Chapter Three

Basic Circuit Laws and Analysis

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 Basic Laws of Circuits
Ohm’s Law:

❖ The voltage across a resistor is directly proportional

to the current flowing through the resistor.
❖Three forms of Ohm's Law equations are: I=V/R,
V=IR and R=V/I. Therefore Ohm's Law can be used
for finding current, voltage drop and resistance in a
circuit.
❖The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-
sectional area A depends on A and its length l.

Where ρ is known as the resistivity of the material in ohm-meters

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 Basic Laws of Circuits
Ohm’s Law:
Property of Resistance: Resistivity's of some basic materials

Material Resistivity (ohm meters) Common Use

silver 1.6x10-8 conductor
copper 1.7x10-8 conductor
aluminum 2.8x10-8 conductor
gold 2.5x10-8 conductor
carbon 4.1x10-5 semiconductor
germanium 47x10-2 semiconductor
silicon 6.4x102 semiconductor
paper 1x1010 insulator
mica 5x1011 insulator
glass 1x1012 insulator
teflon 3x1012 insulator

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 Basic Laws of Circuits
Basic DC electric circuits
➢ Depending on their source of electrical energy, there are two types of electric circuit.
1. DC Electric Circuit - is the one with DC source.
2. AC Electric Circuit- is the one with an AC source.
➢ Depending on connection of devices, basically there are three types of circuits:-

1. Series connection
2. Parallel connection
3. Series-Parallel connection

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 Basic Laws of Circuits
1. Series circuit
In series circuit: R1 R2
I
✓ Elements are connected end to end.
+ VR1 - + VR2 -
✓ There is the same current flowing +
through all the elements. Vs VRN RN
-
✓ The total resistance is the sum of the
- VR3 +
individual resistances.
✓ The applied voltage is the sum of all the
R3
voltage drops across each resistances.

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 Basic Laws of Circuits
Mathematically: RT = R1 + R2 + R3 +……….+RN

Vs = VR1 + VR2 + VR3+…..…+VRN

I = IR1 = IR2 = IR3 =………….=IRN

Voltage Divider Rule (VDR)

➢ States that the amount of voltage drops across each element is directly
proportional to the source voltage and resistance value.
Vs R1
VR 1 =  R 1 = R1 = Vs
RT RT
Vs R2
VR 2 =  R 2 = R2 = Vs
RT RT
Vs R3
VR 3 =  R 3 = R3 = Vs
RT RT 6
 Basic Laws of Circuits
2. Parallel Circuit IT
In a simple parallel circuit: I1 I2 I3
✓ Elements are connected to
common nodes. Vs R1 R2 RN
✓ The voltage across each element
is the same.
✓ The total current is the sum of
the individual branch currents.

Mathematically: 1 1 1 1
= + + .......+
RT R1 R2 RN
Vs = VR1 = VR2 = VR3 =…..… = VRN

IT = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 +………. + IRN 7

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 Basic Laws of Circuits
Current Divider Rule (CDR)
➢ States that the amount of current flows through each element is directly
proportional to the total current and inversely proportional to the
resistance value.

R2 R1
I1 = T I2 = T
R 1 + R2 R 1 + R2

3. Series-Parallel circuits
➢ Series-Parallel circuit is a combination of both series and parallel
circuits. Therefore, it has the property of both series and parallel circuit.

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Example for the circuit below calculate total resistor and current flow across
each elements if R1=6K , R2=12K, R3=4K, R4=8K, R5=12K.

Solution: In calculating the required parameters always we have to start from the
outer to the source.
Thus,
R3 +R4 = 4K+8k =12k...................R34
R2//R34 = 12k//12k =6k................R234
R234 + R1 = 6k+6k = 12k...........R1234
R1234//R5 = 12k//12k = 6k..........RT(total resistor)
Using Ohm’s law, IT =Vs/RT = 24V/6k =4mA ......Total curent

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 Using CDR
.......................curent across R5
and also across R1234
Again I1 is further sub divided
in to I6 and I2. To find curent

= 2mA across I6 and I2 apply CDR

finaly you will get 1mA each.
Kirchhoff’s Current and voltage Laws

As a consequence of the Law of the conservation of charge, we have:

➢ The sum of the currents entering a node (junction point) is equal to the sum
of the currents leaving the node.
Ia Ic

Ib Ia + Ib = Ic + Id
Id

I a, I b, I c , and I d can each be either a positive 10

or negative number.
 Basic Laws of Circuits
Kirchhoff’s Current Law:
Example Find the currents IW, I X, IY, IZ.

2A IW = -2 A
9A
• • IX = -5 A
IX IY
12 A • 6A IY = -3 A
IZ
IZ = -8 A
IW

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 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:
➢ Kirchhoff’s voltage law basically states that the algebraic sum of the
voltages around any closed path (electric circuit) is equal to zero. The secret
here, as in Kirchhoff’s current law, is the word algebraic.
We assume a circuit of the following configuration. Notice that no current
has been assumed for this case, at this point.

Mathematically:
in a closed loop = 0
From the above circuit, we get:
Vs – V1 – V2 – V3 = 0
or -Vs+ V1+ V2+ V3 = 0
Vs = V1 + V2 + V3

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 Mesh Analysis:

Basic Concepts:
A loop is a closed path with no node passed more than once.
❖ A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it.

➢ Mesh analysis is also known as loop analysis or the

mesh-current method.
✓ In formulating mesh analysis we assign a mesh current to
each mesh.

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➢ S t e p s t o D e t e r m i n e Mesh C u r r e n t s :
1. Assign mesh currents i , i , . . . , i to the n meshes.
1 2 n

2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to

express the voltages in terms of the mesh currents.
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh
currents.
Example: find Vo from the ckt bellow?

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Solution:
We have 3 meshes (loops)
KVL left loop : −40 + 2𝑖1 + 8 𝑖1 − 𝑖2 = 0
10𝑖1 − 8𝑖2 + 0𝑖3 = 40
KVL middle loop : 8 𝑖2 − 𝑖1 + 6𝑖2 + 6ሺ𝑖2 −
𝑖3 ሻ = 0
−8𝑖1 + 20𝑖2 − 6𝑖3 = 0
KVL right loop : −20 + 6 𝑖3 − 𝑖2 + 4𝑖3 = 0
0𝑖1 − 6𝑖2 + 10𝑖3 = 20

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Solve the above three equations involving the variables i1, i2
and i3 using simultaneous solving method. In matrix form the
equations can be expressed as:

10 −8 0 𝑖1 40
−8 20 −6 𝑖2 = 0
0 −6 10 𝑖3 20
Solving the matrix, we can find that:
𝑖1 = 7.52 𝐴 𝑖2 = 4.4 𝐴 𝑖3 = 4.64 𝐴
𝑉𝑜 = 8 𝑖1 − 𝑖2 = 8 7.52 − 4.4 = 8 3.12 = 24.96 𝑉

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 Basic Circuits
Mesh Analysis: With current sources (supermesh) in the circuit
➢ A supermesh results when two meshes have a (dependent or
independent) current source in common. The presence of the
current sources in between meshes reduces the number of
equations.
❖ The following are properties of a supermesh:
1. The current source in the super mesh is not completely ignored; it
provides the constraint equation necessary to solve for the mesh
currents.
2. A super mesh has no current of its own.
3. A super mesh requires the application of both KVL and KCL.
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Example 4.4: For the circuit in Figure below, find i1 to i4 using mesh analysis.
2Ω

i1

i1
4Ω 2Ω
P
5A
i2
i0

6Ω 3i0 8Ω
i2 i3 10 V
i4

Q
i2 i3

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Applying KVL on the supermesh, we can obtain:

For the independent current source, we apply KCL to node P:

For the dependent current source, we apply KCL to node Q:

Applying KVL in mesh 4:

From the equations above, we can solve to find:

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 Exercise
Find the three mesh currents I1, I2 and I3 in the circuit below.

20V
2
_ +

10  I3
20 

10V +_ I1 5 I2 4A

15 

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Nodal Analysis: The Concept.

❖ Every circuit has ‘n’ nodes with one of the nodes being
designated as a reference node.
➢ We designate the remaining n – 1 nodes as voltage nodes
and give each node a unique name, vi.
➢ At each node we write (apply) Kirchhoff’s current law
(KCL) in terms of the node voltages.
➢ We form n-1 linear equations at the n-1 nodes in
terms of the node voltages.
➢ We solve the n-1 equations for the n-1 node voltages.
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 Basic Circuits
Nodal Analysis: The Concept.
➢ From the node voltages we can calculate any branch
current or any voltage across any element.
✓ S t e p s t o D e t e r m i n e Node V o l t a g e s :
1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages v1, v2, . . . ,
v to the remaining n − 1 nodes. The voltages are referenced with
n−1

respect to the reference node.

2. Apply KCL to each of the n − 1 nonreference nodes. Use Ohm’s
law to express the branch currents in terms of node voltages.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown
node voltages.
➢ Current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in
a resistor.
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 The first step in nodal analysis is selecting a node as the reference or datum node. The
reference node is commonly called the ground since it is assumed to have zero
potential. We then apply KCL to each nonreference node in the circuit. Finally, we
apply Ohm’s law to express the unknown currents i1, i2, i3, …, and in in terms of node
voltages.
The key idea to bear in mind when expressing the unknown currents in terms of node
voltages is that, current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in a resistor.
𝑣ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 −𝑣𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
We can express this principle as 𝑖 =
𝑅
Example: - Find the voltages at node 1 and 2?
R3=
R1= R5=
2Ω
2Ω 1 2 1Ω

i1 i3 i5

Essential nodes are: 1, 2, and 3. R2= R4=

Vm=10 V Vn=
1Ω 2Ω
5V
Consider node 3 to be the reference i2 i4
3
node (ground).

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 Applying KCL at node 1: Apply KCL at node 2:
𝑖1 − 𝑖2 − 𝑖3 = 0
𝑖3 − 𝑖 4 − 𝑖5 = 0
𝑉𝑚 − 𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
− − =0 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉2 − 𝑉𝑛
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 − − =0
𝑅3 𝑅4 𝑅5
10 − 𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
− − =0 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉2 − 5
2 1 2 − − =0
2 2 1
𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉2
5− − 𝑉1 − + = 0 𝑉1
2 2 2 − 2𝑉2 + 5 = 0
2
𝑉2
5 − 2𝑉1 + =0 𝑉1 − 4𝑉2 = −10
2
4𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = 10
Using the equations from the two nodes, we can solve simultaneously or using matrixes:

4 −1 𝑉1 10
=
1 −4 𝑉2 −10
𝑉1 = 3.33 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 = 3.33

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Super node.
Given the following circuit. Solve for the indicated nodal voltages.

2 Supernode
x
v1 v2 _ v3
x +
5 10 V
x x
6A 4 10 

➢ When a voltage source appears between two nodes, an easy way to

handle this is to form a supernode.
➢ The supernode encircles the voltage source and the tips of the branches
connected to the nodes.
➢ A supernode requires the application of both KCL and KVL. 5
 2
v2
v1 _
+
v3 Constraint Equation
5 10 V

V2 – V3 = -10
6A 4 10 

At V1 : V1 − V2 + V1 − V3 = 6
5 2

At supernode: V2 − V1 V2 V3 V3 − V1
+ + + =0
5 4 10 2

7V1 – 2V2 – 5V3 = 60

-14V1 + 9V2 + 12V3 = 0
V2 – V3 = -10
Solving gives:
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V1 = 30V, V2 = 14.29V, V3 = 24.29V
 Exercise
Consider the circuit below. Solve for the node voltages V1 and V2.

2 I
_
Vx + R1 v1 v2
v1 v2
• • R3
10 
2A
4 E +
_ R2 R4
10 V +_ 5
5Vx