.g., non-
restrictive used for definition, restrictive which provide cohesion by
repeating information previously I given) to point out salient differences in
usage.
(b) Select a text that illustrates several functions of the definite article „the‰
(e.g., second mention, shared knowledge between writer and reader,
uniqueness through postmodification). Underline and number only those
uses of „the‰ on which you want students to focus. Present function
classifications and ask students to classify each numbered use. A variation
of this would be to focus only on function. For example, students who are
familiar with abstract nouns but unsure as to when it is appropriately used
could be asked to highlight abstract noun phrases preceded by „the‰
(including any postmodification) and those with no article, with different
colours. In discussion or writing, elicit the principles that account for use of
the article.

(c) To help students understand how the present perfect contrasts with past
and present tenses, find a passage that uses all three. Ask students to mark
instances of the three verb types in different ways (using different pen
colours or circling, boxing, and underlining). On a blackboard, overhead
projector, or handout, present students with a time chart including the
following categories:
Ć Completed events in the past;
Ć Events that started in the past and continue to the present;
Ć Repeated events in the past;
Ć Events in the present (from the writersÊ perspective); and
Ć Any other categories relevant to the text.
Have students complete the chart by writing verbs from the text under each
appropriate category; then ask them to summarise the uses of the present
perfect.
For advanced ESL writers, grammatical analysis can be used for lessons
concerned with stylistic options and methods of rhetorical focus such as passive
voice. In addition, this approach can be used to demonstrate exceptions to
prescriptive rules. For example, advanced ESL students who have been taught to
avoid sentence fragments are often confused when they encounter them in
authentic texts. Text analysis can help to clarify the contexts in which some types
of fragments are acceptable and to point out how they differ from fragment
„errors‰ that would be inappropriate in almost any context. As an illustration,
the following passage about developments in running shoes, taken from Burfoot
(1988), uses repeated noun phrase fragments as a stylistic device.
Over the last two decades, we have seen shoes that were light and firm.
Shoes with high heels or low heels, wide heels or narrow heels. Shoes that
promised motion control and stability. Schizophrenic shoes: firm on one
side, soft on the other.
After discussing rhetorical functions of examples such as in the text mentioned,

students could then examine sentence fragments in their own writing to see
whether they serve a rhetorical purpose or need to be revised.
In all types of text-analysis exercises, students can develop greater understanding

of how grammar contributes to communication by identifying and explaining the
meanings or functions of grammatical structures in discourse contexts. These
exercises should help students to develop not only their writing but also their

reading skills. As follow-up activities, either writing or editing practice related to

the grammatical focus can be assigned.
8.2.2 Guided Writing Practice

Perhaps the most obvious purpose for guided writing with focus on a particular
grammatical structure is to address grammar problems of learners as diagnosed
in their writing. In fact, some discussions of the role of grammar in writing for
native English speakers suggest that grammar study be limited to the elimination
of error (DÊEloia, 1975; Kean, 1981). However, for ESL students, at least, another
benefit of guided writing exercises requiring the use of certain grammatical
constructions, is that such practice can build writersÊ confidence in their ability to
use English grammar and syntax and thus encourage them to develop syntactic
complexity in their writing. Schachter and Celce-Murcia(1977) point out that ESL
learners may avoid usingconstructions they find difficult; they cite evidence from
Schachter (1974) that Chinese and Japanese learners avoid producing English
relative clauses and from Kleinmann (1977) that native speakers of Arabic avoid
using passives in English. Avoidance strategies may be especially common in
writing contexts where studentsÊ work is graded; these students may avoid
constructions they think will produce errors affecting their grades on writing
assignments. As a result, the learners may end up using less effective or less
appropriate ways of communicating their ideas, as well as failing to make much
progress in developing syntactic maturity.
Many of the following guided writing activities described were used long before
process centred approaches to writing became widespread (e.g., see Paulston,
1972; Ross, 1968). However, in the past, these exercises were sometimes
presented either in no contextual framework or in the context of a grammatically
organised syllabus. Here, they are suggested as components of prewriting,
revising, or editing stages in the writing process. In other words, the activities
should have a purpose other than simply grammar practice; the grammatical
focus should be subordinated to a communicative goal. Decisions as to what
types of exercises will be most helpful should be based on the parameters of the
learning context, including the demands of major writing tasks and learner needs
assessment.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
What is the purpose of guided writing practice?

8.2.3 Dictation
Dictation can be an effective way to address grammatical errors in writing

that may be the result of erroneous aural perception of English.
American high school and college teachers of ESL immigrants who have lived in
the United States for a number of years, are finding that some of their students
have nativelike fluency but that their writing exhibits frequent omissions of
bound morphemes such as -s plural, -Ês possessive, -s third person singular, and -
ed for regular past participles. These errors are very common to native speaker
basic writers (Shaughnessy, 1977). Omissions of some articles and prepositions
may also result to some extent from the fact that these words are generally
unstressed in spoken English. In addition, the writing of these students may
include words or phrases that are incorrect or unidiomatic, but phonologically
similar to correct forms (e.g., „firsteval‰ for „first of all,‰ „would of‰ for „would
have,‰ „under contrary‰ for „on the contrary‰). Dictations can help students to
diagnose and correct these kinds of errors as well as others. Their usefulness is
not, however, limited to error detection and correction; they may also provide
practice in syntactic constructions that appear to be infrequently used by
students but are appropriate for writing tasks and proficiency levels of the class.
In the most common procedure for dictation, the instructor reads aloud a short
text several times. If the class is working on a composition unit, the text should
be related to the theme of the unit. The first time, the text is read at a normal pace
with the students just listening. For the second reading, the teacher pauses after
each phrase to allow students to write. During this reading, care should be taken
not to put undue emphasis on word endings or function words that are not
normally stressed. The third reading, done at a normal pace, gives students the
opportunity to read over their texts and make corrections. The instructor then
shows students the passage visually so that they can check their version with the
original and edit it. If the activityÊs main objective is error detection/ correction,
the instructor could give more specific directions, such as to circle all missed ăs
third person singular or -ed endings. If the goal is to familiarize writers with a
particular grammatical feature, such as participial clauses or past perfect verbs,
the students could be asked to underline them; discussion of their meanings
and/or functions could follow.

8.2.4 Text Elicitation
DÊEloia (1975: 9) advises that the study of the grammatical concept be

integrated as much as possible into the process of writing so that the
studentÊs understanding of a grammatical principle is transferred to correct
production.
One of her suggestions is to have students develop a topic sentence that

establishes a time frame. An example is the following sentence with a present
perfect frame: „My parents have (not) had a lot of influence on my beliefs and
values.‰
As Celce-Murcia and Hilles (1988, p:160) note, teachers can take advantage of the
fact that „certain writing topics or tasks seem naturally to elicit certain
structures.‰ They give as an example a writing task in which students are
instructed to use the hypothetical conditional (i.e., the subjunctive) in explaining
what they would do if they won a million dollars in the lottery.
In text elicitation with a grammatical focus, the instructor specifies both a topic or
writing objective and a grammatical construction (or constructions) to be used.
Moreover, surveys and graphs/charts on various topics are good sources for
eliciting summaries that utilises comparison/contrast transitions; even advanced
ESL writers often have difficulty using sentence connectors and clause
connectors in appropriate syntactic contexts. For example, they may not
understand how „in contrast,‰ a sentence connector, is used differently from
„whereas,‰ a clause connector. Summaries of surveys, graphs, and charts can also
provide good text-based practice of passive verbs and, depending on the time
frame, verb tenses such as simple past or present perfect.
Prewriting exercises such as brainstorming or outlining could involve lists that

use parallel structures such as phrases or infinitives. For example, as a
brainstorming exercise to begin a composition unit on education issues, students
in a university writing class were asked to list all the purposes of higher
education that they could think of, using infinitive of purpose phrases (e.g., „to
prepare for a career‰). The grammatical objective here was not so much on
practicing infinitive phrases as it was on using parallelism as a systematic way of
organising information in prewriting. Students then read an article on the
purposes of education, after which they compared the purposes on their lists
with those in the article.

In summary, text elicitation which includes the use of certain grammatical

structures can serve a number of purposes:
Ć to develop syntactic maturity;
Ć to familiarise students with grammatically based discourse conventions (e.g.,
the use of passive in survey reports);
Ć to provide strategies for organising and displaying information; and
Ć to focus on diagnosed structural problems.
8.2.5 The Conversion

In text conversion exercises, students are given paragraphs or short texts which they
must rewrite, changing some feature of the grammatical structure, such as present
tense to past tense or direct speech to indirect speech. Exercises of this type were
commonly used as „controlled composition‰ techniques in audiolingual
methodologies; they were also used to apply principles of transformational generative
grammar in ESL writing instruction (e.g., Arapoff, 1969).
As with text elicitation, text conversion exercises for the composition class
should reflect learner needs, including diagnosed grammar/syntax problems
and writing objectives. Since, as Celce-Murcia and Hilles (1988, p. 156) point
out, these exercises do not involve actual composing but rather provide
practice in making structure discourse matches, they should be as relevant as
possible to writing problems and/or actual writing assignments.
For example, if students have frequent subject-verb agreement errors in their

writing, as a pre-editing exercise they could be instructed to change all third
person present plural forms in a text to singular, and to make necessary verb
changes. To give students practice using the appropriate register of English for
science and technology or research reports, they could be asked to re-write
sentences in a text, changing all sentences with first-person subject pronouns to
the passive voice, deleting the agent. The following is a brief example:
I analysed the results of the values survey as follows. First I totalled the
responses for each of the four categories. I then ranked the ten values in
order of importance.

Rewritten :
The results of the values survey were analysed as follows. First, the
responses for each of the four categories were totalled. The ten values were
then ranked in order of importance.
If an actual text is used, the teacher may find that not all parts of it can be
transformed. Even in texts created for exercises, rewriting every sentence might
produce an awkward or very artificial text. For example, science texts do not
usually have all sentences in passive voice. To solve this problem, the instructor
can simply mark the sentences to be rewritten, using numbers or underlining.
Afterwards, the class might be asked to identify contextual factors that influence
use of the passive.
Sentence Combining
One type of text conversion that has been the focus of much research and
discussion in the field of composition for over 20 years is sentence combining. In
its early stages, this technique, developed by John Mellon (1969), often involved
exercises in combining a set of kernel sentences such as the following:
Sentence combining can be very useful for practice of a particular grammatical

structure, such as relative clauses or prepositional phrases, to help writers
become aware of and develop a range of strategies for highlighting key
information, subordinating less important information, and improving syntactic
fluency. However, recent discussions of this technique caution against using
unnatural examples such as the one above.
De Beaugrande (1985), recommends that writing samples used for sentence

combining should resemble naturally occurring language; otherwise, as he so
aptly puts it, „the whole exercise will be treated as some gratuitous venture into
a bizarre domain of communication where people regard each other with inate
kernal sentences‰ (p. 72). De Beaugrande further cautions that students should be
taught to avoid „excessive, muddled complexity‰ (p. 74). Most teachers who
have used sentence combining with ESL students are probably aware that this
technique sometimes results in studentsÊ producing confusing or even
incomprehensible sentences.
Perhaps the most useful application of sentence combining theory for advanced
ESL writers involves actual revision or editing of their drafts. Students, with help
from peers and the instructor, can identify passages in their writing where
sentence combining could achieve a better flow of information or greater clarity.
Combining could include adding transitions to express logical relationships.
Another technique based on sentence combining theory, although it may result in
shortening rather than lengthening sentences, is proposed by Elbow (1985). First,

the students identify a passage in their writing that is problematic. They then
„decombine‰ the sentence, breaking it into simpler sentences. (Elbow stresses
that the sentences „neednÊt be pulverized into pure Chomskyan kernels‰
[pg 237]). In recombining, the students attempt to solve whatever the problem
was.
Although ElbowÊs technique is not limited to grammar problems, it provides

a good approach to rephrasing ideas that are difficult to understand because
of sentence structure errors without having to resort to grammatical
terminology.
This technique could also be used for small group revision tasks, with writing
samples selected by the teacher from studentsÊ drafts. The teacher could then
focus on grammatical problems common to a number of students or could even
divide the class into groups according to particular problems and give each
group different samples of texts to revise.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
What is the difference between text elicitation and text conversion?
8.2.6 Text Completion

Two of the most common types of text completion exercise/tasks are the cloze
passage and the gapped text. In the cloze passage, each blank represents a single
word to fill in, in the gapped text, the blanks may require one or more words. In
a third type of text completion, sentences with similar meanings coded in
different ways are presented and the student uses the discourse context to select
the most appropriate grammatical coding of the information.
Cloze passages can be created either by random deletion of words (e.g., every
seventh word is deleted) or by deletion of a specific item (e.g., articles). The
second kind of cloze passage is most suitable for grammatical focus (Celce-
Murcia & Hilles, 1988, p:152).

The following is an example of a cloze passage; it requires students to select

appropriate prepositions.
(1) _____________ pollution may be defined as (2) _____________

deterioration of (3) _________ everyday lifeÊs natural resources. (4)
___________ pollution is (5 )_____________ global problem that has
affected (6) _____________ quality of (7) __________water we drink.
(8)
_____________ air we breathe and (9) _______________land we use.
(10)
____________ scientific solutions to overcome (11) ______________
problem have increased (12) __________________ destruction.
Source : Ross, 1984
The text mentioned illustrates the advantage of presenting a passage for practice
in article usage rather than a group of unrelated sentences. In the last sentence,
the definite article „the‰ is needed before both nouns because of second mention;
„problem‰ is a partial repetition of „global problem,‰ and „destruction‰ may be
interpreted as either a synonym for „deterioration‰ or a superordinate term for
the effects mentioned in the second sentence.
Students usually enjoy exercises that involve their own writing cloze passages
which are based on student texts can serve as an error correction technique if the
writer has produced errors in the grammatical item deleted. Whatever the
source, this type of cloze passage can provide an excellent context for discussing
extra-sentential syntactic, semantic, or pragmatic features that may influence
writersÊ selections of such grammatical items as articles and pronouns.
Since gapped text completion exercises do not specify the number of words
required for each blank, they can be used to elicit deleted verbs that include
forms with more than one word, such as passives, progressive aspect, and
present perfect. Other grammatical items that could be deleted for gapped
exercises are comparatives and superlatives, phrasal verbs, and logical
connectors.
The third type of text completion, as described by Rutherford (1988), asks the
student to consider several syntactic arrangements that realise essentially the
same propositional content, and to choose the most appropriate rendering of the
information based on the preceding discourse context. The following exercise,

modelled after RutherfordÊs (p. 240) and based on information from Filosa (1988),
is an example. The appropriate choices have been indicated.
Climatologists have predicted that the continual warming of the earthÊs surface,
known as the „greenhouse effect,‰ could have dramatic consequences:
1. The melting of the polar ice caps One result could be the melting of the
could be one result. caps.
2. This melting would, in turn cause A rise of the sea level would, in turn,
caused by a rise of the sea level. be this melting.
3. Coastal flooding would occur as As the sea level rises, coastal flooding
would the sea level rises. occur.
4. Such disastrous effects might be Cloud reactions might lessen to some

such degree lessened to some degree disastrous effects.
degree by cloud reactions.
As the example shows, this activity emphasises the importance of context in

making grammatical choices. It also demonstrates the significant role of word
order inpresenting „given‰ and „new‰ information in English (Chafe, 1976). This
type of exercise can help advanced ESL students to gain native-like competency
in written English. Such writers employ a sophisticated range of syntactic
structures but need to develop greater awareness of how grammar is used to
focus information and to achieve cohesion across sentence boundaries. Also, in
courses concerned with writing for academic purposes, this technique can
familiarise students with grammatically based discourse conventions such as the
use of passive voice in describing research procedures.
8.3 GUIDED WRITING ACTIVITIES

LetsÊs take a look at guided writing activities in the following paragraphs.
8.3.1 Editing
Many of the guided writing activities mentioned can, of course, be incorporated
into the editing process of writing. However, the techniques discussed here,
unlike the guided writing exercises, have a single focus: to develop studentÊs
abilities to detect and correct errors so that they will become effective self-editors
of their writing.

8.3.2 Error Detection/Correction Exercises

Text-based exercises which involve identifying and correcting the kinds of errors
students frequently make in their writing can help intermediate and advanced
writers to develop systematic strategies for editing. It is, of course, important for
the instructor to analyse studentsÊ errors, at least informally, so that the exercises
are relevant to their writing problems. Obviously not all students in a class will
produce the same errors. Thus, whenever possible and appropriate, the writing
of students in the class should be used for exercises; in this way, if a few students
do not have the particular error problem, they can contribute via peer correction.
The following are some variations of error detection/correction techniques, with

an example given for each; it should be assumed that the examples are excerpted
from a text (a paragraph or composition). Usually an authentic text must be
adapted in some way to make it appropriate for instructional purposes.
(a) A text is constructed with one error in each sentence, and with the errors
representing a range of types. Each sentence is divided into three or four
parts. The student must identify the section with the error and correct it.
Although this task could involve identification only, the teacher should
keep in mind that students might choose the section with the error for the
wrong reason; therefore, when possible it is best to have them correct the
perceived error also.
Example:
Many people worry about numerous effect of TV on children

A B C D
TV is a very common form of entertainments for families.
A B C D
(b) In a text with different types of errors, students are told the total number of
each kind of error to identify and correct.
Example:
The following text has the following errors:
1 incorrect preposition, 1 verb tense, 1 subject-verb agreement, 1 missing
article.
This paper report on survey about values. Our English class take the
survey last week in UCLA.

(c) To focus on just one error type, students are given a text with numbered
lines.
They are told all of the line numbers which have a certain type of error.
Example:
Identify and correct all of the verb form errors in the following text.
(a) The Olympics were hold in Seoul, Korea in 1988.

(b) Athletes from all over the world participated.
(c) The Olympics have inspire many young people to excel in athletics.
For any editing exercise, the teacher should consider carefully how much
guidance students may need to complete the task successfully. All of the
variations above provide some direction either by identifying to some extent
error location or by indicating numbers of errors and error types. Editing tasks
which are not guided in any way can overwhelm students, unless they are quite
advanced, especially if the text is a composition; they are also difficult for
students or the teacher to correct.
ACTIVITY 8.1
How much guidance should the teacher provide for students during
editing?
8.3.3 Read-Aloud Technique

In this procedure, the students simply read their papers aloud, listening for
errors and correcting as they proceed. A variation of this is to have students work
in pairs, with each student reading aloud his/her partnerÊs paper; the writer can
ask the reader to stop at any time to make corrections. The rationale for this
technique is that some students are better able to hear their errors than to see
them; this can be a helpful activity for editing the last draft before the final
version of a composition.
8.3.4 Algorithms
Raimes (1988), developed flow charts, or algorithms, to guide students in editing
their grammatical choices. In this procedure, the student responds to a series of
questions about a grammatical item; each answer leads to a narrowing of choices,
until at the end a single choice remains. The following example, from RaimesÊ

(1988: 54) textbook, „Grammar Troublespots: An Editing Guide for ESL

Students,‰ is the first part of an algorithm for editing article usage:
Is the noun a common noun?
Yes No
Does the common noun have a With a proper noun, do not use
specific, unique referent for the writer a/an. Make sure the noun has a
and the reader? capital letter. Add „the‰ to
plural forms. Some singular
names of places also need
„the‰. Check in a dictionary or
ask your instructor
RaimesÊ chart continues with features of countability and number to guide

correct selection of an article in context. As can be seen from the example, the
algorithmic procedure may be best for more advanced writers who are familiar
with grammatical terminology. It provides a step-by-step process for self-editing,
which makes it more effective than simply a list of grammatical rules.
8.3.5 Teacher Correction and Feedback on Errors

Recent research suggests that direct correction of surface errors does not produce
significantly better results in EFL student writing than less time-consuming
correction measures such as underlining or highlighting errors (Robb et al., 1986).
Since students often do not pay much attention to corrections on their final,
graded compositions, instructor feedback on errors seems most helpful in the
editing stages of composing. Even before this, however, the teacher should help
individuals identify frequent error patterns and discuss goals for reducing error
frequency. In this way, a writer, with instructor guidance, can set reasonable
objectives for improvement. A frequent complaint of students during short
courses (e.g., a 1 week term) is that they do not notice their writing getting any
better. Especially for writers who have numerous grammatical problems, limiting
intensive work on errors to some of the most frequent or serious ones can build
studentsÊ confidence and reduce anxiety about grammar problems by giving
them a better chance to observe improvement over a short period of time.
Although instructors will want to refer to studentsÊ writing to identify and
discuss grammar problems, they should be careful that grammar focus does not
contradict other types of teacher feedback. When teachers point out errors to be
edited on drafts at the same time that they suggest meaning-level changes, such

as further developing a topic, students may be confused as to how they should

revise (Zamel, 1985).
One method of charting progress in reducing error frequency during a course, is

for each student to keep a chronological record of the errors being focused on,
with the teacher helping by either coding or underlining them on selected
writing assignments, such as final drafts before a paper is due.
Another method of individualising error correction, recommended by Celce-

Murcia and Hilles (1988), is the „blue sheet.‰ In this technique, the teacher
attaches a blue sheet to each studentÊs paragraph or essay, on which two obvious
structural errors are listed. Again, this could be done with drafts preceding final
revision. The teacher also refers each writer to exercises in the class grammar text
or provides handouts relevant to these errors. (Some ESL textbooks, such as
Graham & Curtis, 1986; Raimes, 1988, include text-based exercises.) The teacher
then corrects the practice exercises before the writing assignment is revised by
the student.
Writing conferences can provide opportunities for more individualised help with
grammar problems in writing. Even if this is not possible, the teacher may be
able to hold „miniconferences‰ with individuals or small groups of students in
the classroom. In conferences, teachers can demonstrate directly the difficulties a
reader might have as a result of grammatical errors in the studentÊs writing. This
setting allows the teacher to act as a collaborator rather than as an error detector
or corrector; he/she can help students to identify errors that create reader
confusion or misinterpretation of ideas, to develop strategies for systematic
editing of frequent errors, to set goals for improvement, and to assess progress in
these goals. In conferences, teachers and students can also discuss possible
reasons for errors. The Cohen and Robbins (1976) case studies of writers based on
this technique indicate that writersÊ attitudes about the importance of
grammatical accuracy may affect error frequency. Although, as Cohen and
Robbins note, students may lack metalanguage to describe reasons for structural
problems, they can often provide insight into sources of error that a teacher
might not have considered.
Discussion questions
1. Is grammar instruction compatible with a process approach to writing? In
explaining your opinion, include a definition of „grammar.‰
2. Discuss how learner variables of age, proficiency level, educational

background, and/or course objectives might influence the role of grammar
instruction in writing for Malaysian ESL students.

3. Why is it important for grammar exercises to be:

(a) text-based rather than a series of unrelated sentences;
(b) developed from authentic discourse; and
(c) presented in a communicative context rather than only as practicein
grammaticalstructures?
4. You are teaching a class of advanced ESL/EFL students whose writing

generally has only minor grammatical errors. What types of grammatically
focused writing activities might be most appropriate to help them further
develop their writing abilities?
5. If one of your students expressed disappointment that you did not correct
all of the errors in her final drafts, how would you respond?
6. What are some of the advantages of teacher- student conferences in helping

students with grammatical problems in writing?
ACTIVITY 8.2
1. Evaluate one or more grammar-oriented exercises in an ESL

composition textbook or workbook according to the following criteria:
(a) What appears to be the purpose of the exercise? Do you think
it is pedagogically sound?
(b) Is the exercise text-based? If not, do you think it is still
appropriate for its purpose?
(c) Does the language seem authentic?
(d) If the exercise is included in a content-based or rhetorical
framework (e.g., as part of a unit on cause/effect), is it clearly
and appropriately related to the larger context?
(e) If the exercise is not part of a larger context, for what aspect
of writing instruction do you think it would be appropriate?
(f) Does the level of difficulty seem appropriate for the intended
learners?

2. Select a text that you think illustrates well the use of a particular
grammatical structure (e.g., agentless passives, present perfect
verbs, presentative „there‰ to introduce information). Develop an
exercise to accompany the text that students could complete in
small groups as a classroom assignment or individually for
homework. Explain the objective of the exercise and the writing
context in which it might be used.
3. Examine several ESL/EFL compositions that have numerous and
varied grammatical errors. For each, identify two of the most
frequent or serious errors. Develop sets of exercises or activities
that would help the writer to address these grammatical
problems.
4. Make a list of grammatical errors you observe in your studentsÊ
writing that seem to be influenced by spoken English patterns.
Create short dictation exercises to focus on these errors or find
authentic texts that would be appropriate for dictation.
5. Interview ESL writing teachers about the techniques, both oral
and written, that they have used to provide feedback on
grammatical errors in their studentsÊ writing.
(a) During what stages of composing processes do they
address errors?
(b) Which error feedback and/or correction techniques have
they found to be most effective?
(c) What student variables have affected the success of
techniques used?
(d) Compare your findings with those of recent research on the
8.4 WRITING ABOUT LITERATURE
SELF-CHECK 8.3
What can be done in writing about literature?

Customarily, literature teachers require students to:

Ć Write about what they have read and show how a writer handled one
component of a short story, play or poem;
Ć Relate how two different tasks treat a specific component;
Ć Weigh a number of components and then find out the writerÊs objective; and
Ć Air their responses to some work.
Quite a lot of benefits can be accomplished in writing about literature. Your

critical thinking skill can be sharpened through weighing and recording your
thoughts on the different components. Additionally, your appreciation of the
writerÊs craft can be intensified through careful reading and subsequent writing
of literature papers. Moreover, as they coherently convey their opinions, they
will feel a sense of satisfaction. In brief, writing a literature paper also puts
forward another opportunity to apply the writing guidelines:
Ć Focusing;
Ć Gathering;
Ć Information;
Ć Organising;
Ć Writing;
Ć Revising; and
Ć Editing.
8.4.1 The Components of Literature

One or more of the following components will probably feature in most writing
tasks on literature:
Ć Plot.
Ć Point of view.
Ć Character.
Ć Setting.
Ć Symbols.
Ć Irony.
Ć Theme.

Some of these will be more significant than the others, depending on the work.
(a) Plot Factors
Plot can be identified as the sequence of events that moves a narrative

along.
A conventional plot during the opening of a story presents important

characters
and sets the stage for what happens. Then one or more controversies
develop, some persons set as rivals, others setting characters against
society, nature, fate, or even themselves. Progressively, action increases to a
climax, where events take a decisive or turning point. The ending can do
plenty of things; straighten up the unanswered questions of the future, state
a theme, or reinstate some sort of relationship between two rivals.
Writers use a number of techniques to arrange plots. For instance, in

foreshadowing, the writer hints at later developments, thus creating
attraction and developing suspense. When using another organisational
technique, called the flashback, the writer disturbs the flow of events to link
one or more happenings that happened before the point of interruption. In
brief, flashbacks provide necessary information and either craft or work out
suspense.
In clear stages, not every plot develops. In recent times, many modern
stories focus on psychological, not physical conflicts, and lack distinct plot
divisions. In some extreme cases, writers may actually leave behind the
traditional plot structure and portray events in a disorganised sequence
that helps accomplish some literary purpose, like reflecting a characterÊs
disturbed state of mind.
Sometimes, a poem comprises a series of actions and events, but most

poems, however, make a philosophical point rather than tell a
conventionally plotted story by portraying a series of images and building
statements.
Writing about Plot

In writing about plot, assist your reader to comprehend what is unique
about the
plot and how it serves, rather than simply repeat what occurs in the story.
Explain to your reader whether it develops suspense, reflects a characterÊs
confusion, form a conflict, or illustrate how different lives can crisscross or
even help uncover a theme.

Answer the following questions before you start to write:

Ć What are the main events of the story?
Ć Do they expand in typical fashion or differ from it?
Ć What did the writer use, foreshadowing or flashback?
Ć For what purpose?
Ć Is the plot believable and successful, or does it display some sort of
weakness?
Ć Does it include any unique appearance?
Ć Is it parallel to the plot of another story or any type of story?
Ć What plot features could I write about?
Ć What examples from the story would support my opinion?
During investigative research, find out the important events and their
relation to your topic. Then, organise the events if the story is disorganised
or illogical so that they make sense and ask yourself why that sequence was
chosen by the writer. Likewise, consider the reason for any use of
foreshadowing or flashback.
Compare the plot with one in another story to show how both expand some
main approach by describing anything unique about the plot. To plan a
paper on plot, you can either present a thesis backed with examples taken
from the text or write
a comparison.
(b) Point-of-view Factors
The point of view is the vantage point from which the writer of a literary
work looks at its events, and he/she may use either a first-person or a third-
person perspective.
In first-person narration, someone in the work tells what occurs and is

recognised
by words like I, me, mine, and my. However, a third-person narrator stays
totally
out of the story and is never stated in any way.
The most frequent form of first-person narration features a narrator who

takes part in the story, in which this technique puts the reader completely
on the scene and is excellent for tracing the progress or deterioration of a
character. The narrator may observe it from the sidelines instead of

participating in the action, an approach that preserves on-the-scene
directness and allows the narrator to comment on the characters and the
issues. However, the narrator cannot enter the mind and expose the
unspoken thinking of anyone else.
Third-person narrators do not participate in the action but can examine the
whole literary landscape and directly report events that first-person
narrators would know only by word of mouth. Most third-person narrators
expose the thoughts of just one character. Others, with limited omniscience,
can enter the heads of several characters, while still others display full
omniscience and know everything in the literary work, including all
thoughts and feelings of all characters. Omniscience draw general
conclusion by allowing the narrator to contrast two or more sets of
thoughts and feelings.
Dramatic narration, another type of third-person narration, has appeared in

contemporary fiction. A dramatic narrator moves about recording the
charactersÊ
actions and words but without revealing anyoneÊs thoughts, just like
motion picture camera. This technique is often used in stories with surprise
endings.
Writing about Point of View

Answer these questions for a paper about point of view:
Ć What point of view is used? Why is it used?
Ć Is it suitable for the situation? Why or why not?
Ć If the story uses first-person narration, is the narrator reliable? What
textual evidence supports my answer?
Ć What focus would produce an effective paper? What textual evidence
could support its discussion?
Various reasons might induce the choice of a particular point of view. For
instance, to show a characterÊs mental deterioration, a writer might use the
first-person. In order to increase the emotional impact of a storyÊs climax, a
third-person might enter two minds to contrast opposing attitudes toward
some incident or enter no minds at all.
Sometimes, first-person narrators are inaccurate because they offer the

reader a twisted view of things. Compare the narratorÊs version of the facts
with what the

work otherwise reveals, in order to determine reliability.

Papers on point of view mainly follow a cause-and-effect format, which
identify the point of view used and then demonstrating its effect on the
story and reader with examples. A sense of approaching conflict are built
by shifting scenes, which would be difficult to produce with a first-person
narrator, who could not move about in this fashion.
(c) Character Factors

In a literary work, the characters serve in various ways. Some are centres of
physical and mental action. Others provide humour, act as narrators,
provide needed information, act as foils who emphasise more important
characters by contrast, serve as symbols, or simply populate the
surroundings.
Writers tend to portray characters in several ways. In point-black, some

writers notify the reader that the person is cowardly, clever, bad etc.
However, mostly writers take an indirect approach by stating how their
characters look and act, what they say and think, how they live and how
other characters view them. In some way, some characters stay unchanged;
others mature, obtain insight or even deteriorate.
Writing about character

Answer these questions as you start the process of writing about characters:
Ć What characters show the potential for a paper?
Ć What are their most important features, and where in the story are these
features exposed?
Ć Do the characters experience any changes? If so, how and why do the
changes take place?
Ć Are the characters believable, true to life? If not, why?
Ć What focus would produce an effective paper?
Ć What textual evidence could support the discussion?
You often write about the main character, but sometimes you might choose
the chief adversary or some minor character. Point out how that person
interacts with the main one for a lesser character.
Most main characters change and lesser ones normally do not. But in some
cases, a main character remains frozen, allowing the writer to make an
important point. A writer might create a main character that begins and
ends weak and ineffectual to show that a certain social group suffers from

the paralysis of the will. No matter what, just tell the reader whenever you
find out what purpose your character serves. Ask yourself about your
character credibility, if he/she is true to life. The stereotyped figures ă
merciless witch, kind princess, smart detectives ă do not square with real
life people who are a complex combination of many personalities. A full-
dress creation is not appropriate to every character, but all require enough
development to straighten up their roles.
To start your paper, distinguish your characterÊs role on personality,

support it with illustrations and if possible, follow the sequence presented
by the writer. Say, tell why and point out the result if a character changes
using supporting examples. Typically, it is a cause-and-effect analysis.
(c) Setting Factors
The importance of setting is that it establishes characters in a time, place, and

culture so that they can think, feel, and act against this background. By
describing settings, writers can produce feelings and moods.
Sunny landscapes indicate faith or joy, dark is forbidden, and thunder

suggests carnage. Mainly, setting is used in poetry to create mood. Besides
that, setting can also help in revealing a characterÊs personality. Sometimes,
settings function as symbols to strengthen the workings of the other
components. A broad slowly flowing river may stand for time or fate, a
rocky cliff for strength of a character, a cyclone-swept plain for the
overwhelming power of nature.
Setting provides a hint to some study about life at times. Lastly, shifts in
setting often cause shifts in a characterÊs emotional or psychological state.
Writing about Setting

To begin, search for a topic by identifying the settings in the story. Then
answer each question:
Ć What are its main features?
Ć What does it achieve? Create a mood? Expose a character? Function as a
symbol? Strengthen the storyÊs point? How does it accomplish these things?
Ć In what ways does it support or get involved with the story?
Ć Does the setting seem realistic? If not, why not?
Ć What focus would produce an effective paper? What textual evidence
would support it?

The impact of setting on mood can be checked by seeing how well the two
correspond for each setting. Establish relations between settings and characters.
You can predict that a writer is using a setting to convey character if an
emotionally harsh individual always appears against backdrops of depressingly
furnished rooms, dull bars, and rotting slums. Look for links between changes in
characters and changes in settings. Point out any shifts in the way the character
views the setting if it remains the same.
Describe the setting and discuss its impact on the storyÊs other component when
you write about it, and then support your statement with detailed examples.
(e) Symbol Factors

Writers use symbols ă names, persons, objects, places, colours, or actions
that have significance beyond their surface meaning in order to strengthen
and deepen their messages. A symbol may be very apparent ă as a name
like Mr. Murky, suggesting the personÊs character ă or quite subtle, as an
object representing a universal human emotion. Certain symbols are private
and some conventional. A private symbol has special significance within a
literary work but not outside it. Almost everyone knows what conventional
symbols represent; they are deeply rooted in most cultures.
Writing about Symbols

Think and answer the following questions when you examine the symbols
in a literary work:
Ć What symbols are used and where do they come out?
Ć Are they private or conventional?
Ć What do they appear to mean?
Ć Do any of them undergo a change in meaning? If so, how and why?
Ć Which symbol (s) could I discuss effectively?
Ć What textual evidence would support my understanding and
explanation?
When you discuss each symbol, state what you think it means and then
support your position with suitable textual evidence.
(f) Irony Factors

Irony features some discrepancy, some difference between appearance and
reality, expectation and outcome. Sometimes a character says one thing but
it actually means something else.

In some cases, irony also results when the reader or a character recognises
something as important, but another character otherwise.
Writing about irony

Start by answering these questions:
Ć Where does irony take place?
Ć What does it bring about?
Ć What could my thesis be, and how could I support it?
In searching for irony, check for statements that say one thing but actually
mean something else, situations in which one character knows something
that another does not, and contrasts between the ways characters should do
and behave. To see whether the outcome harmonises with the expectations,
review the plot.
Examine the context in which the words are spoken or the events occur to
prove that irony is intended besides notifying the reader what the irony
achieves.
(g) Theme factors

The theme of a literary work is its controlling idea. It can also be some
observation or insight about life or the conditions and terms of living, even
as the occurrence of wickedness, the wisdom of humility, or the worsening
power of hatred.
Many literary works suggests several themes. Sometimes there is one

primary motif and several related ones, and sometimes a number of
unrelated motifs. As the centre of a literary work, theme is regularly
supported and developed by all of the other components
Writing about Theme

Before beginning to write, ask and answer these questions:
Ć What are the themes of this work? Which of these should I write about?
Are they stated or unstated?
Ć If unstated, what components support them?
Ć If unstated, what components create them?
Ć What, if any, thematic weaknesses are present?

To see whether the themes are stated directly, check the comments of the
characters and the narrator. If they are not, to verify them, assess the
interaction of characters, events, settings, symbols, and other components.
Basically, a paper on theme is an argument, so, after presenting your

interpretation, support it with textual evidence.
8.4.2 Writing a Paper on Literature

Success in a literature paper depends on the procedure:
Ć Focusing;
Ć Gathering information;
Ć Organising;
Ć Writing;
Ć Revising; and
Ć Editing.
You can start off by writing on plot, point of view, character, setting, symbols,
irony, or theme. Next, decide upon a suitable topic. For literature papers, reread
the work carefully and do a reflection on it.
In gathering information, reread the story again and at the same time, list all
relevant information that might help develop a character analysis. Prepare a
formal topic outline to reflect your discovery.
Then, in developing a thesis statement, you might encounter a few difficulties.

Based on your notes and following your outline, write a first draft of your essay
and proceed with the necessary revising and editing. To add, review the story
and verify your interpretation.
Handling Procedure
Quotations should be used when necessary, but not to excess. Do not quote
massive blocks of material; just point out brief and relevant passages to support
key ideas. Place short quotations, about five lines long, within quotation mark
and run them into the text. Leave out the quotation mark and indent the material
ten spaces from the left-hand margin for longer passages.

Tense
Write your essay in the present rather than the past tense.
ACTIVITY 8.3
How does writing a literature paper enable student to apply the
writing guidelines?
8.5 MODEL LESSON PLAN FOR THE TEACHING

OF GRAMMAR IN WRITING
Class : Form 4
Level : Advanced
Time : 40 minutes
Theme : People
Topic : Tom the Banker (Jazz Chant)
Skills : 1. Responding to questions orally.
2. Listen and read to a jazz chant.
3. Describing about oneÊs job.
Language aspect : WH-questions (Why, Where, When) and the

simple present tense answers.
Objectives : By the end of the lesson, students will be able to:

1. write down 6 WH-question sentences using
why, where, and when, with simple present
tense answers correctly based on the given
words in the brackets with at least 90 %
accuracy.
Previous knowledge : Students have learnt about other WH-questions
(What, Who, Which, Whose) and the simple past
and future tense from their previous lesson.
Moral values : Respect oneÊs job.
Thinking skills : Identifying the main ideas.
Teaching aids : Picture strips, imager, jazz chant text, worksheets

Time / Stages TeacherÊs Activities StudentÊs Activities AVA
1. Set induction 1. Teacher conducts 1. Students study 1. Picture strips

(3 minutes) occupation quiz with the the picture 2. imager
students. shown.
2. Teacher shows shadow 2. Students answer
Rationale: pictures of occupations the quiz
To stimulate and instructs students to questions.
studentÊs interest in name and spell the job of
the topic. the person in the
shadow pictures. The Suggested answers
pictures are shown on 1. HeÊs a milkman.
picture strips one by one Spelling ă
on the imager. milkman
3. Teacher introduces 2. SheÊs a nurse.
todayÊs lesson.
Spelling - nurse
Question
1. What job does the
person in the picture do?
Spell the name of the job.
Refer to Appendix A
2. Explanation 1. Teacher distributes texts 1. Students read 1. Jazz chant text
(8 minutes) of jazz chant entitled the jazz chant entitle ÂTom
ÂTom the BankerÊ to the silently. the BankerÊ
students. 2. Students listen 2. Imager
Rationale: 2. Teacher instructs to the tune of
1. To enable students to read silently teacher
students to and understand the jazz reciting the
understand and chants for 1 minute. jazz chant.
read the jazz 3. Teacher then instructs 3. Students read
chant with the students to listen aloud the jazz
correct tune. carefully to teacher chant with the
2. To enable reciting and tune right tune.
students to making (on the table) of 4. Students listen
understand the the jazz chants. to teacherÊs
message from 4. Teacher instructs students explanation
the jazz chant. to read the jazz chant about the
3. To ensure together aloud with the content of the
students right tune shown by the jazz chant.
understand the teacher earlier. 5. Students listen
grammar aspect. 5. Teacher explains the carefully to
WH-questions content from the jazz teacherÊs
and the simple chant. explanation of

present tense 6. Teacher highlights the the grammar

from the jazz grammar aspect in the aspect in the
chant. jazz chant that is the jazz chant.
WH- questions and the
simple present tense by
using the imager.
Refer to Appendix B
3. Practice and 1. Teacher divides students 1. Students get into

metacognition into 6 groups. their groups.
(10 minutes)
2. Teacher instructs each 2. Each group
group to write a parallel writes their
jazz chant with the same parallel jazz
Rationale:
tune using the grammar chant with the
To enable students aspect learnt to describe same tune using
to work about other occupations. the grammar
collaboratively. aspect learnt to
Example:
describe other
Group will write about different
occupations
1 a doctor
2 a soldier 3. Students discuss
3 a postman with their
4 a teacher friends in their
5 a shop-keeper group.
6 a sailor
4. Each group
3. Once completed, teacher present by
instructs every group to reading aloud
read their jazz chant. their completed
jazz chant.
Example of parallel jazz

chant: Refer to Appendix C.

4. Application 1. Teacher distributes 1. Students work Worksheet 1

(7 minutes) Worksheet 1 to students in pairs to do
and instructs them to do the task in
the task in pairs. worksheet 1.
Rationale:
2. Teacher instructs 2. A
To enable students students to write down representative
to apply the what a person does of each group
knowledge in the based on their presents their
given task. occupation by using the answer.
simple present tense
verbs. No. 1 is done as
an example.
Refer to Worksheet 1
Once completed, teacher
asks a representative of
each group to read and
present their work.
5. Evaluation 1. Teacher distributes 1. Students listen Worksheet 2

(10 minutes) Worksheet 2 to the to the
students. teacherÊs
explanation.
2. Teacher instructs
Rationale:
students to write down 6 2. Students
To evaluate WH-question sentences complete the
studentÊs using Why, Where, and tasks by
understanding. When with its answers constructing 6
in the simple present WH-question
tense based on the sentences with
words given in the its answers
brackets. No. 1 is done using the
as an example. grammatical
aspect learnt
Refer to Worksheet 2.
earlier.
6. Closure 1. Teacher wraps up by Students listen

( 2 minutes ) stating the importance of attentively to
respecting oneÊs job. teacher and take
note of the
Rationale: Example: extended
activity they
To instill the value of (a) Students should
should do.
respect towards respect their school
oneÊs job. security guard as they
look after the security
of the school at night.

(b) Students should

respect the fishermen
as they get food for us
to eat.
Extended activities Teacher asks students to

find out about other jobs
and its type of work
Rationale: through the internet.
To develop studentÊs
information,
communication, and
technology (ICT)
skills.
JAZZ CHANT
Tom the Banker
Where does Tom live?

He lives near the bank.
Where does he work?
He works in the bank.
When does he work?
He works all day, all night, all day, all night,
in the bank, in the bank, in the great big bank.
Where does he sleep?

He sleeps in the bank.
Why does he sleep all day, all night, all day, all night,
in the bank, in the bank, in the great big bank?
Because he loves his money more than his life,
And he loves his bank more than his wife.




Instruction:



• Grammar is indeed an essential aspect of written communication and that

students in the ESL/EFL classroom should be taught to view grammar as an
aid to shaping effective and appropriate messages.
• As Ponsot and Deen (1982, p. 133) put it, „grammar is clearly not remedial.
Like baking powder, it canÊt be stirred into the cake after the batter has been
poured into pans‰.
• Thus, while concern for grammatical correctness should be integrated with

editing processes, grammar in its broader meaning, that is the structural
patterns of language, plays a role in all phases of composing.
• In selecting and developing grammar-oriented activities for the classroom,

the teacher should always bear in mind the studentsÊ needs and background
as well as the demands of writing tasks.
Analysis Dictation
Conversion Elicitation
Conversion
1. What are the six guidelines for integrating grammar into writing instruction?
2. What do native English speaking teachers recommend?
3. What do Celce-Murcia and Hillies (1988) recommend?
4. Give two kinds of text completion exercises.
5. What do RaimesÊs algorithms do?
6. Construct a basic level English text based on one of the text completion
techniques.
7. Devise a basic level sentence combining exercise based on MeltonÊs technique.

Arapoff, N. (1969). Discover and transform: A method of teaching writing to

foreign students. TESOL Quarterly,3(4),297-304.
Celce-Murcia, M (1985). Making informed decisions about the role of grammar in
language teaching. TESOL Newsletter, 29(1), 4-5.
Celce-Murcia, M (Eds.) (1991). Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language
2nd ed. Pub. Heimle.
Celce-Murcia, M., & Hilles, S. (1988). Techniques and resources in teaching
grammar. New York:Oxford University Press.
Chafe, W. (1976). Givenmess, constrastiveness, definiteness, subjects, topics and
point of view. In C. Li (Ed.), Subject and topic (pp.25-56). New York:
Academic Press.
Cohen, A.D., & Robbins, M. (1976). Toward assessing interlanguage
performance. The relationship between selected errors, learnersÊ
characteristics, and learnersÊ explanations. Language Learning. 26(1),45-66.
DÊEloia, S. (1975). The uses-and limits-of grammaer. Journal of Basic Writing,
1(1),1 26.
Elbow, P. (1985). The challenge for sentence combining. In D. Dalker, A. Kerek, &
M. Morenberg (Eds.). Sentence Combining: A rhetorical perspective (pp.232-
245). Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.
Filosa, F. (1988). The Greenhouse Effect: When will it hit? World Press Review,
September pp. 27-29.
Heaton, J.B. (1975). Writing English Language Tests. London: Longman.
Hilles, S. (in press). Access to Universal Grammar in second language
acquisition. In L Eubanks (Ed.), Point counterpoint: Universal grammar in the
second language. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Hillocks, G., Jr. (1986). Research on written composition: New directions for
teaching. Urbana, IL: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication
Skills.

Topic X The Reflective
9 Teacher
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Engage in the reflective process effectively;
2. Reflect on the various aspects of teaching and learning ESL writing
for the purpose of improving your professional practice and
development; and
3. Reflect on your teaching and give appropriate response to it.
X INTRODUCTION
Teaching is a complex activity. In spite of this, you can increase the likelihood
that you will be an effective teacher if you develop the ability to reflect on your
teaching and the teaching practices of others. This topic gives a brief overview of
how to reflect as well as some discussion sessions to further tune your reflective
skills. You will enhance your learning and teaching as you make reflection a
careful and consistent part of your life.
This topic also denotes the foundations for teachersÊ belief, in particular, beliefs
about teaching, learning and about language teaching as a profession. In order to
reflect, teachers compile reports on student-student interaction and teacherÊs
beliefs on the approaches to ESL instruction, as well as the diverse roles of the
teacher in the teaching and learning of writing in English. Journal activities and
follow-up activities are included to further augment how teachers reflect on their
teaching.

TOPIC 9 THE REFLECTIVE TEACHER W 207
9.1 REFLECTION
In teaching, teachers have to select learning activities and prepare the students
for new learning. Teachers also have to present learning activities in the class,
besides asking questions, conducting drills, monitoring studentsÊ learning and
checking their understanding. Moreover, teachers should be providing
opportunities to students to practice new items in simulated, diverse, real-life
situations. In addition, teachers have to give feedback on studentsÊ learning and
reviewing and re-teaching them when necessary.
Most importantly, it is essential to examine the doctrines and thinking processes

which form the foundation for teachersÊ classroom actions, in order to
comprehend how they manage their teaching. This view of teaching involves a
cognitive, an affective, and a behavioural dimension (Clark and Peterson 1986;
Lynch 1989).
9.2 FOUNDATIONS FOR TEACHERS’

DOCTRINES
Generally, teachersÊ doctrines are grounded on the goals, values, and beliefs
teachers hold in relation to the content and practice of teaching, and their
perception of their position in the organisations in which they work. These
beliefs and values evolve to be the basis on the teachersÊ decision making and
action, which has been termed as the „culture of teaching‰.
The following are some questions pertaining to teacher-thinking in the

classroom.
Ć What are the teachersÊ perception concerning teaching and learning?
Ć How are their expertise and skills structured?
Ć What factors influences teachersÊ beliefs?
Ć In what ways do teachersÊ beliefs have an effect on their reading?
Basically, teachersÊ belief systems consist of both subjective and objective

dimensions which are built up gradually over time.
Ć Their own experience as language learners.
Ć Experience of what works best in their respective classroom.
Ć Established practice.
Ć Personality factors.

208 X TOPIC 9 THE REFLECTIVE TEACHER
Ć Educationally grounded or research-based principles.

Ć Principles acquired from an approach or method.
ACTIVITY 9.1
1. What other languages have you attempted to learn? How do you

find the experience? Did your experience as a language learner
influenced your personal doctrines about language teaching?
2. In what ways does your personality mould the way you teach?
What principles guide your mode of teaching?
3. Students often hold conventional doctrines about the English

culture. Is this true of the students you teach? What are some of
these beliefs and where do they originated from?
ACTIVITY 9.2
How do the teachersÊ own experiences as language learners contribute
towards their style of teaching?
9.3 DOCTRINES ABOUT LEARNING

TeachersÊ doctrines about learning may be based on their training, their teaching
experience, or may go back to their own experience as language learners
(Freeman, 1920). These doctrines represent answers to questions such as these:
Ć What do you think is the definition of learning?
Ć What are the best ways to learn a language?
Ć What kinds of revelation to language best facilitate language learning?
Ć What kinds of students do best in your classes?
Ć What kinds of learning styles and strategies do you encourage in learners?
Ć What kinds of learning styles and strategies do you discourage in learners?
Ć What roles are students expected to assume in your classroom?
Brindley (1984), points out that, teachers who favour a „learner-centred‰ view of
learning, such as that which underlies many current methodologies in language

teaching, would probably describe their assumptions in terms such as the

following:
Ć Learning consists of acquiring organising principles through encountering
experience.
Ć The teacher is a resource person who supplies language input for the learner
to work on.
Ć It is the role of the teacher to assist learners to become self-directed by
providing access to language data through such activities as active listening,
role play and communication with native speakers.
Ć For learners, learning a language consists of creating hypotheses about the
language input to which they will be exposed; these hypotheses being
constantly adapted in the direction of the target model.
Learning consists of acquiring a body of language. The teacher has this

knowledge and the learner does not. Thus, it is the role of the teacher to impart
this knowledge to the learner through such activities as explanation, writing and
example. The learner will be given a programme in advance. Learning a
language consists of learning the structural rules of the language and the
vocabulary through such activities as memorisation, reading and writing.
9.4 DOCTRINES ABOUT TEACHING

Teachers bring to teaching numerous beliefs and predictions about what
constitutes effective teaching because teaching is a very personal activity.
Interviews with the teachers about their teaching produced quite different
answers to the following questions:
Ć How do you see your responsibility in the classroom?
Ć How would this be noticeable to a visitor?
Ć What teaching approach do you try to apply in your classroom?
Ć What teaching resources do you make use of?
Ć How would you describe effective teaching?
Ć What is your approach to classroom management?
Ć What are the qualities of a good teacher?

9.5 DOCTRINES ABOUT LANGUAGE TEACHING

AS A PROFESSION
Professionalism is a recurring concern of language teachers and language
teaching organisations (Pennington, 1991). Language teaching is not universally
considered as a profession, that is, as having unique characteristics, as requiring
specialised skills and training, as being a lifelong and valued career choice, and
as offering a high level of job satisfaction. The degree to which individual
teachers have a sense of professionalism about their work depends upon their
own working conditions, their personal goals and attitudes, and the career
prospects available to language teachers in their community.
TeachersÊ doctrines about professionalism can be explored through questions

such as the following:
Ć How would you describe English teaching (or the language you teach) as a
profession?
Ć What modifications do you think are essential in the language teaching
profession?
Ć What kinds of training do you think language teachers need?
Ć What kinds of professional development activities best support teaching?
Ć What kinds of support for professional development are available at a school
you are used to?
Ć What is the most satisfying aspect of teaching for you?
Ć Do you think language teachers should be assessed throughout their careers?
If so, what form should this evaluation take?

ACTIVITY 9.3
1. Describe your predictions about the way you teach or plan to teach
in the future. How would you describe to a colleague? Describe the
main factors that have influenced your belief system.
2. How would you deal with the following situations if you

experienced them in your classroom? What aspects of your belief
system influenced your response?
(a) Students use their native tongue too often when completing a
pair work task.
(b) A group of students at the back of the class pays very little
attention during your lessons.
ACTIVITY 9.4
In your opinion, does teaching language require specialised skills and
training?

9.6 SELF-REPORT FORM ON STUDENT-

STUDENT INTERACTION
Student-student interaction
1. (a) How were the students actively involved in the lesson? Through
• role play (all participating)
• prediction exercises
• gathering/reporting information
• discussion
• other
(b) Can you suggest other ways to provide opportunities for the students to
use and extend their language?
2. (a) What was the purpose of the studentsÊ communication with each other
(e.g. to share their experiences of the weekend)?
(b) Can you see that a reason is essential for meaningful communication?
3. (a) Did you allow students to

• use their own language first by eliciting responses from them before
providing them with the language; and
• share opinions on correct usage?
(b) Do you see how this can increase student involvement?

4. (a) What techniques did you use to check out degree of interest in
discussion topics?
(b) Could you utilise such ideas as a sociogram for this purpose, e.g. mark
an imaginary line in the classroom?
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
____________________________________________________________________
• You then call out topics quickly and students go spontaneously to a

point on the line reflecting their level of interest or feelings (as
directed) on that subject, e.g. football/abortion.
(c) Can you suggest other ways to check on interest level?
5. (a) How did you help to develop rapport between the students?
• „Getting to know you‰ starters
• Your model/ example
• Encouraging sharing of experiences
• Pleasant surroundings, pictures, flowers, radio, etc.
• Other
(Reprinted with permission from J. Pak, 1986, Find Out How You Teach, pp.69-72. Adelaide,
Australia: National Curriculum Resource Centre.)
9.7 TEACHERS’ DOCTRINES INVENTORY-

APPROACHES TO ESL INSTRUCTION
Directions: Please read all 15 statements. Then select 5 statements that most
closely reflect your beliefs about how English as a second language is learnt and
how English as a second language should be taught.
(a) Language can be thought of as a set of grammatical structures which are
learned consciously and controlled by the language learner.
(b) As long as ESL students understand what they are saying, they are actually
learning the language.

(c) When ESL students make oral errors, it helps to correct them and later
teach a short lesson explaining why they made that mistake.
(d) As long as ESL students listen to, practice, and remember the language
which native speakers use, they are actually learning the language.
(e) ESL students generally need to understand the grammatical rules of
English in order to become fluent in the language.
(f) When ESL students make oral errors, it usually helps them to provide them
with lots of oral practice with the language patterns which seem to cause
them difficulty.
(g) Language can be thought of as meaningful communication and is learned
subconsciously in non-academic, social situations.
(h) If ESL students understand some of the basic grammatical rules of the
language, they can usually create lots of new sentences on their own.
(i) Usually it is more important for ESL students to focus on what they are
trying to say and not how to say it.
(j) If ESL students practice the language patterns of native speakers, they can
make up new sentences based on those language patterns which they have
already practiced.
(k) It is important to provide clear, frequent, precise presentations of
grammatical structures during English language instruction.
before they can begin to read and write.
(l) Language can be described as a set of behaviors which are mastered
through lots of drill and practice with the language patterns of native
speakers.
(m) When ESL students make oral errors, it is best to ignore them, as long as
you can understand what they are trying to say.
(n) ESL students usually need to master some of the basic listening and
speaking skills
(o) ItÊs not necessary to actually teach ESL students how to speak English, they
usually begin speaking English on their own.
(Source: K. Johnson, 1992)

Generally, we could say that a spirit of inquiry characterises reflective teachers.

Reflective teachers are interested in the subtleties of the art and science of
teaching. They want to learn all they can about teaching from both theory and
practice. They think deeply about their course work and about how it should
create an impact on their teaching. For example, a teacher drew on a theory she
learned in her college courses when she decided students would learn more
about sets by working in small groups. Inquiring teachers also learn by studying
teaching and by observing other teachers, and they continue to learn when they
practice and sub-sequently analyse their own teaching skills (Cruickshank, 1987).
What distinguishes teachers who are students of teaching from those who are
not? To summarise, they inquire into and analyse their own teaching behaviour.
They are sincerely interested in the fine points of the art and science of teaching,
and they want to learn all they can about teaching. They are open-minded and
willing to consider why they teach as they do. They take responsibility for the
consequences of their teaching. They deliberate on their teaching, and as a result
of this reflection they change or modify their patterns of teaching behaviour.
ACTIVITY 9.5
1. What values and doctrines about teaching and learning will

influence your reflective thinking?
2. Which benefit of reflection is most important to you?
9.8 THE ROLE OF TEACHERS IN REFLECTIVE

TEACHING
There are many factors that influence how teachers approach their work and
which particular strategies they employ to achieve their goals.
The contexts in which teachers work have an important influence on

teaching, since different teaching settings involve teachers in different kinds
of roles.
For example, in some institutions, teachers are fairly autonomous and are free to
make decisions concerning course goals, materials, teaching methods, and
assessment procedures. In other settings, these kinds of decisions are made by a
supervisor or programme director, and the teacher is seen primarily as someone

who carries out decisions that have been made by others. Even in situations
where teachers have primary responsibility for how they teach, they may assume
very different roles within their own classrooms. Some teachers see their role
primarily in managerial and organisational terms. They spend a considerable
amount of time planning their lessons, monitoring their teaching, and managing
student learning and behaviour to ensure that their goals are accomplished.
Others see their role more as a facilitator, and believe that the best kind of lesson
is one that arises out of the dynamics of the teachinglearning
situation.
9.9 THE NATURE OF ROLES

The role of a teacher in the context of classroom teaching and learning may
also be influenced by the approach or methodology the teacher is following.
While not all teachers see themselves as trying to implement a particular

approach or methodology (e.g., Communicative Language Teaching, a Process
Writing Approach, a Whole Language Approach), many teachers do describe
their teaching in these terms and may have been trained to work within a specific
methodology. Implicit in every methodology are particular assumptions about
the role of the teacher and about how students should learn. Some teaching
methods define very specific roles for teachers and prescribe the kinds of
behaviours which teachers should or should not allow in the classroom. For
example, the Direct Method, which was one of the first oral-based methods to be
used in foreign language teaching, described the teacherÊs role in very specific
terms and proposed the following guidelines for teachers to follow as shown in
Figure 9.1.

Figure 9.1: Guidelines for reflecting

(Titone 1968: 100)
A more recent model of teaching used in mainstream education, known as Active

Teaching (which focuses on the teacherÊs ability to engage students productively
on learning tasks during lessons), sees the management and monitoring of
learning as a primary role for teachers. In order to achieve this level of teaching,
teachers must:
(a) Communicate clearly by:

Ć Giving accurate directions;
Ć Specifying tasks and measurements; and
Ć Presenting new information by explaining, outlining, summarising,
reviewing.

(b) Obtain and manage engagement by:

Ć Maintaining task focus;
Ć Pacing instruction appropriately;
Ć Promoting involvement; and
Ć Communicating expectations for successful performance.
(c) Monitor progress by:

Ć Reviewing work frequently; and
Ć Adjusting instruction to maximize accuracy.
(d) Provide immediate feedback by:

Ć Informing students when they are successful; and
Ć Giving information about how to achieve success.
(Tikunoff 1985: 135 )
Other instructional approaches, such as Cooperative Learning attempt to

redefine the roles of both teacher and learner through a methodology which
relies less on teacher directed teaching, and more on cooperative group work and
pair work activities.
9.10 TEACHER’S ROLE IN COOPERATIVE

LEARNING
Ć Share the responsibility for managing both interaction and learning with
students.
Ć Structure the learning environment so that students cooperate to obtain
learning goals.
Ć Stimulate interactive language use through group work and collaborative
problem solving.
Ć Choose classroom tasks which involve information sharing, cooperative
reasoning, opinion sharing, and values clarification.
Ć Coordinate group activities.
Ć Provide clarification, feedback, and motivational support.
(Source: Hyland 1991)

Language teaching methods and approaches such as Audiolingualism,

Communicative Language Teaching, and Total Physical Response create specific
roles for both teachers and learners. In Audiolingualism, the roles of the teacher
are central and active; it is a teacher-dominated method. The teacher models the
target language, controls the direction and pace of learning, and monitors and
corrects the learnersÊ performance. The teacher must keep the learners attentive
by varying drills and tasks and choosing relevant situations to practice structures
(Richards & Rodgers, 1986:56).
9.11 TEACHER’S ROLE IN COMMUNICATIVE

LANGUAGE TEACHING
The teacher has two main roles:
Ć To facilitate the communication process between all participants in the
classroom, and between these participants and the various activities and
texts; and
Ć To act as an independent participant within the learning-teaching group.
The latter role is closely related to the objectives of the first role and arises from
it. These roles imply a set of secondary roles for the teacher; first, as an organiser
of resources and as a resource himself, second as a guide within the classroom
procedures and activities. A third role for the teacher is that of researcher and
learner, with much to contribute in terms of appropriate knowledge and abilities,
actual and observed experience of the nature of learning and organisational
capacities (Breen & Chandlin, 1980:99).
9.12 TEACHER’S ROLE IN THE PHYSICAL

RESPONSE METHOD
Initially, the teacher is the director of all student behaviour. The students are
imitators of her nonverbal model. At some point (usually after ten to twenty
hours of instruction) some students will be „ready to speak.‰ At that point, there
will be a role reversal with individual students directing the teacher and the
other students (Larsen-Freeman 1986: 116).
Within both general education and second language teaching since the 1960s,
there has been a movement away from teacher-dominated modes of learning to
more learnercentred approaches, which has led to a re-examination of traditional
teacher roles. However, even so-called innovative methods still require teachers

to carry out particular roles in the classroom in order to facilitate the language
acquisition processes the method is designed to activate.
ACTIVITY 9.6
1. Do you believe in or try to implement a particular method or

teaching approach? If so, what is the role of the teacher for this
method or approach?
2. What teacher behaviours do your prefer, teaching method or

approach, encourage or discourage?
3. Compare two teaching methods with which you are familiar.

How similar is the role of the teacher in each method?
4. If you are teaching a class, what classroom behaviours would a

visitor to your class observe which reflect your teaching ap-
proach or method? If you are observing a class, what classroom
behaviours reflect the approach or method the teacher is
following?
ACTIVITY 9.7
What is the difference between the teacherÊs role in cooperative learning
and communicative language teaching?

9.13 ROLES REFLECTING A PERSON VIEW OF

TEACHING
While many teachers may have been taught to use a specific method or
asked to teach within a framework or philosophy established by their
institution, the way they teach is often a personal interpretation of what they
think works best in a given situation.
For many teachers, a teaching approach is something uniquely personal which

they develop through experience and apply in different ways according to the
demands of specific situations. Teachers create their own roles within the
classroom based on their theories of teaching and learning and the kind of
classroom interaction they believe best supports these theories. This is seen in the
following statements from teachers in which they describe how they see their
role.
Teacher A:
I believe every child in my class has got the capacity to learn even if he or she is
not aware of it. I try to encourage each student to discover what he or she is good
at and to help them become successful at it.
Teacher B:
I believe students learn best when the classroom atmosphere is focused and
where the bright students are not held back by those who donÊt want to work. I
arrange the class so that the students who are likely to be disruptive are in the
front of the class and I group the brighter students together so that they can
stimulate each other.
Teacher C:
I like students to work on things that interest them. I think they work better in
groups because it helps them learn from each other. I donÊt like giving tests. I try
to find other ways of motivating students.
Teacher D:
I like to encourage high quality learning in my class. I donÊt think students learn
by making mistakes. I insist on students checking any work before handing it in.

Teacher E:
I believe the best lesson is a well planned lesson. I find it much easier to teach
when I have a detailed plan to follow. I find that I am more likely to use the time
efficiently in the classroom if I know exactly what I will do and what I expect
students to do during the lesson.
Teacher F:
I believe students must learn to think for themselves. They need to realize that
they can learn as much on their own as they can from me. IÊm there just to
facilitate learning. I like to keep my lessons flexible so that students can have a
choice over what they want to learn and how best to learn it.
These statements indicate that teachers see their roles in different ways. These
may not necessarily be those assigned to them by their institution, or linked to a
particular method of teaching.
9.14 TEACHERS MAY SELECT ROLES FOR

THEMSELVES
Teachers may select roles for themselves based on the following:
(a) Planner
The teacher sees planning and structuring of learning activities as
fundamental to success in teaching and learning.
(b) Manager
The teacherÊs role is to organise and manage the classroom environment
and student behaviour in a way that will maximise learning.
(c) Quality Controller
A central task for the teacher is to maintain the quality of language use in
the classroom. Correct language use should be reinforced and incorrect use
discouraged.
(d) Group Organiser
The teacherÊs role is to develop an environment in which students work
cooperatively on group tasks.
(e) Facilitator
The teacherÊs role is to help students discover their own ways of learning
and to work independently.

(f) Motivator
The teacher seeks to improve studentsÊ confidence and interest in learning
and to build a classroom climate that will motivate students.
(g) Empowerer
The teacher tries to take as little control or direction over the lesson as
possible and lets the students make decisions about what they want to learn
and how they want to learn it.
(h) Team Member
The teacher and all the students in the class constitute a team and should
interact like members of a team.
These roles often overlap. Furthermore, teachers cannot be all things to all
people, and the teacherÊs role may change during the lesson. For example, in the
opening phases of a lesson where the teacher is modelling new language
patterns, the teacher may be particularly concerned with planning and quality
control. At a later stage of the lesson where students are working independently,
the teacherÊs role may be that of a facilitator. The way in which teachers interpret
their roles leads to differences in the way they approach their teaching. It leads to
differences in how teachers understand the dynamics of an effective lesson, and
consequently different patterns of classroom behaviour and classroom
interaction. TeachersÊ personal view of their role in the classroom thus influences
how they respond to the following dimensions of teaching:
(a) Classroom Management and Organisation
How do teachers establish classroom routines, procedures, and rules? What
kinds of seating ar-rangements do they use?
(b) Teacher Control
How do teachers maintain an acceptable level of performance in the
classroom?
(c) Curriculum, Content, and Planning
How do teachers approach lesson planning, lesson organisation, and
structure?
(d) Instructional Strategies
What type of teaching approach and classroom activities do teachers
prefer?
(e) Motivational Techniques
What strategies do teachers use to create classroom climate and motivation?
(f) Assessment Philosophy
What type of assessment procedures do teachers use?

A teacherÊs style of teaching may thus be thought of as resulting from how the
teacher interprets his or her role in the classroom, which is linked to the teacherÊs
doctrines (Cruickshank, Bainer & Metcalf, 1999).
ACTIVITY 9.8
1. Examine the list of personal teaching roles. What other personal

roles do teachers sometimes choose for themselves?
2. If you are teaching a class, do you think your personal roles as a

teacher have changed as you have gained experience teaching? If
so, what prompted these changes?
3. Interview two or three teachers about how they see their roles in
the classroom. What are the assumptions underlying their view
of their roles? How would these roles influence the classroom
dynamics and activities chosen? Discuss your findings with a
partner or colleague.
9.15 FIVE BENEFITS OF REFLECTIVE TEACHING

(a) The most important benefit of reflection is that it enhances your learning
about teaching. According to learning psychologists, reflectivity plays a
central role in learning from your coursework and from your field or school
experience (Jadallah, 1996). To learn the most from these experiences, you
need four things. First you must have a concrete learning experience, such
as marking examination papers. Second, you must have an opportunity to
reflect on the experience by recapturing and evaluating it. For instance,
after grading assignments, you might think back on the distribution of
grades, consider the nature of the assignments and how students benefit
from it. The next step in the learning process is to integrate your reflections
with what you already know and believe about teaching and learning. This
leads you to recognise new ways of doing things, resolving problems, or
clarifying issues. Finally, you must engage in active experimentation,
applying the insights you have gained to make decisions and solve
problems (Boud et al.,1985). This scenario suggests that one of the best
ways to increase your learning about teaching is to strengthen the link
between the learning experience and the reflection that follows, that is, by
taking time to reflect on the experiences and ideas you have been exposed
to in your teacher preparation programme (Emery,1996).

(b) A second benefit of reflecting on teaching is that reflection increases your

ability to analyse and understand classroom events. That is, reflection
makes you more thoughtful and wise (Fien,1996). For instance, most
teachers still use whim or emotion as much as logic or evidence in making
decisions about how they will teach. Also, some teachers see no logical way
to differentiate among conflicting positions or different teaching
approaches, such as between direct instruction and discovery learning.
They tend to hold tightly to one approach they have observed to be
effective, such as discovery learning, rather than to analyse when and how
this approach would work best with different groups of students and
different instructional tasks.
(c) A third benefit of reflection is that reflecting on teaching will enhance your
classroom life as a teacher by helping you establish an inviting, predictable,
and thoughtful environment. This is because reflective teachers are better
able to apply what they have learned from course work to their classroom
practice (Cruickshank,1987). Unfortunately, many teachers rely on trial and
error rather than reflective thinking when establishing their classroom
environment. Furthermore, when a reflective teacher models thinking and
problem-solving skills, students begin to think and to use those skills to
resolve their own problems (Martin,1984).
(d) A fourth benefit of engaging in reflection is that teachers who use reflective
skills become self-monitoring. It is impossible for you to be prepared for
every situation you may encounter during your teaching career.
Unfortunately, during most of your teaching career, you will not receive
feedback on your teaching performance, strengths, and weaknesses. By
reflecting on your teaching, however, you can assess your needs and
monitor your teaching performance an satisfaction. During reflection,
teachers learn by studying themselves, and this helps them grow in
understanding.
(e) A fifth benefit of reflective thinking is professional transformation

(Smyth,1989). He considers the „spiral of empowerment‰ resulting from
reflective practice as its greatest benefit and as a necessity for teachers.
Because a personÊs preconceptions of teaching, learning and the purposes of
the school will greatly influence how he or she interprets teaching
experiences, these beliefs and values must be examined rather than be
merely accepted. Questioning personal and societal beliefs and values is
intended „to raise consciousness, to challenge complacency, and to
engender a higher order of professional practice‰ (Wellington, 1991). As
teachers reflect on the factors that affect their teaching behaviour, they can
rid themselves of unfounded beliefs about teaching and learning. They are

then able to develop new or revised beliefs more likely to lead to effective
teaching and student learning (Cruickshank, 1987).
This sort of reflective practice provides teachers with a better way of

understanding the role teachers and schools play in addressing or perpetuating
social problems. By examining even deeper issues of ethics, morals, and justice in
education, reflective thinking engages teachers in the redesign and
reconstruction of their world.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
What are the advantages of reflective teaching?
9.16 DEVELOPING REFLECTIVE ABILITIES

To meet the demands of todayÊs classrooms, you must be willing and able to
reflect on classroom events. Your professional growth and satisfaction as a
teacher will, in part, be linked to this ability.
Dialogue Journals
Writing about a classroom experience can help you develop reflective abilities
because it enables you to play back and recreate classroom events, and to gain a
new perspective on those experiences (Wallace, 1996). A dialogue journal goes a
step further by providing you with feedback on the experience and on your
thinking. In a dialogue journal, you carry on a running conversation that
expresses thoughts, questions, and problems related to your roles,
responsibilities, and practices as a teacher. A friend, cooperating teacher, or
university instructor should respond to your entries on a regular basis by sharing
any thoughts, reactions, and questions that come to mind.
A dialogue journal can help you internalise various ideas about teaching and
become more flexible and mature in your thinking (Bolin, 1988). It can also help
you see alternative ways of dealing with classroom events and recognise the
connection between teachersÊ actions and studentsÊ outcomes.
ACTIVITY 9.9
Read the three cases and identify the teacherÊs Reflective Teaching.
Then, discuss with your coursemates.

(a) Case One:

„Your lesson went really well! You had a clear objective and communicated
it well to the students so that they knew exactly what they were supposed
to do in their small groups. I think you are being a little bit hard on yourself
about the level of student involvement in the small groups. Because I was
observing, I could see perhaps more closely what students in each group
were actually doing. Some of the students who seemed to not participate
looked to me like they were just participating more sporadically than the
more outgoing students in the group. Suresh, for example, may have
looked uninvolved, but remember that he is a very reflective learner. He
just thinks before he acts! If you are concerned about small groups, try to
think through how you assigned the students to groups. Are the
personalities compatible? Are the ability levels mixed? Are their gender or
ethnic considerations? Also, think about what you can do to hold all
students accountable for participating in the group in some way. DonÊt give
up . . . small groups are challenging, but also effective!‰
(b) Case Two:

„I never thought about how complicated it is to assign students to groups,
and how that could impact the lesson! I just assigned them randomly for
this lesson. They all seem to get along so well together that it never
occurred to me that some of them might not work well together in a small-
group situation. Can you provide me with any Âinside informationÊ you
have about potential mismatches so that I can assign the groups more
carefully next time?‰
(c) Case Three:

„I have a committee meeting tomorrow at 3:30, but we could meet for about
fifteen minutes right after school to discuss my insights. Also, I have some
notes from a cooperative learning workshop that you might be interested in
reading. Keep up the good work!‰
SELF-CHECK 9.2
How do you develop reflective activities?

ACTIVITY 9.10
One way you can construct meaning from your teacher preparation
experiences is by talking about them. If your discussion is focused and
purposeful rather than random, it can help you engage in higher-level
thinking and even in attitude change (Cruickshank, 1986, 1991;
Jadallah, 1996). To be truly reflective, however, the discussion should
be geared toward critical self-reflection and should involve four steps,
which we have modified from Smyth (1989).
9.16.1 Four Step in Reflective Teaching

The four steps in reflective teaching are as follows:
(a) Describe what you did by elaborating on one specific lesson or classroom event.
(b) Inform yourself and others of what is behind this classroom event. What
did the event mean? What principles or theories did the event or teaching
behaviour illustrate?
(c) Confront the knowledge of teaching, learning, and social theories you
identified in the previous step. Ask yourself: Why did I choose this teaching
strategy? What causes me to draw from this theory? What interests and
objectives does my classroom practice serve?
(d) Reconstruct the classroom event or lesson by asking how you might have
done things differently. It is important that in this step, you refine your
understanding of teaching and learning theories as they apply to this
specific classroom or school context, and that you bring your teaching
practices more in line with those theories.
Reflective Teaching provides you with a teaching experience in a supportive

environment which serves as the basis for subsequent reflection. In Reflective
Teaching, you engage in all aspects of the teaching cycle (planning,
implementing, assessing, and reflecting) by presenting a short, content-neutral
lesson based on specific objectives to a group of peers. The Reflective Teaching
experience is structured to promote analysis and reflection about the teaching
and learning processes through small-group and whole-class discussions.

9.17 WAYS TO DEVELOP REFLECTIVE THINKING

SKILLS
(a) The interaction provided through a dialogue journal can help you
internalise ideas and build flexible, mature thinking about teaching.
(b) Focused and purposeful discussions can build higher-order thinking skills
and attitude changes.
(c) Action research, a field-based approach to reflecting on teaching and
solving problems related to learning, can contribute to the development of
reflective thinking skills.
(d) Clinical experiences, such as Reflective Teaching, conducted on campus in a
supportive environment can enhance reflective thinking skills.
ACTIVITY 9.11
1. Do teachers need to be reflective to be effective at bringing about

studentsÊ learning and satisfaction?
2. Why are many teachers fearful about reflecting?
3. What should teachers reflect about? Should they be compelled to
think about some aspects of education more than others?
4. Do you agree with Dewey that it is more important to learn to
reflect than to master teaching skills?
5. What could a building principal do to encourage teachers to
become more reflective?
9.18 REFLECTIVE JOURNAL ACTIVITIES
(a) In your journal this week, describe how you see your role or roles as a
teacher. Examine these roles in terms of your underlying doctrines and in
terms of external factors (e.g., in-stitution, culture). Discuss how these roles
influence the kind of teaching you do or would like to do.
(b) If you are teaching a class, try to recall how you interacted with your class
in your lessons, what kind of role you tried to realise in the teaching, and
how successful you were.

(a) Questions to Guide Your Journal Writing

(i) In what ways am I responsive to learnersÊ needs?
(ii) Do I try to encourage learner participation? How?
(iii) How do I give learners feedback on their efforts?
(iv) What aspects of classroom behaviour or interaction do I encourage or
discourage?
(v) How do I achieve successful classroom management?
(b) Recording Task

Record one of your lessons or a teacherÊs lesson, and listen to it in order to
determine what your role or the teacherÊs role was in the lesson.
Think about the following questions:

(i) Do you feel you (or the teacher) dominated the lesson?
(ii) In what ways was student participation encouraged in the lesson?
(iii) What role did learners play in the lesson?
(iv) How were learners given feedback on their performance?
(v) How were misunderstandings dealt with when they arose?
(vi) What were the patterns of communication during the lesson?
(vii) In what ways were the learners motivated and kept interested in the
lesson?
(viii) From listening to the tape, how would you characterise your personal
teaching style?
(c) Classroom Observation Tasks

(i) Observe two teachersÊ classes and note examples of how they
accomplish these aspects of the lesson:
• Giving directions.
• Promoting student involvement in the lesson.
• Monitoring student performance.
• Providing feedback.

Do the teachers adopt similar or different ways of dealing with these

dimensions of teaching? If there are differences, do these differences reflect
different views of teacher roles?
(ii) Observe a language class and focus on the role of the teacher. How
would you characterise the primary roles assumed by the teacher?
What behaviours did you observe which indicate these roles?
(d) Peer Observation Task

If you are teaching a class, ask a colleague to observe your class and focus
on the roles you assume during the class. Choose one or more of the roles
discussed (e.g., Planner, Manager, Quality Controller, Group Organiser,
Facilitator, Motivator, Empowerer, Team Member) or other roles of your
choice. Your colleague should try to note examples of how you realise these
roles in your teaching. Discuss the observation data to see if the perceptions
of the observer match your own perceptions of your roles.
• Reflecting is the final component to be considered in the teaching and

learning process. It is here, that teachers sit back and reflect on what they
have achieved in their teaching as well as on what aspect they have to
reteach.
• TeacherÊs reflecting skills depend on their doctrines about learning and

teaching as a profession.
• Some guidelines are included for reflecting and the various roles teachers
play in the language classroom. Finally, some benefits of reflecting teaching
are discussed.
Dialogue Managerial
Empower Reflective
Facilitator

1. What is a reflective teacher?
2. How does a teacher arrive at his belief system?
3. Why is a teacher seen as the one who empowers?
4. Some do not consider teaching English as a profession. What are the

characteristics of a profession anyway?
5. How does a person reflect?
6. What is the role of the teacher in the total response based classroom?
Explain the role or roles involved. Would a teacher need specific
knowledge of the culture to use total response in a Malaysian classroom?
7. Read the benefits of the reflective teacher in 9.15. Then, look back at your
own school experience; have your teachers been reflective teachers?
Boud, D, Keogh, R & Walker, D. (Eds). (1985) Turning Experiencves into

Learning. New York: Nichols
Breen, M., and Candlin, C. N. (1980). The essentials of a communicative
curriculum in language teaching. Applied Linguistics 1,:89-112.
Brick, J.(1991). China: A Handbook in Intercultural Communication. Sydney,
Australia: National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research.
Brindley, G. P. (1984). Needs Analysis and Objective Setting in the Adult
Migrant Education Program. Australia: AMES.
Clark, C. M., and Yinger, R.J. (1979). TeachersÊ thinking. In P. Peterson and
Wittrock (ed.) Handbook of Research on Teaching, 3rd ed. New York:
Macmillan.pp.225-96.
Cruickshank, D. R., Baiber, D. L., Metcalf. K.K (1999). The Act of Teaching.2nd.
Edition. McGraw-Hill. College: Singapore.
Dewey, J. (1933). How we think. Boston: Heath.
Emery, W.G. (1996). TeachersÊ critical reflection through expert talk. Journal of
Teacher Education, 47,110-119.

Fien, J. (1996). Reflective Practice: A case study of professional development for

environmental education. Journal of Environmental Education, 27, 11-20.
Freeman, D. (1992). Three views of teachersÊ knowledge. Teacher development-
The Newsletter of IATEFL Teacher Development Group, No.18.
Hyland, K. (1991). Collaboration in the language classroom. Prospect 7, 1:85-92.
Jadallah, E. (1996). Reflective Theory and Practice: A constructivist process for
curriculum and instructional decisions. Action in Teacher Education, 18, 73-
85.
Johnson, K (1992), „The relationship between teachersÊ beliefs and practices
during literacy instruction for non-native speakers of English,‰ Journal of
Reading Behavior 24: 83-108.)
Larsen-Freeman, D. (1986). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching.
New York: Oxford University Press.
Martin, D. (1984). Infusing cognitive strategies into teacher preparation
programs. Educational Leadership, 42(3), 68-72.
Pollard, A., Triggs.P (1997) Reflective Teaching In Secondary Education. London:
Casell.
Richards, J.C., and Lockhart, C. (1994). Reflective Teaching in Second Language
Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ross, D. D.(1987). Reflective teaching: Meaning and Implications for preservice
teacher educators. Paper presented at the Reflective Inquiry Conference,
Houston.
Smyth,. J. (1989). Developing and sustaining critical reflection in teacher
education. Journal of Teacher Education, 40, (2), 2-9.
Tikunoff, W. (1985) Developing Student Functional Profiency: Part 1. Gainesville:
University of Florida.
Titone, R. (1968) Teaching Foreign Languages: An Historical Sketch. Washington,
D.C.: Geortgetown University Press.
Wellington, B. (1991). The promise of reflective practice. Educational Leadership,
48(6), 4-5.

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Faculty of Education and Languages

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writers: Mariam Mohamed Nor (Head writer)

Moderators: Dr Arshad Abd. Samad

Editor: Dr Raja Mohammed Fauzi Raja Musa

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, September 2004

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), October 2011, HBET2403

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Course Guide xi-xvi

Topic 1 Theoretical Perspectives 1

Topic 2 Approaches to the Teaching of ESL Writing 15

Topic 3 Writing Strategies and Skills 26

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3.3 Writing Strategies 28

Topic 4 Writing Workshop 59

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Topic 5 Supporting Students to Write 87

Topic 6 Lesson Plans for Writing 100

Topic 7 Developing a Writing Syllabus 164

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7.9 Values and Citizenship 159

Topic 8 Integration of Skills 178

Topic 9 The Reflective Teacher 224

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9.7 TeachersÊ Doctrines Inventory-Approaches to 213

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

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Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

Study Activities Study Hours

Topic 1 discusses writing from the perspective of cognitive processes.

Topic 2 explores the approaches for both L1 and L2 students.

Topic 3 provides discussions on a writing teacherÊs routine and writing strategies

Topic 4 discusses the implementation and problems encountered in implementing the

Topic 5 discusses some effective techniques to support students to learn to write.

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Topic 8 exposes learners to strategies to be employed when incorporating

Topic 9 discusses how teachers reflect on their teaching.

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, activities are also placed at various locations or

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be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate instead of just having to recall

References: References is where a list of relevant and useful textbooks, journals,

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1.1 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

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Generally, writing is perceived as a process of generating and editing a text

What do you think are the theoretical perspectives behind the

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1.2 THE WRITING PROCESS MODEL

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