Module 2: The Philippine Setting in the 19th Century

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

• Appraise the link between the individual and society
• Analyze the various social, political, economic, and cultural changes that occurred in the
nineteenth century
• Understand Jose Rizal in the context of his times

Introduction

To fully appreciate the details of Rizal’s life, we need to place him within the larger context
of the Philippines in the 19th century. Knowing the background of the changing landscape of the
Philippine economy during this century is fundamental, as well as recognizing how these
developments had an impact on the society in which Rizal grew up, became mature, and eventually
was martyred.

The 19th century was a dynamic and creative age, particularly in Europe and the United States.
Industrialism, democracy, and nationalism fueled revolutionary changes in economics, science,
technology, and politics during this century. These changes allowed men to achieve the pinnacles of
prosperity and dignity.

Although 19th century Philippines was largely behind the times, traces of progress were noted
in some sectors. However, its social and economic structure was based on the outmoded feudalistic
patterns of exploitation and abuse of the indios. Racial discriminatory practices were harsh and
oppressive. Intellectual depravity prevailed and government practices did not respect the needs of
the people. This influenced how Rizal became a nationalist and a patriot for his country.

Economic Setting

The rise of the nationalist movement in the late 19th century could hardly be possible without
the economic growth which took place in 19th century Philippines, specifically after about 1830. The
economic growth in those years led to an increasing prosperity to the Filipino middle and upper
classes as well as to the British and American merchants who organized it. It also brought into the
Philippines both the equipment and the consumer goods which the Western industrialized economies
could supply (that Spain could not or would not).

End of the Galleon Trade

❖ Spanish government closed the ports of Manila to all countries except Mexico, thus giving
birth to the Manila-Acapulco Trade, popularly known as the Galleon Trade.
❖ The Galleon Trade (1565-1815) was a ship trade going back and forth between Manila and
Acapulco, Mexico. It started when Andres de Urdaneta, in convoy under Miguel Lopez de
Page | 1
 Legaspi, discovered a return route from Cebu to Mexico in 1565. This served as the central
income-generating business for Spanish colonists in the Philippines.
❖ The mango de Manila, tamarind, rice, carabao, cockfighting, Chinese tea and textiles,
fireworks display, and tuba making (coconut wine making) went to Mexico through Trans-
Pacific Trade. The return voyage, on the other hand, brought numerous and valuable flora
and fauna into the Philippines, including avocado, guava, papaya, pineapple, horses and
cattle.
❖ Other outcomes of this 250-year trade are intercultural exchanges between Asia. Manila
became a trading hub where China, India, Japan and Southeast Asian countries sent their
goods to be consolidated for shipping.
❖ The people who ran the hub and did most of the work were Chinese. Bringing goods and
workforce with the huge migration of Chinese in the Philippines because of the Galleon
Trade brought fear to the Spaniards. Thus, they taxed them, and when the tension rose, the
Spaniards massacred the Chinese workers. Eventually in the 17 th century and in the next
few centuries, the Spaniard and Chinese learned to live with each other.
❖ The Galleon Trade led modern, liberal ideas to enter the Philippines, gradually inspiring the
movement for independence from Spain.
❖ On September 14, 1815, the Galleon Trade came to an end with Mexico’s war on
independence.

Opening of the Suez Canal

❖ Suez Canal is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt that connects the Mediterranean Sea
to the Red Sea through the Isthmus of Suez.
❖ It was constructed by the Suez Canal Company between 1859 and 1869. Under the French
diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps, Suez Canal was officially opened on November 17, 1869.
❖ With the opening of the canal, travel between Europe and the Philippines was considerably
lessened. Previously, they had to sail around Cape of Good Hope to reach Manila, which
lasted for more than 3 months. The Suez Canal shortened it to just 32-40 days.
❖ Immediately after its opening, it had a substantial impact on world trade as goods were
transported around the world in record time. The inauguration of the canal became a big
advantage on commercial enterprises particularly between Europe and East Asia. This also
positively affected the development of agricultural exports in the Philippines, which
brought economic prosperity to native indios and ilustrados. More importantly, it became a
major factor that allowed growth of nationalistic desires of Jose Rizal and other Filipino
ilustrados.
❖ It also accelerated the importation not only of commercial products but also of newspapers,
books, and magazines with liberal ideas from America and Europe, which ultimately
influenced the minds of Rizal and other Filipino reformists.
❖ The opening of the Suez Canal also invigorated the ilustrados, especially Jose Rizal, to
pursue education abroad and grasp scientific and liberal ideals in European academic
institutions. The reformists’ social dealings with liberals in the West had a big influence on
their thoughts on politics, government, and nationhood. Higher and better education was
situated typically in Madrid and Barcelona, Spain which allowed the reformists to use
Spanish as their key means of communication. Out of this brilliant group of students from the
Page | 2
 Philippines arose what came to be known as the “Propaganda Movement.”
Opening of Port to World Trade

❖ The opening of the Philippine port to world trade means that the goods from the
Philippines could be shipped out to any of the countries abroad and goods from other
countries could directly enter the Philippines.
❖ Governor General Felix Berenguer de Marquina recommended to the King of Spain to open
Manila to world commerce. In a royal decree issued on September 6, 1834, the port of
Manila was opened to world trade.
❖ Because Manila was an impressive harbor as the shape of its bay protected trade board
from tough waters, it turned out to be one of the best cities to trade with, attracting
American, British and other European and Asian merchants to its shores.
❖ State-of-the-art methods of production and transportation such as sugar mills and
steamships opened the Philippines for economic development. British, Dutch, French, and
North American traders began to demand Philippine agricultural products including cigars,
sugar and Manila hemp (abaca). Sugar became the top export crop, leading Spain to lift
restrictions on trade between foreign nations and the Philippines.
❖ One impact of the opening of the Philippine port to world trade was that the economy rose
rapidly as its local industries developed to fulfill the rising demands of an industrializing
Europe. Manila expanded and more people came to settle in the city and grew rich through
profit from trade.

Rise of the Export Crop Economy and Monopolies

❖ Philippines was well on its way of forming an export crop economy. Products like sugar,
abaca, and coffee were produced for foreign markets.
❖ The development of the export crop industry in the Philippines was motivated by the
commercial undertakings of North European and North American merchants. They
provided capital, organization and access to foreign markets and sources of imports. But
since they based their operations in port cities especially Manila, they needed agents who
could distribute imports in the interior and buy up goods for export. The role was assumed
primarily by the Chinese.
❖ Another major source of wealth during the post-galleon era was monopoly.
❖ The Chinese took advantage of this commercial prospect for the rest of the 19 th century,
along with the Spaniards. The opium monopoly was specifically a profitable one. The use of
opium was legalized by the Spanish government but only limited to the Chinese people. A
government monopoly of opium importation and sales was created and the majority of
contracts was held by the Chinese.
❖ Even before 1850, monopolies on certain products had been formed which was controlled
by the colonial government. This includes special crops and items such as spirituous liquors,
betel nut, tobacco, and explosives.
❖ In 1782, the tobacco industry was placed under government control, thereby establishing
the tobacco monopoly. Among the products that are monopolized, tobacco was the most
notorious and the most oppressive. During the first fifty years of its presence, from 1782 to
around 1832, this monopoly was intended to obtain maximum return from the sale of
Page | 3
 tobacco by preserving a state monopoly in the marketing of tobacco in the domestic market of
the Philippines. Later on, the colonial government exported the tobacco to other countries and to
factories in Manila.
❖ Widespread cultivation of tobacco was in the provinces of Cagayan Valley, Ilocos Norte,
Ilocos Sur, La Union, Isabela, Abra, Nueva Ecija & Marinduque. These provinces planted
nothing but tobacco and sold their produce only to the government at a pre-designated
price, leaving little to no profit for the local farmers.
❖ After a century, it was abolished in 1882. One hundred years of social injustice and hardship
caused by the tobacco monopoly provoked Filipinos to strive for freedom from colonial
bondage.

Social Setting

Philippine society was primarily feudalistic, which is the result of the Spanish landholding
system enforced upon the country with the arrival of the colonizers. An elite class exploited the
masses, fueled by the “master-slave” relationship between the Spaniards and the Filipinos. The
Spaniards demanded all types of taxes and tributes, and enlisted the natives for manual labor. As a
result, the poor became poorer and the rich, richer.

The pyramidal structure of the 19th century Philippine society favored the Spaniards. The
Spanish colonization in the Philippines paved the way to the establishment of the new social
stratification.

❖ The top of the pyramid was occupied by Spanish officials, the Peninsulares, and the Friars.
The Peninsulares are Spaniards born in Spain and settled in the country. They occupied
the highest class in the society and highest positions in government. Friars are members of
the Roman Catholic orders (Augustinians, Jesuits, Dominicans, Franciscans, and Recoletos).
❖ The Insulares or the Spaniards born in the Philippines and the Creoles or Spaniards born in
the colonies of Spain were below the Peninsulares, but like the Peninsulares, the Insulares
also enjoyed the luxuries in the Philippines. The middle class included the Mestizos which
generally refers to those of mixed race, such as Spanish and native (Mestizo de Español)
and Chinese and native (Mestizo de Sangley). Jose Rizal and other ilustrados who sought
reform in the society during the Spanish colonization belonged to the middle class, but
Rizal asked to be classified as an indio.
❖ Its base, by the Filipino majority, are the indios or the masses. This included laborers,
commoners and peasants. They only enjoyed a few civil rights and privileges. The members
of the Katipunan, a secret organization that would trigger the revolution, mainly consisted
of the masses.
❖ Racial discrimination was widespread as the Spanish-born peninsulares were given the
topmost offices and positions in society. The insulares, creoles, and the mestizos enjoyed
second priority, while the natives or indios were looked down.

Page | 4
Education

Page | 5
 For almost three centuries since the Spaniards established the first settlement in the
Philippines, there was no systematic government supervision of schools. The schools were permitted
to dispense their own curricula and set the qualifications of their teachers. Schools were established
and run by Catholic missionaries aiming to convert the natives to Catholic faith and make them
obedient.

❖ The lack of academic freedom in Spain’s educational system was extended to schools
founded in the Philippines. Learning in every level was essentially by rote. The students
memorized and imitated the contents of books without having an understanding of what is
written.
❖ The friars had a main and leading position in the Philippine educational system as religion
was the primary subject in schools. Fear of God was given emphasis as well as obedience to
the friars. Indios were relentlessly reminded that they had inferior intelligence and they
only fit for manual labor. These practices led to lack of personal confidence and a
development of inferiority complex of the natives.
❖ The most serious criticisms against the Spanish educational system were the overemphasis
on religious content, outdated teaching methods, limited curriculum, obsolete classroom
facilities, neglect of primary school, absence of teaching materials such as books in primary
and secondary school, absence of academic freedom (the implementation of the Moret
Decree of 1870 which aims to secularize higher education in the Philippines was opposed
by the friars), the prejudice against Filipinos in the schools of higher learning, and the friar’s
control over the system.
❖ Educational Decree 1863 declared that each major town in the colony was to establish at
least one elementary school for boys and another one for girls. Books and other materials
have to pass rigid censorship by the Church and civil authorities.
❖ Colegio de San Juan de Letran was the only official secondary school in the Philippines for
boys. Secondary education was also offered at the Ateneo de Manila.
❖ Seven provinces had private colleges and Latin schools for general studies.
❖ The schools for secondary education for girls in Manila were Santa Isabel, La Concordia,
Santa Rosa, Asilo de Lookan, and Santa Catalina.
❖ Theological seminaries were established in Manila, Cebu, Jaro (Iloilo), Nueva Caceres (Naga)
and Nueva Segovia (Vigan).
❖ Up to the end of the Spanish regime, University of Santo Tomas was the only institution in
the university level in Manila. It was initially established solely for Spaniards and mestizos.
It opened its doors to Filipino students decades before the end of the Spanish rule.
❖ The Ilustrados were considered to be the new enlightened class in the country, but despite
their wealth and education, they were still deemed by the Spaniards as inferior. One of
their aims was to be in the same level as the Spaniards, but those who were highly
respected in their towns were regarded as filibusteros or rebels by the friars. The most
prominent is Jose Rizal who inspired thirst for freedom and independence with his novels
written in Spanish.

Page | 6
Rise of the Mestizos

❖ Outside the Philippines, the Spanish word mestizo is typically used to pertain to individuals of
mixed European and non-European ancestry. However, the lower number of European
mestizos in the Philippines made the term mestizo come to mean mestizo de sangley.
Although mestizo de sangley literally means "mixed-race person of business," it suggests a
"mixed-race person of Chinese and native (Filipino) descent" since a lot of Chinese immigrants
were traders and married local women.
❖ The Chinese Mestizo population in the Philippines exceeded 200,000 by the late 19 th century.
Chinese mestizo rose to prominence between 1741 and 1898, primarily as a landholder and a
middleman wholesaler of local produce and foreign imports. They established themselves in
Central Luzon, Cebu, Iloilo, Vigan, Taal, Balayan, Batangas, Albay, Nueva Caceres, Molo and
Jaro, dealing with sugar, coffee and hemp products.
❖ The renewal of Chinese immigration to the Philippines resulted in the diversion of mestizo
energies away from commerce. Chinese mestizo in the Philippines possessed a unique
combination of cultural characteristics. Thus, during the late 19th century, because of cultural,
economic and social changes, the mestizos increasingly identified themselves with indios in a
new kind of “Filipino” cultural and national concerns.

Rise of the Inquilinos

❖ In modern Spanish, the term inquilino has the same meaning as the English word tenant.
The 19th century inquilino system in the Philippines is better understood as a qualified
system of tenancy or the right use to use land in exchange for rent.
❖ The elimination of the Galleon Trade and opening of the Suez Cana gave way for more
extensive rice cultivation and production. Many states turned progressively to the inquilino
system of land tenure, as this system was very profitable. During harvest time, the
administration would collect the rent of the inquilinos. As friar estates enlarged, the
boundaries that divided estates and communal lands became a common cause of conflict.

Political Setting

The Philippines was governed by Spain through the Ministro de Ultramar based in Madrid. It
established a centralized colonial government that was composed of a national government and local
governments that led the provinces, cities, towns and municipalities. The national government-
maintained peace and order, collected taxes and built schools and other public works. The central
government was made of the executive branch (led by the governor general) and the judicial branch:
❖ Governor General – The King of Spain’s representative and the highest-ranking official in
the Philippines. The governor general had great powers. He had the power to appoint and
dismiss public officials, except those personally chosen by the King. He was the
commander-in-chief of the colonial armed forces. He was also the president of the Royal
Audencia (similar to the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court today).
Page | 7
 ❖ Royal Audencia – This was the highest court of the colony and headed the judicial system.
It served as an advisory body to the Governor General. It had the power to check and
report the Governor General’s abuses. It also served as the auditor of the government
finances and a high council to which government affairs were referred.
❖ Residencia – This was a special judicial court that investigates the performance of a
Governor General who was about to be replaced. The Residencia, of which the incoming
Governor General was a member, submits a report of its findings to the King.
❖ Visitador General – Sent by the Council of the Indies in Spain to observe the conditions in
the colony. The Visitador General reports the findings directly to the King.

The Spanish created local government units (LGUs) for the provinces. Although they were paid
a small salary, they enjoyed privileges such as indulto de comercio or the right to participate in the
Galleon Trade. The provincial government was made of:
❖ Alcalde Mayor: Also known as civil governor leading the alcaldia (province)
❖ Gobernadorcillos – They were known as little governors and headed several pueblos
(towns). Their main roles included efficient governance and tax collection. They had small
salaries but were exempted from paying taxes. (Emilio Aguinaldo was a gobernadorcillo).
Four lieutenants aided the gobernadorcillos:
▪ Teniente Mayor (chief lieutenant)
▪ Teniente de Policia (police lieutenant)
▪ Teniente de Sementeras (lieutenant of the fields)
▪ Teniente de Ganados (lieutenant of the livestock)
❖ Cabeza de Barangay: They were responsible for the peace and order of the barangays or
barrios and were recruited for public works. They collected taxes and tributes from their
constituents. They were required to be literate in Spanish and with good moral character.
Cabezas who served for 25 years were exempted from forced labor.

The municipal government was made of:

❖ Corrigimiento: Led the corregidor

The larger towns became cities called ayuntamiento. It became the center of trade and
industry. Ayuntamiento had a city council called the cabildo. The city government was made of:
❖ Alcalde – The Mayor
❖ Regidores – The Councilors
❖ Alguacil Mayor – The Police Chief
❖ Escribando – The Secretary

The colonial government also included:

❖ Guardia Civil: Organized in 1867, they were the corps of native police led by Spanish
officers. In 1880’s they engaged in summary arrest of any persons denounced by the friars
and considered filibusteros.

Page | 8
 ❖ Frailocracia: This means “rule of the friars” for two reasons: (1) there was political
instability in the mother country, and (2) friars were found in each town, thus, they
became rulers of that political unit. They were supervisors of local election, administrators
of schools, and chairman of the board of taxation, of health and of charity. They were
responsible for census taking through the parish registrar and certifies the personal
Identification Card (ID).

There were weaknesses and abuses of the Spanish government. Once of which was the
appointment of officials with inferior qualifications. Some officials had no dedication to their duties
and did not have the moral strength to resist corruption for material advancement. The provincial
government was the most corrupt government unit as they abused the indulto de comercio (license
to engage in trade) by buying people’s products at lowest prices. They also exacted more taxes and
tributes.

Liberalism

Liberalism is a worldview founded on the ideas of freedom and equality. During the French
Revolution (1789-1799), the idea of liberty, equality and fraternity arose as well as the change from
absolute monarchy to liberal government system. The liberals in Spain encompassed numerous
changes in parliaments and constitutions, and there was a rise of anti-clericalism against the Catholic
Church as they considered it an enemy of reforms.

❖ In the Philippines, the Ilustrados were known to further liberalist ideals. Since the opening
of the Suez Canal, printed materials from America and Europe containing liberal ideas
arrived in Philippine shores. This influenced the minds of Rizal and other Filipino
reformists.
❖ Governor General Carlos Maria dela Torre was the first liberal governor general in the
Philippines, holding the position from 1869-1871. The country’s actual experience of
liberalism came from his modeling. After the liberals in Spain had ousted Queen Isabela II
in the 1898 munity, a provisional government was formed where he was appointed. He
was widely considered to be the most beloved of the Spanish Governor General ever
assigned in the country.
❖ His liberal and democratic governance provided Jose Rizal and the others a preview of a
democratic rule and way of life by putting into practice the ideals through avoiding luxury
and living a simple life.
❖ His many significant achievements during his two-year term includes abolishing censorship
and encouraging freedom. He recognized the freedom of speech and of the press, which
were guaranteed by the Spanish Constitution. Father Jose Burgos and the other Filipino
priests were encouraged to pursue their dream of replacing the friars with the Filipino
clergy as parish priests in the country, through dela Torre’s tolerant policy.
❖ His greatest achievement, however, was the peaceful revolution to the land problem in
Cavite. Cavite province had been the center of agrarian unrest in the country since the 18th
century because Filipino tenants who lost their land had been oppressed by Spanish
landlords. Agragian uprisings led by Eduardo Camerino erupted several times in Cavite.
Dela Torre went to Cavite and had a conference with the rebel leader. He pardoned
Page | 9
 Camerino and his followers, provided them with decent livelihood and appointed them as
members of the police with Camerino as their captain.

The Bourbon Reforms

❖ When Spanish Bourbon King Philip V assented to the throne, he and his successors
Ferdinand VI, Charles III and Charles the IV advocated a century-long effort to reform and
modify the Spanish empire. These policy changes were known jointly as the Bourbon
Reforms. The Bourbon reforms aimed to curtail contraband commerce, reclaim control
over transatlantic trade, restrict the church’s power, reform state finances to fill dwindling
royal coffers, and develop tighter administrative and political control within the empire.
❖ Ideally, the Bourbon reform policies were useful to the Philippines which was under Spain
from 1565 to 1898.
❖ There were questionable matters as regards to the effectiveness of the Bourbon Reforms,
including lacking some ideological coherence, being complex, and having some instances
when European conflicts forced Charles IV to go from one policy to another by the mid-
1790s to meet the needs of financing Spain’s wars.
❖ As a result, there were very different impacts of the reforms in the diverse Spanish empire.
Nonetheless, it gave people especially the Philippines the idea that colonization could be
done without much intervention from the Catholic Church.

The Cadiz Constitution

❖ The Cadiz Constitution was the first constitution in Europe to deal with national sovereignty,
recognizing sovereignty as coming from the people and not from the king.
❖ This Spanish Constitution of 1812 had a universal character as it included everyone from
overseas, like the Italian kingdoms and even the Philippines.
❖ Pedro Perez de Tagle and Jose Manuel Correto were the first delegates from the Philippines
who took their oath of office in Madrid. It was formally implemented in Manila soon after,
established the principles of universal male suffrage, national sovereignty, constitutional
monarchy, and freedom of the press, and advocated land reform and free enterprise. It
issued a decree granting all its colonies representation as provinces in the Spanish Cortes
through deputies chosen by various capital cities.
❖ Governor General Manuel Gonzales Aguilar is the governor general who called for an election
of Manila officials, which resulted in the selection of Don Ventura de los Reyes, a wealthy
merchant and member of the Royal Corps of Artillery of Manila, as the deputy.
❖ Don Ventura de los Reyes was a Vigan-born son of poor Ilocano parents who took part in the
Ilocos revolt by Diego Silang in 1762, but later on engaged in the vegetable and indigo
business.
❖ In May 1814, he declared the Cadiz Constitution as invalid and restored absolutism. It was a
very significant period in the political history of the Spanish-speaking world at least. On the
part of the locals in the Philippines, one crucial creed embodied in the constitution was the
exemption of the natives from paying tributes and rendering public services based on its
equality clause.

Page | 10
 ❖ It was very influential as it was a liberal constitution, which vested sovereignty in the people,
recognized the equality of all men and the individual liberty of the citizen, and granted the
right of suffrage.

References:

De Viana, A. et al. (2018). Jose Rizal: Social Reformer and Patriot: A Study of His Life and Times. Rex Bookstore.
Purino, A. (2015). Rizal The Greatest Filipino Hero. Rex Bookstore.
Wani-Obias, R., et al. (2018). The Life and Works of Jose Rizal. C & E Publishing Inc.

Page | 11