Bio-Potential Electrodes and Physiological Transducers: Electrode potential, Electrode equivalent

circuit, Types of Electrodes-Surface Electrodes, Needle Electrodes, Micro Electrodes. Pressure

transducers, Transducers for body temperature measurement.

Bio-Potential Electrodes and Physiological Transducers

Bio-Potential electrodes act as an interface between the biological tissue and the electronic measuring
circuit, performing the transduction of ion current into electronic current. They are generally made of
noble metal (silver, steel, gold) in different shapes (circular, rectangular, needle-shaped, etc.) and are
coated with a salt, such as silver chloride, or polymers. The surface of a metal electrode is coupled to the
skin through electrolyte gel. The salt and the electrolyte gel help transducing the flow of ionic charges into
an electronic current.
A transducer is a device that converts a measured object quantity into an electrical signal. Biomedical
transducers are transducers with specific uses in biomedical applications, such as physiological
measurement and patient monitoring, and in health care. The object quantities in biomedical
measurements are physical and chemical quantities that reflect the physiological functions in a living body.
Although some quantities, such as blood composition, can be determined from a sample extracted from
the body, real-time and continuous measurements can be achieved if a transducer is attached to the body,
and use of a transducer attached to the body is essential when continuous monitoring of an object quantity
is required.

What is a Pressure Transducer? 

A pressure transducer is a sensor which takes measurement and gives a real-time reading of pressure. This
is different from a pressure switch which reacts to pressure when a limit is reached.
A pressure transducer can measure either absolute, gauge, differential or vacuum pressure depending on
the specifications of the applications and the sensor. 
Pressure transducers are so versatile and used throughout most industries giving accurate pressure
measurement. They are suitable for complex applications where the need to monitor exact pressure is
required.  
Pressure Transducer Applications 
Some of the more complex pressure transducer applications we have been a part of include;
Brake pressure - pressure transducers are used to monitor the brake pressure in both road vehicles and
railway vehicles. 
Oil and fuel pressure - in motorsport vehicles pressure transducers are used to ensure the oil and fuel
pressure is at the correct level to ensure driver safety. 
HVAC Applications - pressure transducers are used in Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)
applications to monitor the heater pumps, cooling liquids, liquid levels and process and control. 
Medical Applications - Pressure transducers are used within the medical industry to monitor gas analyses,
to give feedback on various fitness machines, to monitor disinfection liquid levels. 
Motorsport and Test Equipment - as well as monitoring brake pressure, pressure transducers are also used
to monitor other aspects of the vehicle such as speed shifter. We have a range of pressure transducers
which have been designed with Motorsport applications in mind; they are dual pressure and temperature
transducers which can save space in this kind of environment.
Heart Conduction System (Cardiac Conduction)
The heart conduction system is the network of nodes, cells and signals that controls your heartbeat. Each
time your heart beats, electrical signals travel through your heart. These signals cause different parts of
your heart to expand and contract.

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transducers, Transducers for body temperature measurement.

What is the conduction system of the heart?

Your heart’s conduction system is the network of nodes (groups of cells that can be either nerve or muscle
tissue), specialized cells and electrical signals that keep your heart beating.

Two types of cells control your heartbeat:

 Conducting cells carry the electric signals.

 Muscle cells control your heart’s contractions.

Your heart (cardiac) conduction system sends the signal to start a heartbeat. It also sends signals that tell
different parts of your heart to relax and contract (squeeze). This process of contracting and relaxing
controls blood flow through your heart and to the rest of your body.

What are the steps of the heart conduction pathway?

Your heart is a pump that sends blood through your body. For each heartbeat, electrical signals travel
through the conduction pathway of your heart. It starts when your senatorial (SA) node creates an
excitation signal. This electrical signal is like electricity traveling through wires to an appliance in your
home.

The excitation signal travels to:

1. Your atria (top heart chambers), telling them to contract.

2. The atrioventricular (AV) node, delaying the signal until your atria are empty of blood.
3. The bundle of His (center bundle of nerve fibers), carrying the signal to the Purkinje fibers.
4. The Purkinje fibers to your ventricles (bottom heart chambers), causing them to contract.

These steps make up one full contraction of your heart muscle. Your heart conduction system sends out
thousands of signals per day to keep your heart beating.

How does electrical conduction perform with the rest of your heart?
The electrical signals that travel through your heart conduction system cause your heart to expand and
contract. These contractions control how blood flows through your heart.

Ideally, the electrical conduction system keeps up a steady, even heart rate. It also helps your heart speed
up when you need more blood and oxygen or slow down when it’s time to rest.
What are the parts of the cardiac conduction system?
Your cardiac conduction system contains specialized cells and nodes that control your heartbeat. These are
the:
 Sinoatrial node.
 Atrioventricular node.
 Bundle of His (atrioventricular bundle).
 Purkinje fibers.
Sinoatrial node
Your sinoatrial node is sometimes called your heart’s natural pacemaker. It sends the electrical impulses
that start the heartbeat.
The SA node is in the upper part of your heart’s right atrium. It is at the edge of your atrium near your
superior vena cava (vein that brings oxygen-poor blood from your body to your heart).
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Your autonomic nervous system controls how fast or slowly your SA node sends electrical signals. This part
of the nervous system directs hormones that control your heart rate based on what you are doing. For
example, your heart rate increases during exercise and slows when you are asleep.
The autonomous nervous system includes your:
 Sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight response) makes your SA node work faster, which
increases your heart rate.
 Parasympathetic nervous system (rest and digest response) makes your SA node work slower,
which decreases your heart rate.
Atrioventricular node
The atrioventricular node delays the SA node’s electrical signal. It delays the signal by a consistent amount
of time (a fraction of a second) each time.
The delay ensures that your atria are empty of blood before the contraction stops. The atria are the heart’s
upper chambers. They receive blood from your body and empty it into the ventricles.
Your AV node is located in an area known as the triangle of Koch (located between the septal leaflet of the
tricuspid valve, the coronary sinus and the membranous portion of the interatrial septum). This is near the
central area of the heart.
Bundle of His
The bundle of His is also called the atrioventricular bundle. It is a branch of fibers (nerve cells) that extends
from your AV node. This fiber bundle receives the electrical signal from the AV node and carries it to the
Purkinje fibers.
The bundle of His runs down the length of the interventricular septum, the structure that separates your
right and left ventricles. The bundle of His has two branches:
 Left bundle branch sends electrical signals through the Purkinje fibers to your left ventricle.
 Right bundle branch sends electrical signals through the Purkinje fibers to your right ventricle.
Purkinje fibers
The Purkinje fibers are branches of specialized nerve cells. They send electrical signals very quickly to your
right and left heart ventricles.
Your Purkinje fibers are in the subendocardial surface of your ventricle walls. The subendocardial surface is
part of the endocardium, the inner layer of tissue that lines your heart’s chambers.
When the Purkinje fibers deliver electrical signals to your ventricles, the ventricles contract. As they
contract, blood flows from your right ventricle to your pulmonary arteries and from your left ventricle to
your aorta. The aorta is the body’s largest artery. It sends blood from your heart to the rest of your body.
CONDITIONS AND DISORDERS
What conditions and disorders affect electrical conduction in your heart?
Several different conditions can affect your heart’s electrical system. These problems cause issues with
your heart’s rhythm.
Some common heart rhythm disorders include:
 Arrhythmia: Irregular heart rhythm, including atrial fibrillation (Afib).
 Bundle branch block: A block in the Purkinje fibers on one side of your heart, causing arrhythmia.
 Heart block: Impaired electrical signals between your heart’s atria and ventricles.
 Long Q-T syndrome (LQTS): Your ventricles contract and release too slowly, sometimes leading to
fainting (syncope) or sudden cardiac arrest.
 Premature ventricular contractions: A too-early heartbeat in your ventricles, causing heart
palpitations or a “skipped heartbeat.”
 Sudden cardiac arrest: A severe malfunction in your heart’s rhythm that causes your heart to stop,
resulting in death if not treated immediately.

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Arrhythmia monitoring refers to tests physicians use to identify the type and the cause of irregular
heart rhythms. Arrhythmias are changes in the heart’s normal rate or rhythm and are classified by their
location in the heart and by their speed or rhythm. An atrial or supraventricular arrhythmia occurs in 1 of
the 2 upper chambers of the heart, the left or right atrium. Ventricular arrhythmias originate in the
ventricles, the lower chambers of the heart, and can interfere with the heart’s ability to pump blood to the
body.

Labor and Fetal Monitoring

Intrapartum fetal monitoring was created to evaluate fetal well-being and detect fetal distress earlier in
labor to allow intervention prior to permanent fetal injury. Electronic fetal monitoring (EFM) combines
interpretation of fetal heart rate (FHR) monitoring and uterine contraction monitoring. FHR monitoring was
developed in the 1960s and its use has been increasing since. There is high interobserver and intraobserver
variability of FHR tracing interpretation. A meta-analysis comparing EFM to intermittent
FHR auscultation noted the use of EFM reduced the risk for neonatal seizures (relative risk [RR]: 0.50), but
not the risks for perinatal mortality or cerebral palsy. The use of this monitoring has been shown to
increase the rate of both operative and cesarean deliveries.
X-ray tube, also called Roentgen tube, evacuated electron tube that produces X
rays by accelerating electrons to a high velocity with a high-voltage field and causing them to collide with a
target, the anode plate. The tube consists of a source of electrons, the cathode, which is usually a heated
filament, and a thermally rugged anode, usually of tungsten, which is enclosed in an
evacuated glass envelope. The voltage applied to accelerate the electrons is in the range of 30 to 100
kilovolts. The X-ray tube functions on the principle that X rays are produced wherever electrons moving at
very high speeds strike matter of any kind. Only about 1 percent of the electron energy is converted to X
rays. Because X rays can penetrate solid substances to varying degrees, they are applied in medicine and
dentistry, in the exploration of the structure of crystalline materials, and in research.
What is a computed tomography (CT) scan?
The term “computed tomography”, or CT, refers to a computerized x-ray imaging procedure in which a
narrow beam of x-rays is aimed at a patient and quickly rotated around the body, producing signals that
are processed by the machine’s computer to generate cross-sectional images—or “slices”—of the body.
These slices are called tomographic images and contain more detailed information than conventional x-
rays. Once a number of successive slices are collected by the machine’s computer, they can be digitally
“stacked” together to form a three-dimensional image of the patient that allows for easier identification
and location of basic structures as well as possible tumors or abnormalities.
How does CT work?

Unlike a conventional x-ray—which uses a fixed x-ray tube—a CT scanner uses a motorized x-ray source
that rotates around the circular opening of a donut-shaped structure called a gantry. During a CT scan, the
patient lies on a bed that slowly moves through the gantry while the x-ray tube rotates around the patient,
shooting narrow beams of x-rays through the body. Instead of film, CT scanners use special digital x-ray
detectors, which are located directly opposite the x-ray source. As the x-rays leave the patient, they are
picked up by the detectors and transmitted to a computer.

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Each time the x-ray source completes one full rotation, the CT computer uses sophisticated mathematical
techniques to construct a 2D image slice of the patient. The thickness of the tissue represented in each
image slice can vary depending on the CT machine used, but usually ranges from 1-10 millimeters. When a
full slice is completed, the image is stored and the motorized bed is moved forward incrementally into the
gantry. The x-ray scanning process is then repeated to produce another image slice. This process continues
until the desired number of slices is collected.

Image slices can either be displayed individually or stacked together by the computer to generate a 3D
image of the patient that shows the skeleton, organs, and tissues as well as any abnormalities the physician
is trying to identify. This method has many advantages including the ability to rotate the 3D image in space
or to view slices in succession, making it easier to find the exact place where a problem may be located.
Spirometry (spy-ROM-uh-tree) is a common office test used to assess how well your lungs work by
measuring how much air you inhale, how much you exhale and how quickly you exhale. Spirometry is used
to diagnose asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and other conditions that affect
breathing. Spirometry may also be used periodically to monitor your lung condition and check whether a
treatment for a chronic lung condition is helping you breathe better.

Pneumotachograph
The pneumotachograph measures flow rate by sensing the pressure change across a small but laminar
resistance. Careful design ensures that the differential manometer senses the true lateral pressure exerted
by the gas on each side of the resistance element (Fig. 17.20). The manometer is very sensitive, as pressure
changes are tiny, and must have good zero and gain stability. Integration enables calculation of gas volume.
Pneumotachographs are sensitive instruments with a rapid response to changing gas flow, are used widely
for clinical measurement of gas flows in respiratory and anaesthetic practice and are found in bedside
spirometers. Their use in the operating theatre is limited by the need for frequent calibration, correction or
compensation for changes in temperature, humidity, gas composition and pressure during mechanical
ventilation. They are also susceptible to blockage, particularly by water condensation.
What is Electrical Hazard?
Electrical hazard or Electric Shock may be defined as “Dangerous event or condition due to direct or
indirect electrical contact with energized conductor or equipment and from which a person may sustain
electrical injury from shock, damage to workplace environment, damage to property or both.
When working with or nearby electrical installations an electrical shock, arc flash or arc blast can occur
and a current can go through the body, due to the following situations:
 Direct contact with live parts of the installation (exposure to live parts)
 Contact with parts that normally are not live, but as a consequence of a fault become live accidentally
(indirect contact)
 Existence of potential difference between different points in the ground

The effects of electrical current through the human body vary according to:
 The voltage

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 The time the current flows

 The value of the current
 The frequency of the network
 The pathway of the current
 The ability of the person to react

The value of the current through the body depends of the resistance of the skin. This resistance depends of
several factors such as:
 Humid or wet skin
 Thickness of the skin at the contact point
 Psychological condition
 Weight
 Sex
 Age

Association Study of Body burns due to Electric Shock

Ventricular fibrillation is due to the uncontrolled contractions of the heart fibers, that can provoke a
cardiac arrest and the lack of brain irrigation, and it is one of the main causes of death due to electrical
shock.
Electrical burns are the consequences of Joule effect, and taking into account the injuries they provoke,
they are classified in 3 degrees – 1, 2 and 3, being this one the most dangerous and that can cause dead.

Leakage current is the current that flows from either AC or DC circuit in a piece of equipment to the
chassis, or to the ground, and can be either from the input or the output. If the equipment is not properly
grounded, the current flows through other paths such as the human body. This may also happen if the
ground is inefficient or is interrupted intentionally or unintentionally.
Leakage currents are involuntary currents which flow when a resource or electrical medical device is
operating in normal, faultless state. Therefore, leakage currents are not fault currents. Fault currents only
occur in the event of a fault (e.g., defective insulation). Leakage current can flow from live parts through
the intact insulation to protective earth or from a live part via the insulation to another live part.
Leakage currents are always present because there is no such insulation which insulates to 100% efficiency.
Leakage currents are composed of ohmic and capacitive leakage currents. Ohmic leakage current is
produced by the loss resistance of the insulation materials. Capacitive leakage current is inevitably
produced where two electrically conductive surfaces or conductors are separated by insulation.

Why do we Need Biomedical Equipment Safety Testing?

Biomedical Equipment Safety Testing helps in minimising unnecessary risk to the reputation of
your practice and to protect it from litigation or non-compliance. It also helps to maintain
practice accreditation and comply with guidelines and standards for medical equipment. To
make sure correct readings on medical devices which is important for accurate diagnosis testing
should be performed. It also ensures patient and user safety at all times by safety testing of all
electrical and electro-medical devices. It helps to safe guard against infection risk to your
patients by properly maintaining your autoclave ensuring it is working as it should be. It makes
sure to protect your valuable vaccines and practice reputation by ensuring your medical
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refrigeration is performing correctly all the time and to comply with regulations, electrical
safety testing is mandatory.
The facility’s commitment to quality is vital, regardless of the type of company or product that
is being manufactured. Periodical testing and repair is not only an excellent routine but shows
that there is a system in place in the event of trial. With Carelabs’s orderly, measurable, and
appreciable methods we will assist your project and avoid the probability of equipment-related
risks, reduce accidents and events, stay consistent with regulatory reporting requirements and
limit equipment & supply costs. Carelabs performs biomedical inspection according to
manufacturer’s requirement and regulatory agencies.

Services Carelabz Provide in Biomedical Equipment Safety Testing?

When it comes to electrical compliance at all “Patient Areas” such as medical and dental
practices. Few areas where Carelabs perform biomedical equipment safety inspection are:
 Doctors consulting room
 Chiropractic and physiotherapy treatment rooms
 Dental surgeries
 CT rooms
 Treatment rooms
 Ultrasound rooms
 Blood collection areas
 X-ray rooms
 Nursing

Carelabs performs whole inspection of medical facility in strict compliance with current laws
and regulations using equipment and techniques approved by regulatory agencies.
An effective biomedical equipment inspection programme consists of adequate planning,
management and implementation. Planning considers the financial, physical and human
resources required to adequately implement the inspection. Once the programme has been
defined, financial, personnel and operational aspects are continually examined and managed to
ensure the programme continues uninterrupted and improves as necessary. Ultimately, proper
implementation of the programme is key to ensuring optimal equipment functionality.
One important aspect of an inspection is to identify defective product, non-conforming product
and system failures. The way in which companies investigate and correct objectionable
conditions and deficient manufacturing and control systems is an important part of an
inspection and typically illustrates the level of quality within a facility.

How do we Conduct Biomedical Equipment Safety Testing?

Biomedical Instrument Safety Testing Include:
Visual Inspection
Visual inspection is a relatively easy procedure to make sure that the medical equipment in use still
conforms to the specifications as released by the manufacturer and has not suffered from any external
damage or contamination.
These include following inspections:
 Housing Enclosure – Look for damage, cracks etc.
 Contamination – Look for obstruction of moving parts, connector pins etc.
 Cabling (supply, Applied Parts) – Look for cuts, wrong connections etc.
 Fuse rating – check correct values after replacement.

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 Markings and Labelling – check the integrity of safety markings.

 Integrity of mechanical parts – check for an obstructions.
Earthbond Test
 Earth Leakage: current flowing down the protective Earth conductor of the mains inlet lead.
 Enclosure Leakage: current flowing to Earth through a person by touching the medical equipment / system
or part of.
 Applied Part or Patient Leakage: current flowing through a person to Earth from the Applied Part or current
flowing from a person to Earth via the Applied Part by applying unintended voltage from an external
source.
Earth Leakage Test
The Earth Leakage Test shows the current flowing through or via the insulation of the Medical Device into
the protective Earth conductor.
Enclosure Leakage Test
Enclosure Leakage displays the current that would flow if a person came into contact with the housing (or
any accessible part not intended for treatment or care) of the medical device.
Patient Leakage Current
It is the current flowing from the joined part to Earth by means of the patient or streaming from the
patient through an applied part to earth, which begins from an accidental voltage appearing on an external
source.
Documentation
The record for each device should include identifying data such as a brief description, manufacturer,
model, serial number, and location. These data are typically contained in work order records that provide
documentation of every task performed on the device. As a result, the inventory database will contain the
entire technical history for each device in the inventory.
Benefits of Biomedical Equipment Safety Inspection and Testing
It helps in: 
 Prolong the lifecycle of your equipment.
 Protecting your patients, staff and assets.
 Approval agencies and insurance companies may insist on safety inspections & testing.
 Quality Assurance.
 Asset management.

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