• With FM, there is a non-uniform noise distribution.

• The higher frequencies suffers more noise than the lower

frequencies.
• Thus for a information signal with uniform signal level, the
Signal to noise ratio is also non-uniform.
• The SNR for higher-modulating frequencies are lower than
the SNR for the lower frequencies.
fc
Uniform signal
level
S/N
minimum
S/N
Without
maximum preemphasis
Nonuniform
noise level
• Solution: the high-frequency modulating signals are
emphasized or boosted in amplitude of the transmitter prior
to performing modulation and then deemphasized or
attenuated during demodulation at receiver.

nonuniform signal
level

Uniform S/ With
N
preemphasis
Nonuniform
noise level
 3

fc
Uniform signal
level
S/N
minimum
S/N
Without
maximum preemphasis
Nonuniform
noise level

nonuniform signal
level

Uniform S/ With
N
preemphasis
Nonuniform
noise level
• Preemphasis – The higher frequencies are increased in
amplitude before being used to modulate the carrier and
therefore will be less affected to noise.

• Preemphasis Network –> High-Pass Filter (Differentiator)

• Deemphasis – returns the frequency response to its normal

flat level.

• Deemphasis Network -> Low-Pass Filter (Integrator)

•Preemphasis and Deemphasis circuit diagrams are shown
below:

L = 750 mH

R = 10 kW R = 75 kW C = 1 nF

OUTPUT

INPUT

•PREEMPHASIS CCT DEEMPHASIS CCT

•  = L/R = 75 us  = RC = 75 us
• Break frequency is the frequency when preemphasis &
deemphasis begins. It is defined as below:

fb = 1 / 2RC or
fb =1 / 2L/R

where RC or L/R is a time constant ()

• Preemphasis circuit network in front of FM Modulator and

Deemphasis network at the output of FM Demodulator will
improve the signal-to-noise ratio for higher modulating-
signal frequencies
2 techniques – direct and indirect methods

Require a system that enable the frequency of the output signal to

vary in accordance to an information signal amplitude.

3.9.1 Direct method

1. Varactor diode
2. Reactance modulation
3. VCO
 Direct
Modulating
Frequency
signal FM wave
modulator
source

Vc cos  2 f c t 

Indirect

FM wave

Vc cos  2 f c t 
8
 Direct

Modulating
Phase
signal PM wave
modulator
source

Vc cos  2 f c t 

PM wave

Vc cos  2 f c t 
Indirect

9
1. Varactor diode
2. VCO
3. Reactance modulation

Direct

FM wave

Vc cos  2 f c t 
• The carrier is generated by LC or crystal oscillator circuits.
• In LC oscillators, the carrier frequency can be changed
by varying either the inductance or capacitance.
• The idea is to find a circuit or component that converts
a modulating voltage to a corresponding change in
capacitance or inductance.
• In crystal oscillators, the frequency is fixed by the
crystal.
• This modulatior is impractical
A varactor is a variable capacitance diode
used to change oscillator frequencies.

Figure 6-4: A direct-frequency-modulated carrier oscillator using a varactor diode.

• For voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) Fm generator, the center
frequency for the oscillator is:
1
fc  Hz
2 LC
Where L = inductance of the primary winding (henries)
C = varactor diode capacitance (farads)
• When a modulating signal applied, the frequency is
1
fc  Hz
2 L(C  C )
Where f = the new frequency of oscillation
∆C = change in varactor diode capacitance
due to modulating signal.
• The change in frequency is f | f c  f |
Varactor Modulator
▫ Most LC oscillators are not stable enough to provide
a carrier signal.
▫ The frequency of LC oscillators will vary with
temperature changes, variations in circuit voltage,
and other factors.
▫ As a result, crystal oscillators are normally used to
set carrier frequency.
Frequency-Modulating a Crystal Oscillator
▫ Crystal oscillators provide highly accurate carrier
frequencies and their stability is superior to LC
oscillators.
▫ The frequency of a crystal oscillator can be varied by
changing the value of capacitance in series or
parallel with the crystal.
▫ By making the series capacitance a varactor diode,
frequency modulation can be achieved.
Figure 6-5: Frequency modulation of a crystal oscillator with a VVC.
• A reactance modulator is a circuit that uses a transistor
amplifier that acts like either a variable capacitor or an
inductor.
• When the circuit is connected across the tuned circuit of an
oscillator, the oscillator frequency can be varied by applying
the modulating signal to the amplifier.
• Reactance modulators can produce frequency deviation
over a wide range.
• Reactance modulators are highly linear, so distortion is
minimal.
• Disadvantages
▫ Relatively unstable LC oscillators must be used to
produce the carrier frequency which prohibits using
crystal oscillators
▫ Requires the addition of some form of automatic
frequency control circuitry to maintain the carrier
frequency

• Advantages
▫ Relatively high-frequency deviations and modulation
indices are easily obtained because the oscillator are
inherently unstable
Indirect Method
• Angle modulation especially FM has many advantages
compared to AM.
• One of the major advantage is that it is more immune
to noise compared to AM. The use of pre-emphasis
and de-emphasis is another way of improving FM
immunity against noise.
• However, FM has a major drawback in terms of
bandwidth. Since FM produces infinite numbers of
sidebands, the bandwidth can be very large.
• Bessel function is used in investigating the sidebands
and bandwidth of FM signal.
• Modulation/demodulation of FM can be done directly or
indirectly.
• FM stereo is an example of FM modulation used today.