Vishnu 1

A PROJECT REPORT ON
INTEGRATION OF A SINGLE PHASE BIDIRECTIONAL

INVERTER WITH TWO BUCK/BOOST MPPTS FOR DC
DISTRIBUTION APPLICATIONS
Submitted In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For The Award of the Degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
B
Submitted by
CH.VISHNU PRIYA (163K1AO202)

M.USHA (163K1A0207)
SK.ARSHAD (163K1A0209)
K.RAJESH (173K5A0203)
Under the Guidance Of
Mr. P. VISHNU VARDHAN…M. Tech
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR,
Dept.of EEE, ASET, NELLORE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

AUDISHANKARA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
(Accredited By: NAAC with “B” GRADE | Approved By: AICTE| Affiliated to
JNTUA) NELLORE-524201, ANDHRA PRADESH.
2016- 2020
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
AUDISHANKARA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(AFFILIATED TO JAWAHARLAL NEHRU
TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY, ANANTAPUR)
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that a project report entitled as “INTEGRATION OF A SINGLE

PHASE BIDIRECTIONAL INVERTER WITH TWO BUCK/BOOST MPPTS FOR
DC DISTRIBUTION APPLICATIONS” is a bonafide report submitted by
CH.VISHNUPRIYA (163K1A0202), M.USHA (163K1A0207), SK.ARSHAD
(163K1A0209), K.RAJESH (173K5A0203), in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the award of degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in “ELECTRICAL
AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING” during the academic year 2016-2020.
Project guide Head of the Department

Mr. P. VISHNU VARDHAN..M.Tech CH. RAJESH KUMAR..M.E,
Associate Professor, Associate Professor,
Dept. of EEE, Dept. of EEE,
ASET, NELLORE. ASET, NELLORE.
Submitted for the viva-voce examination held on ----------------
Examiner-I Examiner-II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We most sincere and grateful acknowledgements to Dr. VANKI
PENCHALAIAH M.L,,CHAIRMAN who took keen interest and
encouraged us in every effort throughout this course.
We owe our gratitude to Dr.M.RAJAIAH Ph.D for giving us the opportunity
to fulfil our aspirations and become engineers.
We would like to extend ardent thanks to Mr.CH.RAJESH KUMAR, M.E.

Head of the Department, Electrical &Electronics Engineering, for endowing a
practical environment in the institute.
We take this opportunity to express my sincere deep sense of gratitude to our
guide Mr.P.VISHNU VARDHAN, M.Tech, Assosiate Professor, Department of
Electrical of Electronics Engineering, for his significant suggestions and help in
every aspect to accomplish the project report. His persisting encouragement,
everlasting patience and keen interest in discussions have benefited us to an extent that
cannot be spanned by words. It is more than words which speak the way his
involvement has generated interest and improved our confidence to face the challenges
encountered in completing the project before the course of duration.
We are thankful to the technical and non technical staff of AUDISHANKARA
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, GUDUR, and also our
parents, friends and all my well wishers for their assistance in finishing the seminar
successfully.
PROJECT ASSOCIATES
CH.VISHNU PRIYA(163K1A0202)
M.USHA (163K1A0207)
SK.ARSHAD (163K1A0209)
K.RAJESH (173K5A0203)
ABSTRACT
This paper describes the operation of a bidirectional inverter with two buck/boost MPPTs.
The MPPTs have to draw maximum power from solar PV panels and given to dc to dc converter
for getting required range of voltages. This DC voltage will be converted into AC by using
bidirectional inverter for supplying grid. Now a days these types of renewable sources are
become more popular due to its advantages. By implementing these types of proposals we will
get the required maximum power output without degrading natural resources. The installation
cost, operating cost and maintenance cost is also low for solar energy. So, in future we will hope
to generate maximum power from these renewable energy resources.
1
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT I
CONTENTS OF THE DOCUMENTATION Ii
LIST OF FIGURES Iii
LIST OF TABLES Iv
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
CHAPTER-2 LITERATURE REVIEW 4
2.1 Literature Review 4
CHAPTER-3 COMPARATIVE STUDY ON DC-DC CONVERTERS 5
3.1 DC-DC Converters 5
3.2 Applications of DC-DC converters 5
3.3 Switching considerations of DC-DC converters 6
3.4 Types of DC-DC converters 6
3.5 Study of DC-DC converters 6
3.5.1 The Buck converter 6
3.5.2 The Boost converter 11
3.5.3 Buck-Boost converter 15
3.5.4 The Cuk converter 20
CHAPTER-4 STUDY OF MPPT TECHNIQUES IN A SOLAR 24
PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAY
4.1 Introduction 24
4.1.1 The need for renewable energy 24
4.1.2 Different sources of renewable energy 24
4.1.3 Renewable energy trends across the globe 25
4.2 Standalone photovoltaic system components 26
4.2.1 Photovoltaic cell 26
4.2.2 PV module 26
4.2.3 PV modeling 26
ii
4.3 Maximum Power Point Tracking algorithms 28
4.3.1 An overview of MPPT 28
4.3.2 Different MPPT techniques 29
4.3.2.1 Perturb and Observe 29
4.3.2.2 Incremental conductance 29
4.3.2.3 Fractional open circuit voltage 30
4.3.2.4 Fractional short circuit current 30
4.3.2.5 Fuzzy logic control 30
4.3.2.6 Neural networks 30
CHAPTER-5 SINGLE PHASE GRID CONNECTED INVERTER DESIGN 32
5.1 Inverter specification 32
5.2 Switching circuit configuration 32
5.3 DC link capacitor 33
5.3.1 Electrolytic capacitors Vs Film capacitors 33
5.3.2 Sizing the DC link capacitor 36
5.4 Output filter design 37
5.4.1 Filter configuration 38
CHAPTER-6 INTEGRATION OF A SINGLE PHASE BIDIRECTIONAL 41
INVERTER WITH TWO BUCK/BOOST MPPTS FOR DC DISTRIBUTION
APPLICATIONS
6.1 Introduction 41
6.2 Proposed Circuit 42
6.3 Operation 43
6.4 Results 44
CHAPTER-7 CONCLUSION 48
REFERENCES 49
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No Title Page No
Figure 1.1 Grid connected PV system configurations 2
Figure 1.2 Block diagram of two-stage grid-connected PV system 3
Figure 3.1 BUCK Converter 7
Figure 3.2 On and off state of Buck converter 7
Figure 3.3 Evolution of the voltages and currents with time in an 9
ideal buck converter operating in continuous mode
Figure 3.4 Evolution of the voltages and currents with time in an 9
ideal buck converter operating in discontinuous mode
Figure. 3.5 Boost converter schematic 12
Figure. 3.6 The two configurations of a boost converter, depending 12
on the state of the switch S.
Figure 3.7 Waveforms of current and voltage in a boost converter 12
operating in continuous mode
Figure 3.8 Waveforms of current and voltage in a boost converter 14
operating in discontinuous mode
Figure. 3.9 Schematic of a buck–boost converter 15
Figure 3.10 The two operating states of a buck–boost converter 16
Figure 3.11 Waveforms of current and voltage in a buck–boost 16
converter operating in continuous mode
Figure 3.12 Waveforms of current and voltage in a buck–boost 18
converter operating in discontinuous mode
Figure 3.13 Evolution of the normalized output voltage with the 19
normalized output current in a buck–boost converter
Figure 3.14 Schematic of a non-isolated Ćuk converter 20
Figure 3.15 Schematic representation of the two operating states of a 20

non-isolated Ćuk converter.
Figure 3.16 The two operating states of a non-isolated Ćuk converter 21
iii
Figure No Title Page No
Figure 4.1 Global energy consumption in the year 2008 25
Figure 4.2 Single diode model of a PV cell 27
Figure 4.3 I-V characteristics of a solar panel 28
Figure 4.4 P-V characteristics curve of photovoltaic cell 28
Figure 5.1 Power stage configuration of the single phase PV 32
inverter
Figure 5.2 Generic DC-link voltage waveform 33
Figure 5.3 Full bridge configuration with PWM unipolar voltage 34
switching scheme
Figure 5.4 Output LCL filter of the inverter 37
Figure 5.5 Magnitude plot of the output filter transfer function 39
Figure 5.6 Magnitude plot of Hf (jω) using selected filter 40
components
Figure 6.1 Block diagram 41
Figure 6.2 Conventional two stage PV system with boost type 42
MPPTS
Figure 6.3 Proposed two stage buck/boost converter 42
Figure 6.4 Maximum power tracking using PO method 43
Figure 6.5 Simulation diagram of a proposed buck MPPT 44
Figure 6.6 Output DC voltage of a proposed buck MPPT 44
Figure 6.7 Output AC voltage of a proposed buck MPPT 45
Figure 6.8 Output AC power of proposed buck MPPT 45
Figure 6.9 Simulation of a proposed boost converter 46
Figure 6.10 Output DC voltage waveform of a proposed boost MPPT 46
Figure 6.11 AC output voltage of proposed boost converter 47
Figure 6.12 AC output power of proposed boost converter 47
LIST OF TABLES
Table No TITLE Page No
Table 1 Characteristics of different MPPT techniques 31
Table 2 Inverter specifications 32
Table 3 Output filter parameters and their chosen values 39
iv
INTEGRATION OF A SINGLE PHASE BIDIRECTIONAL INVERTER WITH TWO BUCK/BOOST MPPTS FOR DC DISTRIBUTION
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Photovoltaic power generation is gaining wide acceptance today as a source of clean and
pollution free power. Most significantly it is showing exponential growth in grid connected
applications [1]. Due to economic causes the solar energy is not directly interfaced with the
utility grid. Thus a power electronic device is employed to interface the solar systems to the grid.
In the dc-distribution applications, a power system, including renewable distributed generators
(DGs), dc loads (lighting, air conditioner, and electric vehicle), and a bidirectional inverter.
Moreover, the bidirectional inverter has to fulfill grid connection (sell power) and rectification
(buy power) with power-factor correction (PFC) to control the power flow between dc bus and ac
grid, and to regulate the dc bus to a certain range of voltages.
Various alternatives architectures for grid connected PV system configurations are
available, such as centralized module, AC module and modular configuration where the last
topology perfectly fits with an intelligent PV module concept [2]. A few possible configurations of
grid connected PV systems are shown in Fig.1.1. A centralized inverter configuration is illustrated
in Fig. 1.1(a) that interfaced huge number of PV modules. But, there are some severe limitations in
the design of centralized inverters, such as power loss for using a central MPPT, PV modules with
mismatch losses due to the high voltage dc cabling connecting the PV modules with the inverter,
string diode loss etc. Fig. 1.1(b) shows the AC module configuration, which is a simplified version
of the centralized inverter topology. Here a single string of PV module is connected with an
inverter. Each string can be applied with a separate MPPT, as there is no loss attributed to string
diodes. In comparison to the centralized inverter the overall efficiency is increased. Fig. 1.1(c)
shows the modular configuration. A common inverter is joined with multiple strings connected to
individual DC-DC converter. The benefit of this modular configuration over centralized system is
that each string can be controlled individually and ensure less cabling loss thereby enhancing the
overall system efficiency. Therefore, we proposed a two-stage intelligent PV system, which is similar
to modular configuration topology as shown in fig 1.1.
1
Fig 1.1. Grid connected PV system configurations (a)

Centralized module (b) AC- Modules (c) Modular
system
In an intelligent PV module instead of interconnection between modules they are

interconnected with associated DCDC converter for MPPT tracking which ensures optimal
operations of PV module. Various MPPT algorithms exist in different literatures. In this research,
we propose perturb and observe (P&O) method to extract maximum possible power from solar
panel [3]. In this article, a two-stage grid connected PV system is proposed which consists of a DC-
DC boost converter with MPPT, and a DC-AC inverter to convert photovoltaic DC voltage into
line frequency AC voltage as shown in Fig. 1.2. In order to minimize the switching losses and to
achieve better performance of the inverter, a combination of SPWM and a square wave signal is
used for switching the inverter circuit. Detailed explanation of the control strategy and grid
synchronization technique is also presented, which ensures to deliver maximum real power to
2
utility grid.
3
Fig 1.2. Block diagram of two-stage grid-connected PV system
4
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Literature Review
Studies show that a solar panel converts 30-40% of energy incident on it to electrical energy.
A Maximum Power Point Tracking algorithm is necessary to increase the efficiency of the solar
panel. There are different techniques for MPPT such as Perturb and Observe (hill climbing
method), Incremental conductance, Fractional Short Circuit Current, Fractional Open Circuit
Voltage, Fuzzy Control, Neural Network Control etc. Among all the methods Perturb and observe
(P&O) and Incremental conductance are most commonly used because of their simple
implementation, lesser time to track the MPP and several other economic reasons. Under abruptly
changing weather conditions (irradiance level) as MPP changes continuously, P&O takes it as a
change in MPP due to perturbation rather than that of irradiance and sometimes ends up in
calculating wrong MPP[11]. However this problem gets avoided in Incremental Conductance
method as the algorithm takes two samples of voltage and current to calculate MPP. However,
instead of higher efficiency the complexity of the algorithm is very high compared to the previous
one and hence the cost of implementation increases. So we have to mitigate with a tradeoff
between complexity and efficiency. It is seen that the efficiency of the system also depends upon
the converter. Typically it is maximum for a buck topology, then for buck-boost topology and
minimum for a boost topology. When multiple solar modules are connected in parallel, another
analog technique TEODI is also very effective which operates on the principle of equalization of
output operating points in correspondence to force displacement of input operating points of the
identical operating system. It is very simple to implement and has high efficiency both under
stationary and time varying atmospheric conditions.
5
3. COMPARATIVE STUDY ON DC-DC CONVERTERS

3.1 DC-DC converter
DC –DC converters are power electronic circuits that convert a dc voltage to a different
voltage level. There are different types of conversion method such as electronic, linear, switched
mode, magnetic, capacitive. The circuits described in this report are classified as switched mode
DC-DC converters. These are electronic devices that are used whenever change of DC electrical
power from one voltage level to another is needed. Generically speaking the use of a switch or
switches for the purpose of power conversion can be regarded as an SMPS. From now onwards
whenever we mention DC-DC converters we shall address them with respect to SMPS. A few
applications of interest of DC-DC converters are where 5V DC on a personal computer
motherboard must be stepped down to 3V, 2V or less for one of the latest CPU chips; where 1.5V
from a single cell must be stepped up to 5V or more, to operate electronic circuitry.
In all of these applications, we want to change the DC energy from one voltage level to
another, while wasting as little as possible in the process. In other words, we want to perform the
conversion with the highest possible efficiency. DC-DC Converters are needed because unlike
AC, DC can’t simply be stepped up or down using a transformer. In many ways, a DC-DC
converter is the DC equivalent of a transformer. They essentially just change the input energy
into a different impedance level. So whatever the output voltage level, the output power all
comes from the input; there is no energy manufactured inside the converter. Quite the contrary, in
fact some is inevitably used up by the converter circuitry and components, in doing their job.
3.2 Applications of DC-DC Converters

1. Dc converters can be used in regenerative braking of dc motors to return energy back into
the supply and this feature results in energy savings for transportation system with frequent
stops. As for example:
a) Traction motor control in electric automobiles
b) Trolley cars
c) Marine Hoists
d) Forklift trucks
e) Mine Haulers
2. Also used in DC voltage regulators and also are used in conjunction with an inductor to
generate a dc current source especially for the current source inverter.
6
3.3 Switching Consideration of DC-DC Converters:

The converter switch can be implemented by using
a) Power bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
b) Power Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)
c) Gate Turn Off Thyristor (GTO)
d) Insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
Practical devices have a finite voltage drop ranging from 0.5V to 2V but during the
calculations for the sake of simplicity of the understanding, these switches are considered lossless.
3.4 Types of DC-DC Converter

There different kinds of DC-DC converters. A variety of the converter names are included
here:
1. The BUCK converter
2. The BOOST converter
3. The BUCK-BOOST converter
4. The CUK converter
5. The Fly-back converter
6. The Forward Converter
7. The Push-pull Converter
8. The Full Bridge converter
9. The Half Bridge Converter
10. Current Fed converter
11. Multiple output converters
3.5 Study of DC-DC Converters

There is a varietyof DC-Dc converters are possible. But from the list of the converters
only the first four of the converters are to be described which are basically of non-isolated input
output terminals.
3.5.1 The Buck Converter:

The buck converter is a commonly used in circuits that steps down the voltage level from
the input voltage according to the requirement. It has the advantages of simplicity and low cost.
Figure 1 shows a buck converter the operation of the Buck converters start with a switch that is
7
open (so no current flow through any part of circuit) When the switch is closed, the current flows
through the inductor, slowly at first, but building up over time. When the switch is closed the
inductor pulls current through the diode, and this means the voltage at the inductors "output" is
lower than it first was. This is the very basic principle of operation of buck circuit.
Fig 3.1: BUCK Converter

Analysis of the buck converter begins by making these assumptions:
1. The circuit is operating in the steady state.
2. The inductor current is continuous (always positive)
3. The capacitor is very large, and the output voltage is held constant at voltage Vo.
This restriction will be relaxed later to show the effects of finite capacitance.
4. The switching period is T, the switch is closed for time DT and open for time (1-D) T
5. The components are ideal
The key to the analysis for determining the voltage Vo is to examine the inductor current
and inductor voltage first for the switch closed and then for the switch open. The net change in
inductor current over one period must be zero for steady state operation. The average inductor
voltage is zero. There are two types of operational mode for this circuit a) Continuous
Conduction Mode and b) Discontinuous Conduction Mode. They are described below.
(a) Continuous Conduction Mode
A buck converter operates in continuous mode if the current through the inductor (IL)
never falls to zero during the commutation cycle. In this mode, the operating principle is
described by the chronogram in Fig 3.2.
Fig 3.2: On and off state of Buck

converter (a)On state (b) off State
The two circuit configurations of a buck converter: (a) On-state, when the switch is closed, and
(b) Off-state, when the switch is open
● When the switch pictured above is closed (On-state, top of Fig 3.2), the voltage across the
8
inductor is VL = Vi − Vo. The current through the inductor rises linearly. As the diode is
reverse-biased by the voltage source V, no current flows through it;
● When the switch is opened (off state, bottom of figure 3.2), the diode is forward biased. The
voltage across the inductor is VL = − Vo (neglecting diode drop). Current IL
decreases. The energy stored in inductor L is
1 2
E= L×I L
2
Therefore, it can be seen that the energy stored in L increases during On-time (as IL
increases) and then decreases during the Off-state. L is used to transfer energy from the input to
the output of the converter. The rate of change of IL can be calculated from:
dIL
VL=L dt
t
on V (Vi − Vo )
∆I t
Lon =∫ dt = on t{on} = DT
L L
0
With VL equal to Vi − Vo during the On-state and to − Vo during the Off-state. Therefore,
the increase in current during the On-state is given by:
Identically, the decrease in current during the Off-state is given by:

toff V V
L o
∆ILoff = ∫ dt = − toff t{off} = T
ton L L
If we assume that the converter operates in steady state, the energy stored in each
component at the end of a commutation cycle T is equal to that at the beginning of the cycle. That
means that the current IL is the same at t=0 and at t=T (see Fig 3.3).So we can write from the
above equations:
Vi − V o Vo
( L ) ton − L toff = 0
It is worth noting that the above integrations can be done graphically: In Figure 3.3
∆ILon is proportional to the area of the yellow surface, and ∆ILoff to the area of the orange surface,
as these surfaces are defined by the inductor voltage (red) curve. As these surfaces are simple rectangles, their
areas can be found easily: (Vi − Vo)ton for the yellow rectangle and −Votoff for the orange one. For steady state
operation, these areas must be equal. As can be seen on figure 3.3, and. D is a scalar called the duty cycle with a
value between 0 and 1. This yield:
(Vi − Vo)DT − Vo(1 − D)T = 0
Vo − DVi = 0
Vo
D=
Vi
8
From this equation, it can be seen that the output voltage of the converter varies linearly with the
dutycycle for a given input voltage. As the dutycycle D is equal to the ratio between ton
and the period T, it cannot be more than 1. Therefore, ≤ . This is why this converter is referred to
as step-down converter. So, for example, stepping 12 V down to 3 V (output voltage equal to a
fourth of the input voltage) would require a dutycycle of 25%, in our theoretically ideal
circuit.
Fig 3.3: Evolution of the voltages and currents with time in an ideal buck converter operating in continuous mode
(b) Discontinuous Conduction Mode

In some cases, the amount of energy required by the load is small enough to betransferred
in a time lower than the whole commutation period. In this case, the current through the inductor
falls to zero during part of the period. The only difference in the principle described above is that
the inductor is completely discharged at the end of the commutation cycle (Fig 3.4). This has,
however, some effect on the previous equations.
Fig 3.4: Evolution of the voltages and currents with time in an ideal buck converter operating in
discontinuous mode.
We still consider that the converter operates in steady state. Therefore, the energy in the
9
inductor is the same at the beginning and at the end of the cycle (in the case of discontinuous
mode, it is zero). This means that the average value of the inductor voltage (VL) is zero; i.e., that
the area of the red rectangles in fig 3.4 are the same. This yield:
So the value of δ is:

(Vi − Vo)DT − VoδT = 0
= −
The output current delivered to the load (Io) is constant; as we consider that the output capacitor
is large enough to maintain a constant voltage across its terminals during a commutation cycle.
This implies that the current flowing through the capacitor has a zero average value. Therefore,
we have:
I¯ = Io
L
Where IL is the average value of the inductor current. As can be seen in figure 3.5, the inductor
current waveform has a triangular shape. Therefore, the average value of I L can be sorted out
geometrically as follow:
1 1 1
= ILmax (D + δ)
2
= Io
The inductor current is zero at the beginning and rises during ton up to ILmax. That means that
ILmax is equal to:
−
=
Substituting the value of ILmax in the previous equation leads to:

(Vi − Vo)DT(D + δ)
Io =
2L
And substituting δ by the expression given above yields: Vi − Vo D)

(V − V )DT (D +
io
Vo
Io =
2L
This expression can be rewritten as:

1
Vo = Vi 2LIo
+1
D2ViT
10
It can be seen that the output voltage of a buck converter operating in discontinuous mode is
much more complicated than its counterpart of the continuous mode. Furthermore, the output
voltage is now a function not only of the input voltage (V i) and the duty cycle D, but also of the
inductor value (L), the commutation period (T) and the output current (Io).
3.5.2 The BOOST converter

A boost converter (step-up converter) is a power converter with an output DC voltage
greater than its input DC voltage. It is a class of switching mode power supply (SMPS)
containing at least two semi-conductors switches (a diode and a transistor) and at least one energy
storage element. Filters made of capacitors (sometimes in combination with inductors) are
normally added to the output of the converter to reduce output voltage ripple. A boost converter is
sometimes called a step-up converter since it “steps up” the source voltage. Since power (P = VI)
must be conserved, the output current is lower than the source current.
The boost converter has the same components as the buck converter, but this converter
produces an output voltage greater than the source. "Boost" converters start their voltage
conversion with a current flowing through the inductor (switch is closed). Then they close the
switch leaving the current no other path to go than through a diode (functions as one way valve)
The current then wants to slow really fast and the only way it can do this is by increasing its
voltage (akin to pressure) at the end that connects to the diode, and switch. If the voltage is high
enough it opens the diode, and one through the diode, the current can't flow back. This is the very
basic concept of boost converter.
Circuit analysis
Analysis of the boost converter begins by making these assumptions:
The circuit is operating in the steady state.
The inductor current is continuous (always positive).
The capacitor is very large, and the output voltage is held constant at voltage Vo.
This restriction will be relaxed later to show the effects of finite capacitance.
The switching period is T, the switch is closed for time DT and open for time (1-D)
T. The components are ideal.
Like Buck converter boost also has two mode of operation. Details are described below:
Operating principle
The key principle that drives the boost converter is the tendency of an inductor to resist
changes in current. When being charged it acts as a load and absorbs energy (somewhat like a
resistor); when being discharged it acts as an energy source (somewhat like a battery). The voltage
1
it produces during the discharge phase is related to the rate of change of current, and not to the
original charging voltage, thus allowing different input and output voltages.
Fig. 3.5: Boost converter schematic
(a) Switch On (b) Switch Off
Fig. 3.6: The two configurations of a boost converter, depending on the state of the switch S.
The basic principle of a Boost converter consists of 2 distinct states (Fig 3.6):

in the On-state, the switch S (see fig 3.5) is closed, resulting in an increase in the
inductor current;

In the Off-state, the switch is open and the only path offered to inductor current is
through the fly back diode D, the capacitor C and the load R. These results in
transferring the energy accumulated during the On-state into the capacitor.

The input current is the same as the inductor current as can be seen in fig 3.5(b). So
it is not discontinuous as in the buck circuit and the requirements on the input filter
are relaxed compared to a buck converter.
Continuous mode
Fig 3.7: Waveforms of current and voltage in a boost converter operating in continuous mode.
1
When a boost converter operates in continuous mode, the current through the inductor (I L)
never falls to zero. Fig 3.7 shows the typical waveforms of currents and voltages in a converter
operating in this mode. The output voltage can be calculated as follows, in the case of an ideal
converter (i.e. using components with an ideal behaviour) operating in steady conditions: During
the On-state, the switch S is closed, which makes the input voltage (Vi) appear across the
inductor, which causes a change in current (IL) flowing through the inductor during a time period
(t) by the formula:
∆IL Vi
=
DT
LVi
∆t L
At the end of the On-state, the increase of IL is therefore:

1
DT
∆ILon = ∫ Vi dt =
L
0
D is the duty cycle. It represents the fraction of the commutation period T during which the
switch is On. Therefore D ranges between 0 (S is never on) and 1 (S is always on). During the Off-
state, the switch S is open, so the inductor current flows through the load. If we consider zero
voltage drop in the diode, and a capacitor large enough for its voltage to remain constant, the
evolution of IL is:
dIL
Vi − Vo = L dt
Therefore, the variation of IL during the Off-period is:

T (V i − Vo)dt (Vi − Vo)(1 − D)T
∆I Loff = ∫ =
L L
DT
As we consider that the converter operates in steady-state conditions, the amount of energy stored
in each of its components has to be the same at the beginning and at the end of a commutation
cycle. In particular, the energy stored in the inductor is given by:
1 2
E = LI L
2
So, the inductor current has to be the same at the start and end of the commutation cycle.
This means the overall change in the current (the sum of the changes) is zero:
Substituting ∆ILon and ∆ILoff by their expressions yields: ∆ILon + ∆ILoff = 0
ViDT (Vi − Vo)(1 − D)T

∆ILon + ∆ILoff = + =0
L L
13
This can be written as:

Vo 1
V = 1−D
which in turns reveals the duty cycle to be: i
Vi
Vo
D=1−
From the above expression it can be seen that the output voltage is always higher than the input
voltage (as the duty cycle goes from 0 to 1), and that it increases with D, theoretically to infinity
as D approaches 1. This is why this converter is sometimes referred to as a step-up converter.
Discontinuous mode
Figure 3.8: Waveforms of current and voltage in a boost converter operating in discontinuous mode.
In some cases, the amount of energy required by the load is small enough to be
transferred in a time smaller than the whole commutation period. In this case, the current through
the inductor falls to zero during part of the period. The only difference in the principle described
above is that the inductor is completely discharged at the end of the commutation cycle (see
waveforms in figure 3.8). Although slight, the difference has a strong effect on the output voltage
equation. It can be calculated as follows:
As the inductor current at the beginning of the cycle is zero, its maximum value (at t = DT)
is
ViDT
During the off-period, IL falls to zero after δT:

ILMax =
L
(Vi − Vo)δT
IL +
Max
=0
L
Using the two previous equations, δ is: ViD

δ=
VO − Vi
14
The load current Io is equal to the average diode current (I D). As can be seen on figure 4, the diode
current is equal to the inductor current during the off-state. Therefore the output current can be
written as:
ILmax
I = I¯= δ
o D 2
Replacing ILmax and δ by their respective expressions yields:

ViDT V iD V2D2T
i
IO = 2L × Vo −
= 2L(Vo − Vi)
Vi
Therefore, the output voltage gain can be written as follows:

2
ViD T
Vo
=1+
V 2LIo
Compared to the expression of the output voltage for the continuous mode, this expression is
much more complicated. Furthermore, in discontinuous operation, the output voltage gain not
only depends on the duty cycle, but also on the inductor value, the input voltage, the switching
frequency, and the output current.
3.5.3 BUCK-BOOST converter
Another basic switched mode converter is the buck-boost converter. The output ofthe
buck boost converter can be either higher or lower than the input voltage. Assumption made
about the operation of this circuit is same as it was for the previous converter circuits.
Principle of operation
The basic principle of the buck–boost converter is fairly simple (Fig 3.10):

While in the On-state, the input voltage source is directly connected to the inductor (L).
This results in accumulating energy in L. In this stage, the capacitor supplies energy to the
output load.
Fig 3.9: Schematic of a buck–boost converter
15
Fig 3.10: The two operating states of a buck–boost converter:

When the switch is turned-on, the input voltage source supplies current to the inductor,
and the capacitor supplies current to the resistor (output load).When the switch is opened, the
inductor supplies current to the load via the diode D.

While in the Off-state, the inductor is connected to the output load and capacitor, so energy
is transferred from L to C and R. Compared to the buck and boost converters, the
characteristics of the buck–boost converter are mainly:

Polarity of the output voltage is opposite to that of the input;

The output voltage can vary continuously from 0 to (for an ideal converter). The output
voltage ranges for a buck and a boost converter are respectively 0 to and to .The circuit has
two main mode of operations. They are described below.
Continuous mode
If the current through the inductor L never falls to zero during a commutation cycle, the converter
is said to operate in continuous mode.
Fig 3.11: Waveforms of current and voltage in a buck–boost converter operating in continuous mode.
16
The current and voltage waveforms in an ideal converter can be seen in Fig 3.11. From, the
converter is in On-State, so the switch S is closed. The rate of change in the inductor current (IL)
is therefore given by
dIL Vi
=
At the end of the On-state, the increase of IL is therefore:

DT Vi ViDT
DT
∆ILon = ∫ dIL = ∫
dt =
L L
0 0
D is the duty cycle. It represents the fraction of the commutation period T during which the switch
is On. Therefore D ranges between 0 (S is never on) and 1 (S is always on). During the Off-state,
the switch S is open, so the inductor current flows through the load. If we assume zero voltage drop
in the diode, and a capacitor large enough for its voltage to remain constant, the evolution of IL is:
dIL VO
=
Therefore, the variation of IL during the Off-period is:
(1−D)T (1−D)T Vodt = Vo(1 − D)T
∆ILoff = ∫ dIL = ∫ L L
0 0
As we consider that the converter operates in steady-state conditions, the amount of energy stored
in each of its components has to be the same at the beginning and at the end of a commutation
cycle. As the energy in an inductor is given by:
1
E= LI2
It is obvious that the value of IL at the end of the Off state must be the same as the value of IL at
the beginning of the On-state, i.e. the sum of the variations of I L during the on and the off states
must be zero:
∆ILon + ∆ILoff = 0
Substituting ∆ILon and ∆ILoff by their expressions yields:
ViDT Vo(1 − D)T
∆ILon + ∆ILoff =
+ =0
L L
This can be written as:

−
=( 1− )
This in return yields that:

Vo
D=
V
o− Vi
17
From the above expression it can be seen that the polarity of theoutput voltage is always negative
(as the duty cycle goes from 0 to 1), and that its absolute value increases with D, theoretically up
to minus infinity as D approaches 1. Apart from the polarity, this converter is either step-up (as a
boost converter) or step-down (as a buck converter). This is why it is referred to as a buck–boost
converter.
Discontinuous Mode
Fig 3.12: Waveforms of current and voltage in a buck–boost converter operating in discontinuous mode.
In some cases, the amount of energy required by the load is small enough to be
transferred in a time smaller than the whole commutation period. In this case, the current through
the inductor falls to zero during part of the period. The only difference in the principle described
above is that the inductor is completely discharged at the end of the commutation cycle (see
waveforms in figure 3.12). Although slight, the difference has a strong effect on the output
voltage equation. It can be calculated as follows: As the inductor current at the beginning of the
cycle is zero, its maximum value ILmax
ViDT
Lmax =
I
During the off-period, IL falls to zero after δT:

Using the
VoδT
IL +
max L =0
Using the two previous equations, δ is:

δ=− ViD
Vo
18
The load current Io is equal to the average diode current (I D). As can be seen on figure 3.12, the
diode current is equal to the inductor current during the off-state. Therefore, the output current
can be written as:
ILmax
I = I¯= δ
o D 2
Replacing ILmax and δ by their respective expressions yields:

ViDT Vi V2D2T
i
Io = − D =−
2L × 2LVo
Vo
Therefore, the output voltage gain can be written as:

Vo = − V D2T i
V
i 2LIo
Compared to the expression of the output voltage gain for the continuous mode, this expression is
much more complicated. Furthermore, in discontinuous operation, the output voltage not only
depends on the dutycycle, but also on the inductor value, the input voltage and the output current.
Limit between continuous and discontinuous modes
Fig 3.13: Evolution of the normalized output voltage with the normalized output current in a buck–boost converter.
As told at the beginning of this section, the converter operates in discontinuous mode when
low current is drawn by the load, and in continuous mode at higher load current levels. The limit
between discontinuous and continuous modes is reached when the inductor current falls to zero
exactly at the end of the commutation cycle. With the notations of fig. 3.13, this corresponds to:
DT+δT=T
D+δ=1
In this case, the output current (output current at the limit between continuous and discontinuous
19
modes) is given by:

I Lmax
I = I=¯ (1 − D)
o D
lim 2
Replacing by the expression given in the discontinuous mode section yields: ViDT
IOlim =
2L
As is the current at the limit between continuous and discontinuous modes of operations, it
satisfies the expressions of both modes. Therefore, using the expression of the
(1−D)
output voltage in continuous mode, the previous expression can be written as:
= × × (− )
2
3.5.4 The CUK Converter

The Cuk converter is used for getting the output voltage with different polarity. That
means output voltage magnitude can be either larger or smaller than the input, and there is a
polarity reversal on the output. The inductor on the input acts as a filter for the dc supply, to
prevent large harmonic current. Unlike the previous converter topologies where energy transfer is
associated with the inductor. Energy transfer for the cuk converter depends on the capacitor C1.
The primary assumptions for this circuit analysis are as before. It also has two modes of
operation which are described below.
Operating Principle
Fig 3.14: Schematic of a non-isolated Ćuk converter
Fig 3.15: Schematic representation of the two operating states of a non-isolated Ćuk converter.
20
Figure 3.16: The two operating states of a non-isolated Ćuk converter.
In this figure, the diode and the switch are either replaced by a short circuit when they are on or
by an open circuit when they are off. It can be seen that when in the Off state, the capacitor C is
being charged by the input source through the inductor L1. When in the On state, the capacitor C
transfers the energy to the output capacitor through the inductance L2. A non-isolated Ćuk converter
comprises two inductors, two capacitors, a switch (usually a transistor), and a diode. Its schematic
can be seen in figure 3.14. It is an inverting converter, so the output voltage is negative with respect
to the input voltage. The capacitor C is used to transfer energy and is connected alternately to the
input and to the output of the converter via the commutation of the transistor and the diode (see
figures 3.14 and 3.15). The two inductors L1 and L2 are used to convert respectively the input voltage
source (Vi) and the output voltage source (Co) into current sources. Indeed, at a short time scale an
inductor can be considered as a current source as it maintains a constant current. This conversion is
necessary because if the capacitor were connected directly to the voltage source, the current would be
limited only by (parasitic) resistance, resulting in high energy loss. Charging a capacitor with a
current source (the inductor) prevents resistive current limiting and its associated energy loss.
As with other converters (buck converter, boost converter, buck-boost converter) the Ćuk
converter can either operate in continuous or discontinuous current mode. However, unlike these
converters, it can also operate in discontinuous voltage mode (i.e., the voltage across the
capacitor drops to zero during the commutation cycle).
Continuous mode
In steady state, the energy stored in the inductors has to remain the same at the beginning
and at the end of a commutation cycle. The energy in an inductor is given by:
1 2
E= 2LI
21
This implies that the current through the inductors has to be the same at the beginning and the
end of the commutation cycle. As the evolution of the current through an inductor is related to
the voltage across it:
dI
VL = L dt
It can be seen that the average value of the inductor voltages over a commutation period have to
be zero to satisfy the steady-state requirements. If we consider that the capacitors C and Co are
large enough for the voltage ripple across them to be negligible, the inductor voltages become:
In the off-state, inductor L1 is connected in series with Vi and C (see figure 3.16). ThereforeVL1
= Vi − VC. As the diode D is forward biased (we consider zero voltage drop), L2 is directly
connected to the output capacitor. Therefore VL2 = Vo

In the on-state, inductor L1 is directly connected to the input source. Therefore VL1 = Vi.
Inductor L2 is connected in series with C and the output capacitor, so VL2 = Vo + VC.
The converter operates in on-state from t=0 to t=D·T (D is the duty cycle), and in off state from
D·T to T (that is, during a period equal to (1-D) ·T). The average values of VL1 and VL2 are therefore:
V¯ ̅
̅
( )( )
L 1 = DV i + 1 − D Vi − Vc = (Vi − (1 − D)Vc )
̅
V¯ ( ) ( )
L 2= D Vo + Vc + 1 − D − Vo = (V o + DVc)
As both average voltage have to be zero to satisfy the steady-state conditions we can write,
using the last equation:
Vo
Vc = D
So the average voltage across L1 becomes:

V
V¯¯ ¯ =(V + (1 − D) o = 0
which can be written as: L1 i

D
1−
It can be seen that this relation is the same as that obtained for the Buck-boost converter.
Discontinuous mode
Like all DC-DC converters Cuk converters rely on the ability of the inductors in the circuit
to provide continuous current, in much the same way a capacitor in a rectifier filter provides
continuous voltage. If this inductor is too small or below the "critical inductance", then the current
will be discontinuous. This state of operation is usually not studied too much depth, as it is not used
beyond a demonstrating of why the minimum inductance is crucial. The minimum inductance is
22
given by:
(1 − D)2R
L1
min
2Dfs
=
Where fs is the switching frequency.
2
CHAPTER IV
STUDY OF MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING (MPPT)
TECHNIQUES IN A SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAY
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 The need for Renewable Energy
Renewable energy is the energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight,
wind, rain, tides and geothermal heat. These resources are renewable and can be naturally
replenished. Therefore, for all practical purposes, these resources can be considered to be
inexhaustible, unlike dwindling conventional fossil fuels. The global energy crunch has provided
a renewed impetus to the growth and development of Clean and Renewable Energy sources.
Clean Development Mechanisms (CDMs) are being adopted by organizations all across the
globe. Apart from the rapidly decreasing reserves of fossil fuels in the world, another major
factor working against fossil fuels is the pollution associated with their combustion.
Contrastingly, renewable energy sources are known to be much cleaner and produce energy
without the harmful effects of pollution unlike their conventional counterparts.
4.1.2 Different sources of Renewable Energy

Wind power
Wind turbines can be used to harness the energy available in airflows. Current
dayturbines range from around 600 kW to 5 MW of rated power. Since the power output is a
function of the cube of the wind speed, it increases rapidly with an increase in available wind
velocity. Recent advancements have led to aero foil wind turbines, which are more efficient due
to a better aerodynamic structure.
Solar power
The tapping of solar energy owes its origins to the British astronomer John Herschel who
famously used a solar thermal collector box to cook food during an expedition to Africa. Solar
energy can be utilized in two major ways. Firstly, the captured heat can be used as solar thermal
energy, with applications in space heating. Another alternative is the conversion of incident solar
radiation to electrical energy, which is the most usable form of energy. This can be achieved with
the help of solar photovoltaic cells or with concentrating solar power plants.
2
Small hydropower
Hydropower installations up to 10MW are considered as small hydropower and counted as
renewable energy sources. These involve converting the potential energy of water stored in dams
into usable electrical energy through the use of water turbines. Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity
aims to utilize the kinetic energy of water without the need of building reservoirs or dams.
Biomass
Plants capture the energy of the sun through the process of photosynthesis. On
combustion, these plants release the trapped energy. This way, biomass works as a natural battery
to store the sun’s energy and yield it on requirement.
Geothermal
Geothermal energy is the thermal energy which is generated and stored within the layers
of the Earth. The gradient thus developed gives rise to a continuous conduction of heat from the
core to the surface of the earth. This gradient can be utilized to heat water to produce superheated
steam and use it to run steamturbines to generate electricity. The main disadvantage ofgeothermal
energy is that it is usually limited to regions near tectonic plate boundaries, though recent
advancements have led to the propagation of this technology.
4.1.3 Renewable Energy trends across the globe

The current trend across developed economies tips the scale in favor of Renewable
Energy. For the last three years, the continents of North America and Europe have embraced
more renewable power capacity as compared to conventional power capacity. Renewables
accounted for 60% of the newly installed power capacity in Europe in 2009 and nearly 20% of
the annual power production.
Fig 4.1: Global energy consumption in the year 2008
2
As can be seen from the figure 4.1, wind and biomass occupy a major share of the current
renewable energy consumption. Recent advancements in solar photovoltaic technology and
constant incubation of projects in countries like Germany and Spain have brought around
tremendous growth in the solar PV market as well, which is projected to surpass other renewable
energy sources in the coming years.
By 2009, more than 85 countries had some policy target to achieve a predetermined share
of their power capacity through renewables. This was an increase from around 45 countries in
2005. Most of the targets are also very ambitious, landing in the range of 30-90% share of
national production through renewables. Noteworthy policies are the European Union’s target of
achieving 20% of total energy through renewables by 2020 and India’s Jawaharlal Nehru Solar
Mission, through which India plans to produce 20GW solar energy by the year 2022.
4.2 Standalone Photovoltaic System Components

4.2.1 Photovoltaic cell
A photovoltaic cell or photoelectric cell is a semiconductor device that converts light to
electrical energy by photovoltaic effect. If the energy of photon of light is greater than the band gap
then the electron is emitted and the flow of electrons creates current. However a photovoltaic cell is
different from a photodiode. In a photodiode light falls on channel of the semiconductor junction
and gets converted into current or voltage signal but a photovoltaic cell is always forward biased.
4.2.2 PV module
Usually a number of PV modules are arranged in series and parallel to meet the energy
requirements. PV modules of different sizes are commercially available (generally sized from
60W to 170W). For example, a typical small scale desalination plant requires a few thousand
watts of power.
4.2.3 PV modeling
A PV array consists of several photovoltaic cells in series and parallel connections. Series
connections are responsible for increasing the voltage of the module whereas the parallel
connection is responsible for increasing the current in the array. Typically a solar cell can be
modeled by a current source and an inverted diode connected in parallel to it. It has its ownseries
2
and parallel resistance. Series resistance is due to hindrance in the path of flow of electrons from
n to p junction and parallel resistance is due to the leakage current.
Fig 4.2: Single diode model of a PV cell
In this model we consider a current source (I) along with a diode and series resistance (Rs). The
shunt resistance (RSH) in parallel is very high, has a negligible effect and can be neglected. The
output current from the photovoltaic array is
I = Isc − Id (4.1)
qV d
Id = Io (e KT
— 1) (4.2)
where Io is the reverse saturation current of the diode, q is the electron charge, V d is the voltage
across the diode, k is Boltzmann constant (1.38 * 10-19 J/K) and T is the junction temperature in
Kelvin (K)
From eq. 4.1 and 4.2
qVd
I=I — I (e KT − 1)
(4.3)
sc o
Using suitable approximations,
q(
I = Isc − Io(e (V+IRS))
nKT
— 1) (4.4)
where, I is the photovoltaic cell current, V is the PV cell voltage, T is the temperature (in Kelvin)
and n is the diode ideality factor In order to modelthe solar panel accurately we can use two
diode model but in our project our scope of study is limited to the single diode model. Also, the
shunt resistance is very high and can be neglected during the course of our study.
2
Fig 4.3: I-V characteristics of a solar panel
The I-V characteristics of a typical solar cell are as shown in the Figure 4.2. When the
voltage and the current characteristics are multiplied we get the P-V characteristics as shown in
Figure 4.3. The point indicated as MPP is the point at which the panel power output is maximum.
Fig 4.4: P-V characteristics curve of photovoltaic cell
4.3 Maximum Power Point Tracking Algorithms

4.3.1 An overview of Maximum Power Point Tracking
A typical solar panel converts only 30 to 40 percent of the incident solar irradiation into
electrical energy. Maximum power point tracking technique is used to improve the efficiency of the
solar panel. According to Maximum Power Transfer theorem, the power output of a circuit is
maximum when the Thevenin impedance of the circuit (source impedance) matches with the load
impedance. Hence our problem of tracking the maximum power point reduces to an impedance
matching problem. In the source side we are using a boost convertor connected to a solar panel in
2
order to enhance the output voltage so that it can be used for different applications like motor
load. By changing the duty cycle of the boost converter appropriately we can match the source
impedance with that of the load impedance.
4.3.2 Different MPPT techniques

There are different techniques used to track the maximum power point. Few of the
most popular techniques are:
1) Perturb and Observe (hill climbing method)

2) Incremental Conductance method
3) Fractional short circuit current
4) Fractional open circuit voltage
5) Neural networks
6) Fuzzy logic
The choice of the algorithm depends on the time complexity the algorithm takes to track
the MPP, implementation cost and the ease of implementation.
4.3.2.1 Perturb & Observe
Perturb & Observe (P&O) is the simplest method. In this we use only one sensor, that is
the voltage sensor, to sense the PV array voltage and so the cost of implementation is less and
hence easy to implement. The time complexity of this algorithm is very less but on reaching very
close to the MPP it doesn’t stop at the MPP and keeps on perturbing on both the directions. When
this happens the algorithm has reached very close to the MPP and we can set an appropriate error
limit or can use a wait function which ends up increasing the time complexity of the algorithm.
However the method does not take account of the rapid change of irradiation level (due to which
MPPT changes) and considers it as a change in MPP due to perturbation and ends up calculating
the wrong MPP. To avoid this problem we can use incremental conductance method.
4.3.2.2 Incremental Conductance
Incremental conductance method uses two voltage and current sensors to sense the output
voltage and current of the PV array.
At MPP the slope of the PV curve is 0.
(dP/dV)MPP=d (VI)/dV (4.5)
0=I+VdI/dVMPP (4.6)
dI/dVMPP = - I/V (4.7)
The left hand side is the instantaneous conductance of the solar panel. When this
2
instantaneous conductance equals the conductance of the solar then MPP is reached. Here we are
sensing both the voltage and current simultaneously. Hence the error due to change in irradiance
is eliminated. However the complexity and the cost of implementation increases. As we go down
the list of algorithms the complexity and the cost of implementation goes on increasing which
may be suitable for a highly complicated system. This is the reason that Perturb and Observe and
Incremental Conductance method are the most widely used algorithms. Owing to its simplicity of
implementation we have chosen the Perturb & Observe algorithm for our study among the two.
4.3.2.3 Fractional open circuit voltage
The near linear relationship between VMPP and VOC of the PV array, under varying
irradiance and temperature levels, has given rise to the fractional VOC method.
VMPP = k1 Voc (4.8)
where k1 is a constant of proportionality. Since k 1 is dependent on the characteristics of the PV
array being used, it usually has to be computed beforehand by empirically determining V MPP and
VOC for the specific PV array at different irradiance and temperature levels. The factor k1 has
been reported to be between 0.71 and 0.78. Once k 1 is known, VMPP can be computed with VOC
measured periodically by momentarily shutting down the power converter. However, this incurs
some disadvantages, including temporary loss of power.
4.3.2.4 Fractional short circuit current
Fractional ISC results from the fact that, under varying atmospheric conditions, I MPP is
approximately linearly related to the ISC of the PV array.
IMPP =k2 Isc (4.9)
where k2 is a proportionality constant. Just like in the fractional VOC technique, k2 has to be
determined according to the PV array in use. The constant k2 is generally found to be between
0.78 and 0.92. Measuring ISC during operation is problematic. An additional switch usually has to
be added to the power converter to periodically short the PV array so that ISC can be measured
using a current sensor.
4.3.2.5 Fuzzy Logic Control
Microcontrollers have made using fuzzy logic control popular for MPPT over last
decade. Fuzzy logic controllers have the advantages of working with imprecise inputs, not
needing an accurate mathematical model, and handling nonlinearity.
4.3.2.6 Neural Network

Another technique of implementing MPPT which are also well adapted for
microcontrollers is neural networks. Neural networks commonly have three layers: input, hidden,
3
and output layers. The number nodes in each layer vary and are user-dependent. The input
variables can be PV array parameters like VOC and ISC, atmospheric data like irradiance and
temperature, or any combination of these. The output is usually one or several reference signals
like a duty cycle signal used to drive the power converter to operate at or close to the MPP.
Table 1: Characteristics of different MPPT techniques
MPPT Technique Convergence Implementation Periodic Sensed

speed complexity Tuning Parameters
Perturb & Observe Varies Low No Voltage

Incremental Varies Medium No Voltage, current
Conductance
Fractional Voc Medium Low Yes Voltage
Fractional Isc Medium Medium Yes Current
Fuzzy Logic Control Fast High Yes Varies
Neural Network Fast High Yes Varies
3
5. Single Phase Grid Connected Inverter Design

5.1 Inverter Specifications
The basic specifications for the inverter design are listed in Table 2. Since the design
primarily focuses on the control and the grid synchronization method of the inverter, the
efficiency target of the inverter is not specified because it is outside of the scope. Although
maximizing efficiency is not the focus of this work, loss considerations still drive selection of a
viable converter topology. In addition, Fig 5.2 illustrates a general waveform of the DC-link
voltage to show the definition of the nominal DC-link voltage and the ripple component.
Fig 5.1: Power stage configuration of the single phase PV inverter
Table 2: Inverter specifications

Rated Grid Voltage, Vra ted 250V(RMS)
g
Rated Grid Current, Irate d 10A(RMS)

g
Switching Frequency Range,fsw >20kHz,<45kHz

Nom inal DC-lin k vol tage, V
n
400V
dc
Percentage DC link Voltage Ripple(Peak to Nominal) 10%
5.2 Switching Circuit Configuration

A full bridge configuration with SPWM unipolar voltage switching scheme is used (Fig 5.3) as
the switching circuit of the inverter. Byselecting the full bridge configuration, the minimal allowed
DC-link voltage can be set to be the peak value of the AC grid voltage (plus margins). Thus, power
MOSFETs, instead of higher voltage IGBTs, can be used as the switching devices which enable use
of a high switching frequency (> 20 kHz) without indroduction of excessive switching loss.
Furthermore, showing in Fig 5.3(d), using unipolar voltage switching scheme effectively
3
Fig 5.2: Generic DC-link voltage waveform
moves the first major harmonic of the bridge output voltage from order mf − 1 to the order of 2mf
−1, where mf is the frequency modulation ratio - the ratio between the switching frequency and
the fundamental frequency. The output filter thus reduces its size for “free”. Since this full bridge
configuration with SPWM unipolar voltage switching scheme is commonly used in voltage
sourced inverters, further investigations will not be presented in this thesis.
5.3 DC-link Capacitor
This section discusses the two types of capacitors that can be used as the DC-link
buffering capacitor. A brief comparison is made based on their life time and power decoupling
ability. Methods of ensuring the inverter’s power quality while using a capacitor that has a small
capacitance are also discussed. Finally, the calculation of the DC-link capacitance is shown in
this section.
5.3.1 Electrolytic Capacitors vs. Film Capacitors

The DC-link capacitor is important for the power decoupling between the input power to
the inverter and their output power to the utility grid. Normally, electrolytic capacitors are used
for their large capacitance and low cost. However, in PV applications where the
(a) Full bridge configuration
3
(b) Unipolar SPWM switching scheme
(c) Waveform of the bridge output voltage
(d) Harmonics on the nominlized frequency spectrum

Fig 5.3: Full bridge configuration with PWM unipolar voltage switching scheme
inverters are usually exposed to outdoor temperatures, the lifetime of such electrolytic
capacitors is shorten drastically according to the equation below :
3
Lop = Lop(0) × 2 To−Th

∆T
(5.1)
where Lop is the operational lifetime, Lop(0) is the specified operational lifetime at the hot-spot
temperature T0 (can be found in the product datasheets), T h is the operating temperature and ΔT is
the degree Celsius increase that would results in half the operational life (also can be found in the
product datasheet). Typically, Lop(0) is between 3000 hours to 6000 hours (8 months to 16
months) at 85 ◦C for electrolytic capacitors with rated voltage above 400V.
In PV applications, since most PV module manufactures offer 25 year warranties on 80%
of the initial efficiency and five years warranty on materials and workmanship, the lifetime of the
electrolytic capacitors have become a major limiting component inside a PV inverter. Film
capacitors are a clear the alternative given their long life expectancy and wide operating
temperature range. Unfortunately, film capacitors are far more expensive than the electrolytic
ones in term of cost per farad, hence the size of the capacitance has to be smaller to keep the
price of the capacitor acceptable. However, smaller capacitance would weaken the power
decoupling ability of the DC-link capacitor which may cause DC-link voltage fluctuations that
lead to distortion of the inverter output current to the grid.
There are two factors that can cause undesirable DC-link voltage variations. The first one,
which can be referred to as the transient DC fluctuation is caused by the rapid increase/decrease
of the input power flowing into the DC-link capacitor. The quality of the output current can be
optimized byusing a very fast current controller or by an optimal current adjustment method
stated. However, in PV application, the chance of rapid DC input power variation is little due to
the nature of the sun as well as the processing delay of MPPT in the front end DC/DC converter.
Therefore, the transient DC fluctuation is not a major concern when designing a VSI for PV
application. The second factor, which can be referred to as the AC fluctuation of the DC-link
voltage is caused by the double-line frequency ripple power generated fromthe grid side (refer to
Equation (5.4)). This double-line frequency ripple component can couple through the DC voltage
control loop to cause a significant amount of distortion on the current reference signal.
Therefore, methods need to be taken so that the inverter output current is immune to the
double-line frequency ripple on the DC-link voltage. A notch filter or an average filter can be
applied to the feedback signal of the DC-link voltage in the voltage control loop, so that this
double-line frequency ripple component is filtered out before entering the voltage controller. This
prevents the output current from having distortions that are resulted from the DC voltage control
3
loop. Furthermore, we also employ a nonlinear DC voltage feedforward to the output of the current
controller so that the modulation signal that is sent to the SPWM modulator cancels out the effect
of the double-line frequency ripple that appears on the DC-link. In this document, a notch filter is
employed in the DC voltage control loop to keep the output current from the distortion caused by
the double-line frequency ripple voltage. As a result, the inverter has a relatively large tolerance on
the voltage ripple that appeared on the DC-link, thus a film capacitor with relatively small
capacitance can be used to keep the DC-link capacitor at an acceptable price.
5.3.2 Sizing the DC-link Capacitor

To limit the magnitude of the double-line frequency ripple voltage to the specified level, the
DC link capacitor is sized according to the following equations:
Assuming the grid voltage and the grid current are:
V = V^ (w )
gt
g (t) gCos
(5.2)
Ig(t) = ÎgCos(wgt − ∅) (5. 3)
Then the instantaneous output power can be easily obtained as:

Pout( t) = VI Cos ( wgt) Cos ( wgt − ∅ ) =V I Cos ∅ + V
I Cos(2wgt − ∅) (5.4)
rms rms rms rms
gg
g g g g
This can be rewritten to be:
Pout(t) = SCos∅ + SCos(2wgt − ∅) (5.5)
where S is the apparent power which has a unit of VA. Then assuming (i) the instantaneous input
power equals to the instantaneous output power of the inverter, (ii) the DC capacitance filters out
the high switching frequency components in the DC current idc(t), and (iii) the DC-link has a
nominal voltage of V n dc,
Vdcnidc(t) ≅ SCos∅ = SCos(2wgt − ∅) (5.6)
The idc (t) can be separated as a DC component, I dc and an AC component, idc, ripple (t). Then the
double-line frequency component can be extracted such that:
Vn idc,ripple(t) = SCos(2wgt − ∅) (5.7)
dc
Rearranging the above equation yields:

i (t) = S cos(2w t − ∅) =
̂
cos(2w t − ∅) (5.8)
n
dc,ripple V g , g
dc
Then the capacitance of the DC-link capacitor can be easily obtained given the magnitude of the maximum allowed ripple
voltage, ,
3
3
Id̂c,ripple
S
Cdc = =
2w Vmax 2w Vn Vmax
(5.9)
g
dc,ripple
g dc dc,ripple
Finally, substituting, these parameters from the inverter specifications.
2.5KVA
Cdc = = 207.2μF (5.10)

2.377
rad⁄ ×400V×40V
sec
Based on this, a 230μF Cornell Dubilier film type capacitor which as a life expectancy of
200,000 hours (44 years) at 60 ◦C was selected to be used in the prototype.
5.4 Output Filter Design
As discussed in Section 5.2, the lowest order harmonics that appeared on the harmonic
spectrum of the output voltage of the full-bridge are at the sidebands of 2mf. Since the inverter
switching frequency is set to be greater than the audible frequency (20kHz), the lowest order of
the harmonics of the inverter is (2mf −1) = 665. According to the IEEE DR interconnection
standard, IEEE-1547 1, any current harmonic which has an order that is greater than 35 must
have a magnitude that is no greater than 0.3% of the rated current of the DR output, and the total
demand distortion (TDD) 2 has to be under 5% (the original harmonic regulation table in IEEE-
1547 can be found in Appendix A). If the lowest order harmonics of this inverter can be reduced
to 0.3%, the TDD can be readily kept under 5%. Thus, the primary design guide for the inverter
output filter is to make the magnitude of the major harmonic current of the inverter less than
0.3% of the rated current. In addition, as IEEE-1547 also stated, “the harmonic current injections
shall be exclusive of any harmonic currents due to harmonic voltage distortion present in the Area
Electrical Power System (EPS) without the DR connected”, the output filter design will not take
harmonic grid voltage distortions into consideration.
Fig 5.4: Output LCL filter of the inverter
3
3
5.4.1 Filter Configuration

A third order LCL filter, Figure 2.4, was used to meet the aforementioned harmonic
reduction target. A switching frequency of 30 kHz was selected based on considerations for the
filter size and the practical implementation of the digital controller. v t (t) stands for the terminal
voltage or the output voltage of the full bridge, which consists of a fundamental component and
higher order harmonics components. Solving the grid current in Laplace domain using
superposition yields the following transfer functions:
sCfRd+1
Ig(s) (5.11)
s3LiLgCf+s2CfRd(Li+Lg)
+s(Li+Lg)
| =
s2LiCf+sCfRd+1
V (s)
t Vg=0
(5.12)
Ig(s) | s3LiLgCf+s2CfRd(Li+Lg)+s(Li+Lg)
=
Vg(s) Vt =0
From the above Equation (5.11) and (5.12), one can observe that the grid current i g (t) depends on
both the terminal voltage vt (t) and the grid voltage vg (t). As discussed before, the output filter
design will not take harmonic grid voltage distortion into consideration because IEEE-1547 allows
the presence of harmonic current distortion caused by grid voltage distortion. Therefore, Equation
(5.12) will not be taken into consideration in output filter design.
The terminal voltage vt (t) contains a fundamental component and higher frequency components
which could result in higher frequency distortions on the grid current i g (t). Therefore, Equation
(5.11) is used as the output filter transfer function as:
(5.13)
Ig(s)
H (s) = =−
|
sC fRd+1
Vt(s) Vg=0 s3LiLgCf+s2CfRd(Li+Lg)+s(Li+Lg)
The RMS value of the higher order frequency components of vt (t) can be calculated using the
look up table, given the nominal DC-link voltage V ndc:
n
1 (̂VAo)h V 1 () n
|V (jhw )| = ×2× 1 n
×
dc
= × k h ×V dc ( 5.14)
tg √ 2 ⁄V 2 √ 2
2 dc
The (ˆ VAo) h is the peak value of each harmonic voltage between one leg of the bridge and the
centre point of the DC-link, v Ao(t). In full bridge configuration, v t (t) = 2vAo (t). k (h) = (ˆ V Ao) h
dc
1/2V n is tabulated as a function of ma and the orders of harmonics (refer to Appendix C for
details about the harmonics table). Therefore, combining (5.13) and (5.14), the RMS value of the
harmonic current can be expressed as:
1
(5.15)
)| =
|Ig (jhwg
× |Hf(jhwg )| × k(h) × Vdc n
√2
Remember that |Ig (jhωg)| cannot exceed 0.3% of the rated current of the inverter. Therefore, given
3
3
the RMS value of the rated grid current Iratedg the following relationship can be derived:
Fig 5.5: Magnitude plot of the output filter transfer function Hf (s)
|Hf(jhwg)|×k(h)×Vdcn
rated
< 0.3% (5.16)

√2×Ig
Rewrite for |Hf (jhωg)|, then

rated
(5.17)
0.3%×√ 2×Ig
|Hf(jhwg)| <
Vdc nk(h)
Given from Appendix C, the worst case k (h) at 2mf − 1 is 0.37. Then, substituting the parameters
from the inverter specification and using a switching frequency of 30 kHz, we get the magnitude of
the filter transfer function |Hf (jhωg)| at (2mf − 1):
H |j((2m − 1)377)| = |H (j(376614))| = 0 .3%×√2×10A = 2.86 × 10−4 ≅ −70Db
f f f
400V×0.37
(5.18)
With the transfer function of the filter derived in Equation (5.13), the generic magnitude plot of
Hf(s) can be drawn as shown in Figure 5.5. At ω = 376614, the magnitude of Hf (j376614) from
the magnitude plot of Hf (jω) should at most be -70dB. This is the guideline of choosing the values
for Li, Lg, Cf and Rd. Finally, the LCL filter components are chosen following this guideline and
the values of each component are shown in Table 5.2. The MATLAB magnitude plot of the filter
is shown in Fig 5.6,
Table 3: Output filter parameters and their chosen values
Li Lg Cf Rd
300µH 100µH 30µH 1.5Ω
3
Fig 5.6: Magnitude plot of Hf (jω) using selected filter components’ values be seen that with the
components chosen in Table 3, the magnitude of Hf (jω) is under -70dB at ω=376614.
4
CHAPTER VI
INTEGRATION OF A SINGLE PHASE BIDIRECTIONAL
INVERTER WITH TWO BUCK/BOOST MPPTS FOR DC
DISTRIBUTION APPLICATIONS
6.1 Introduction
As the population is increasing day by day, the demand for electricity is increases. But the
amount of conventional energy resources are decreasing, so in order to generate the required
amount of power we have to concentrate on renewable energy resources like solar energy, tidal
energy, wind energy etc., Among these solar energy plays an important role due to its advantages
like no noise, abundant, conversion is easy, less maintenance, low capital cost. In this paper, solar
PV panels are used for generation of electricity. But the output of solar panels are low and
nonlinear, in order to get maximum power we are implementing MPPT techniques for the panels.
Though there are many MPPT techniques, P&O algorithm is more preferable in order to get high
DC output, we are using buck and boost converters. The output of the MPPT technique is duty
cycle which will be given as input to the converter, with that input value the converter will gives
the required value of output. The DC output power is again given to bidirectional inverter and it
converts given DC to AC output.
Fig 6.1. Block diagram
The pattern of the power flow in the circuit is shown in fig.6.1. The conventional circuit in
this paper have only the boost converter implementation, stepdown of voltages is not possible, due
to this there are many disadvantages like stepdown of voltage is not possible, voltage stress on
4
inverter and maximum power could not be tracked accurately. In order to overcome these
disadvantages of this conventional circuit, we are proposing two stage buck/boost converters
along with the P&O MPPT algorithm is implemented.
In conventional circuit, there is two stage boost converters which are connected in
parallel which only operates in boost mode, gives output to dc link. This output is given to
bidirectional inverter for converting it into AC and this AC supply will given to AC grid.
Fig 6.2. Conventional two stage PV system with boost type MPPTS
6.2 Proposed Circuit

The proposed circuit is shown below,
Fig 6.3.Proposed two stage buck/boost converter
4
Fig 6.4.maximum power tracking using PO method
In this circuit (Fig. 6.3), both buck and boost converters are used for getting the desired
value of output. When PV voltage is greater than DC link voltage, buck converter is used. When
PV voltage is less than DC link voltage, boost converter is used. Perturbation and observation
algorithm is chosen over the other because of the following advantages like simplicity and ease
of implementation.
6.3 Operation
The MPPT formed with both buck and boost converters will have the input voltage of
600V for each panel and the two panels are connected in parallel, the MPPT senses the PV
voltage and current which will give duty cycle as output and this output is given as input to the
converter. The converter also inputs the gating signals which are produced from PWM
techniques, the operation mode of converter will be based on input voltage. The proposed circuit
will operates in two modes. They are:
A. Buck mode
B. Boost mode
A.BUCK MODE:
When PV voltage is greater than DC link voltage, then buck converter will be used to step
down the voltage. During this mode switch M1 is turned on and inductor Ls will stores current,
and when switch M1 is turned off the stored energy in inductor will bypasses through diodes D1
and D2.
B.BOOST MODE:
When PV voltage is less than the DC link voltage, then boost converter will be used to step
up the voltage. During this mode, both switches M1 and M2 will be on to store the magnetizing
current in Ls. When M2 is turned OFF the magnetizing current will discharge through D2.
4
6.4 Results
A. Simulation of Proposed Buck/Boost Converter In Buck Mode
Fig 6.5.simulation diagram of a proposed buck MPPT
Fig 6.6. Output DC voltage of a proposed buck MPPT
4
Fig 6.7.output AC voltage of a proposed buck MPPT
Fig 6.8.output AC power of proposed buck MPPT
4
B .Simulation Of Proposed Buck/Boost Mppts In Boost Mode
Fig 6.9.simulation of a proposed boost converter
Fig 6.10.output DC voltage waveform of a proposed boost MPPT
4
Fig 6.11.AC output voltage of proposed boost converter
Fig 6.12. AC output power of proposed boost converter
4
7. CONCLUSION
A single phase bidirectional inverter with two buck/boost MPPTs is implemented. Since
the PV array voltage will vary from 0-600V, the MPPT formed with both buck and boost
converter operates at the desired DC bus voltage reducing the voltage stress on the following
inverter. The presented topology has features like Zero voltage switching, Ringing elimination,
synchronous rectification, active clamping in both the mode of operation. The proposed topology
has also applied the soft starting in order to limit starting inrush current. The proposed converter
has also come up with the output filter which is suitable for both the modes of Bi-Directional
converter. If the filter behaves as the low pass output voltage filter in the boost mode then the
same filter can perform the role of input current filter in the buck mode. Behavioral model of the
presented converter is developed in the Saber simulation software.
The optimization in the hardware designing can be done to reduce the size of the
converter. In order to have optimization, magnetic core designing of inductor can be made such
that two inductors can share single core or two inductors and transformer all three share a single
core. Another future scope of this project is paralleling of the converter for high power rating
demand. Interleaving scheme enhances the advantages like reduced input and output ripple and
increased over all efficiency of the converter.
4
REFERENCES
[1]J.M.Carrasco, L.G.Franquelo, J.T.Bialasiewicz, E.Galwan, R.C.P.Guisado, Ma.A.M.Prats,

J.I.Leon and N.Moreno Alfonso. "Power electronic systems for the grid integration of the
renewable energy sources: a survey,” IEEE TRANS .IND.ELECTRON, vol.53, no.4, pp 1002-
1016, Aug.2006.
[2]L.N.Khanh, J.J.Seo, T.S.Kimand, D.J.Won,”power management strategies for a grid
connected PV-FC hybrid systems,” IEEE Trans .PowerDeliv, Vol.25, no.3, pp.1874-1882,
Jul.2010. [3]Y.K. Tan and S.K. Panda, "Optimized wind energy harvesting system using
resistance emulator and Active rectifier for wireless sensor nodes,”IEEE Trans.PowerElectron,
vol.26, no.1.pp.38- 50, Jan.2011.
[4]J. M. Kwon, K. H. Nam and B. H. Kwon,”photovoltaic power conditioning system with
line connection,” IEEE Trans.Ind.Electron, vol.53, no.4, pp.1048-1054, Aug.2006.
[5]J.Selvaraj and N.A.Rahim,”Multilevel inverter for grid connected PV system employing digital
PI controller, IEEE Trans.Ind.Electron, vol.56, no.1, pp.149-158, Jan.2009.
[6] “Analysis and Design of Active Clamped ZVS Current-Fed DC-DC Converter for Fuel-Cell
to Utility-Interface Application, A.Rathore, A.K.S Bhat, R.Oruganti, International Conference on
Industrial and Information Systems, ICIIS 2007.
[7] “A New ZVS Bi-directional DC-DC converter for Fuel Cell and Battery Application”, Fang.
Z. Peng, Hui Li, Gui-Jia Su, Jack S. Lawler, IEEE TRANSAACTIONS ON POWER
ELECTRONICS, VOL. 19 NO.1 January 2004.
[8] “A Comparison of Soft-Switched DC-DC Converters for Fuel Cell to Utility Interface
Application”, A.Rathore, A.K.S Bhat, R. Oruganti.
[9] “A Soft-switching Active-Clamp Scheme for Isolated Full-Bridge Boost Converter”, En-
Sung Park, Sung Jin Choi, J. Moon Lee and B.H. Cho, IEEE, 2004.
[10] “High Efficiency Full Bridge Current-Fed DC-DC Converter for a Fuel Cell Power System”,
[11] V. Yakushev, V. Meleshin, and S. Fraidlin, “Full bridge isolated current-fed converter with
active clamp,” IEEE APEC99, Vol. 1, pp. 560-566, March 1999.

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A PROJECT REPORT ON

INTEGRATION OF A SINGLE PHASE BIDIRECTIONAL

CH.VISHNU PRIYA (163K1AO202)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

AUDISHANKARA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

This is to certify that a project report entitled as “INTEGRATION OF A SINGLE

Project guide Head of the Department

Submitted for the viva-voce examination held on ----------------

We would like to extend ardent thanks to Mr.CH.RAJESH KUMAR, M.E.

Figure 3.15 Schematic representation of the two operating states of a 20

Fig 1.1. Grid connected PV system configurations (a)

In an intelligent PV module instead of interconnection between modules they are

Fig 1.2. Block diagram of two-stage grid-connected PV system

3. COMPARATIVE STUDY ON DC-DC CONVERTERS

3.2 Applications of DC-DC Converters

3.3 Switching Consideration of DC-DC Converters:

3.4 Types of DC-DC Converter

3.5 Study of DC-DC Converters

3.5.1 The Buck Converter:

Fig 3.1: BUCK Converter

Fig 3.2: On and off state of Buck

Identically, the decrease in current during the Off-state is given by:

∆ILoff = ∫ dt = − toff t{off} = T

(b) Discontinuous Conduction Mode

So the value of δ is:

Substituting the value of ILmax in the previous equation leads to:

And substituting δ by the expression given above yields: Vi − Vo D)

This expression can be rewritten as:

3.5.2 The BOOST converter

Fig. 3.5: Boost converter schematic

(a) Switch On (b) Switch Off

At the end of the On-state, the increase of IL is therefore:

Therefore, the variation of IL during the Off-period is:

ViDT (Vi − Vo)(1 − D)T

This can be written as:

which in turns reveals the duty cycle to be: i

During the off-period, IL falls to zero after δT:

Using the two previous equations, δ is: ViD

Replacing ILmax and δ by their respective expressions yields:

Therefore, the output voltage gain can be written as follows:

3.5.3 BUCK-BOOST converter

Fig 3.9: Schematic of a buck–boost converter

Fig 3.10: The two operating states of a buck–boost converter:

At the end of the On-state, the increase of IL is therefore:

Therefore, the variation of IL during the Off-period is:

(1−D)T (1−D)T Vodt = Vo(1 − D)T

Substituting ∆ILon and ∆ILoff by their expressions yields:

ViDT Vo(1 − D)T

This can be written as:

This in return yields that:

During the off-period, IL falls to zero after δT:

Using the two previous equations, δ is:

Replacing ILmax and δ by their respective expressions yields:

Therefore, the output voltage gain can be written as:

modes) is given by:

3.5.4 The CUK Converter

Fig 3.14: Schematic of a non-isolated Ćuk converter

Figure 3.16: The two operating states of a non-isolated Ćuk converter.

connected to the output capacitor. Therefore VL2 = Vo

So the average voltage across L1 becomes:

which can be written as: L1 i

4.1.2 Different sources of Renewable Energy