HATING TO WAIT: MANAGING THE

FINAL SERVICE ENCOUNTER

Paula J. Haynes

Businesses have done much to reduce how
long customers must actually wait for service.
Less attention has been paid to the customers'
experience of waiting. Companies spend large
amounts to create performance images, then
may fail to reinforce th performance expecta-
tion at the point of transaction. Whether cus-
tomers are in the checkout line at the grocery,
holding on the telephone for airline reserva-
tions, or standing in a ticket line at a theater,
they are waiting for the final service encounter.
This article suggests that customers' percep-
tions and expectations influence their experi-
ence of waiting in that critical final service
contact. Seven "principles of waiting" are
offered to suggest how firms can improve ser-
vice performance by managing their cus-
tomers' waiting experiences.
Waiting: the bane of modern society. Who
among us has not experienced the singular
aggravation that is waiting? When customers
make purchases, waiting is part of the price
they pay. What trade-off will customers make
between the amount of time versus money
given up? What do customers expect in terms
of waiting? Only by understanding the experi-
ence of waiting from a consumer viewpoint can
businesses improve their chances of meeting or
exceeding those expectations.
Time is a critical component of the con-
sumer decision-making process. The experi-
ence of waiting for service at the point of sale
can significantly affect customer perceptions of
the quality of service being provided. While a
great deal has been written on queuing theory,

Paula J. Haynes is the UC Foundation Assistant Professor of Marketing at the University of Tennessee, Chattanooga.
She received her D.B.A from Mississippi State University.
She has published articles in the Journal of Personal Financial Management, Industrial Management, Journal of
Business Strategies, Management Research News, Current Issues in Research in Advertising. Journal of Education for
Business, Organizational Behavioral and Teaching Review, among others.
Her current research inserts include the use of service as a competitive tool, managerial response to technological
advances, competitive strategies in the financial services industry, and experiential learning methods.

20 Vol 4. No. 4 Fall 1990

 HATING TO WAIT: MANAGING THE FINAL SERVICE ENCOUNTER
most of this work addresses the efficiency of
waiting from the provider's standpoint. Little
has been written about the expectation and
experience of waiting. 111315 The same minute
in different situations can feel like ten minutes
or a second. Managing the length of the actual
service wait is not enough. The business that
has the better understanding of the expectation
and experience of waiting, is the one more
likely to attain customer satisfaction.
Actual time is a finite quantity;
perceived time can be either
stretched or compressed.
What Affects the Point-of-Sale
Waiting Experience?
Waiting expectations are influenced by how
customers value time spent in waiting in com-
parison with the reason for the wait. Two fac-
tors dominate the waiting experience. First, the
value of time spent in waiting is influenced by
a customer's time/money trade-off. A second
factor is customers' perceptions of their control
over and amount of choice in the wait.
"Spending" Time and Waiting
Actual time is a finite quantity; perceived
time, in contrast, can be either stretched
i n t o l e r a b l y or c o m p r e s s e d s u m m a r i l y .
Perceptions of time are culturally bound. For
example, Anglo (European/American) cul-
tures perceive time as a commodity which
can be saved, spent or wasted. 8 In this frame-
work, time is planned so it can be "spent" to
maximum advantage. The perceived value of
time is key in evaluating customers' waiting
experiences. 78
Time, then, like money, is a scarce resource
to be allocated among competing uses.1,2 When
two customers who value their time differently
experience the same service wait, they are pay-
ing different prices. Customers who feel they
have more time than money to spend will
more willingly trade time for lower dollar
costs.4 When such customers make a conscious
decision to trade time for monetary savings,
they also feel more in control of the purchase
situation; the experience of waiting may
become more tolerable.
Customers who feel that their time is a scarcer
commodity than their money may well choose
higher dollar prices if the gain is increased service
and time savings. These customers may be con-
sciously "buying time" in some purchase situa-
tions. Therefore a reasonable wait will be well
tolerated, but unexpected and even slight delays
beyond the anticipated wait may seem outrageous
since these customers have "paid" to save time.
In addition to the customer who places a
premium value on time savings, customers
who dislike shopping or who begrudge having
to shop will also emphasize time savings in
their purchase decisions. For the begrudging
shoppers, the value of time spent in waiting for
service is not related to the dollar value of
their time; rather, the value placed on shop-
ping is so low that spending any of their time
can seem intolerable.
Because the time/money trade-off affects
purchase decisions, it has become a source of
competitive differentiation. Convenience
stores, "one-hour" optical centers and film-
processing locations, and automatic teller
machines target specifically on the basis of
speed of service. In response to this chal-
lenge, supermarkets have invested heavily in
time-saving approaches: limited-item check-
outs, UPC codes and scanner checking tech-
nology. Growth in catalog sales, particularly
of specialty items, can also be linked to cus-
tomers' value of time saving. Service sector
growth in part reflects the fact that consumers
can actually "buy time." A number of busi-
nesses have emerged that provide shopping
services, run errands, and will even wait in
lines for their clients. 9
Choice and Waiting
Expectations of waiting for service are also
related to the amount of choice the individual
perceives he or she has in the situation. Lack
of control creates stress which may intensify if
21
 THE JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING
continued. 16 Consumers' choices in purchase
decisions may be perceived as ranging from no
option to highly discretionary choices. The
perceived control affects the way the waiting
time is experienced.
When customers feel the purchase decision
is forced on them, as in buying necessities and
making routine purchases, the lack of control
over the situation can make waiting time
unbearable. Moreover, the time spent waiting
in low-choice purchase situations will seem
even longer than it actually is since it is
"begrudged." A customer who is placed on
hold by the electric utility company may find
the wait for service far more frustrating than
waiting for service on a catalog order.
Time spent waiting for service for more dis-
cretionary purchases is less begrudged and per-
ceived as shorter. 5 In such discretionary
choices, the customer perceives greater control,
and so the potential for stress in waiting is less-
ened, and the experience of waiting will be
more bearable. 3 In addition, the time spent
waiting in higher-choice situations is less likely
to be exaggerated in the customer's mind.
Managing the Experience of
Waiting for Service
Managing the experience of waiting for ser-
vice is key to an organization's success. Since
customer satisfaction is a function of expecta-
tions, influencing customers' expectations
regarding waiting is a key activity. Tom Peters
tells a story of waiting in a passenger plane for
take-off. Accustomed to the "promise them ten
minutes no matter what" technique, passen-
gers groaned at the pilot's announcement:
"We're fifteenth in line, and we'll be off in
forty-five minutes." Then when they took off
thirty minutes later, the wait seemed not only
reasonable but relatively short.14
Unoccupied preprocess time will seem
longer to a customer than in-process time: such
wails are likely to lead to less happy cus-
tomers.13 Exaggerated expectations of waits can
also be due to perceptions the consumer has
about the wait. When customers expect a
22
longer wait for service, they may be pleased
when the wait is not as long as expected.
However, when overlong expectations of point-
of-sale waits are due to negative factors such as
perceived lack of control, even a shorter wait
may not produce a happy customer.
Seven "Principles of Waiting"
Since point-of-sale waiting (or time-of-sale
waiting for telephone customers) is the final
service encounter, it is the point that can make
or break a relationship with the customer. To
satisfy customers, perceptions of waiting for
service as well as the actual length of waits
must be managed. "Managing atmospherics" is
the term used by marketing consultant Milind
Lele. Lele contends that firms spend large
amounts on advertising to create distinct per-
formance expectations, then fail to reinforce
that performance image at the point of sale.12 In
terms of point-of-sale service, several principles
of waiting are relevant.
Time is a scarce resource to be allo-
cated among competing uses.
1. Empty Minutes Are Long Minutes
Refocusing customers' attention away from
the wait itself shortens the perceived wait, but
that distraction should be related to the pur-
chase experience. Finding themselves abruptly
being placed on hold, customers may begin to
experience rage as they are forced to listen to
"elevator" music or a local radio station. When
telephone customers must be placed on hold,
the waiting time should be viewed by the orga-
nization as an opportunity to provide rather
than delay service to the customer. Any record-
ed material should be related in some manner
to the purchase decision.
In a checkout area of a store, a form of the
wall magazine might be used, one that fits that
particular firm. With subject matter relevant to
the retailer, this type of publication also pro-
vides advertising space. One variation of the
wall magazine contains a sensor which triggers
a recorded message.
 HATING TO WAIT: MANAGING THE FINAL SERVICE ENCOUNTER
Video displays can perform a dual function
at the point of purchase. Turner Broadcasting
and ActMedia have entered a joint venture
called the "Checkout Channel," which will fea-
ture programming — plus advertising — to gro-
eery shoppers. Also judicious use of mirrors in
the checkout area can provide a distraction as
people check on their appearance.
2. In-Process Minutes Are Shorter
"In-process minutes" here refers to the time
during which the customer perceives progress.
Providing this time may be as simple as setting
up a system whereby lines show frequent, if
small, movement. Snake queues instead of
straight lines offer one solution to this waiting
experience. Instead of the same recorded mes-
sage being delivered over and over to holding
telephone customers, different messages indi-
cating some progress are more desirable.
Lack of control can make waiting
time unbearable.
In a more complex solution, the point-of-sale
service may be broken into several stages;
though the actual time may be the same, the
customer will feel the wait is shorter. We must
also remember the anxiety a customer feels
after irrevocably choosing one particular line.
This anxiety, which makes a wait seem much
longer, is reflected in the "Erma Bombeck Law
of Lines": the other line always moves faster.
3. Unknown Waits Are Longer
For most purchase situations, the customer
is able to find both the point-of-sale area and
service personnel easily. If not, the resulting
uncertainty can make even a brief wait seem
lengthy. For telephone customers in particular,
waits are likely to be difficult to tolerate since
there is little way to judge the probable length
of the wait for service.
Customers believe that service personnel are
there to help them complete their transactions.
Certainly employees may have many functions
beyond transacting sales. However, when a
customer can see these employees engaged in
other activities while they are waiting to be
served, the length of the wait seems unjusti-
fied—more b e g r u d g e d . M i n u t e s begin to
stretch out and satisfaction begins to turn into
aggravation. If point-of-sale service personnel
are readily identifiable, then they should be
out of sight of waiting customers when they
are engaged in other activities.
4. Waits for Valued Outcomes Seem
Shorter
Highly valued outcomes are not merely a
matter of purchase price. A prescription may
be of great importance, and consequent value,
to a customer. A more complicated transaction
may also have greater value to the customer
than a simpler one.
Segmenting the customer base into different
l i n e s based on the t y p e of o u t c o m e also
increases customer perception of control: "I
have this type of transaction, so I choose the
line (or the telephone extension number) that
specializes in this activity." Waiting for service
time is then less begrudged and will seem
shorter.
5. Fair Waits Seem Shorter
When the physical point-of-sale area doesn't
automatically create a queue, customers may
become agitated. The feeling that someone is
"cutting in front" brings out intense competi-
tiveness and "great ire in even normally even-
t e m p e r e d c u s t o m e r s . When all c u s t o m e r
transactions tend to require about the same
amount of time, a first-in, first-out system such
as taking a number can offer a perception of a
fair and basically known wait. When transac-
tions require distinctly different amounts of
time, however, this system will not be per-
ceived as fair. When the choice of the line can
toe placed with the customer, such as certain
lines for a limited number of purchased items,
of lines for cash or debit card only, waits will
be seen as more equitable.
In special service situations, as department
stores offering executive shopping services,
such checkout service areas should not be in
view of other customers. A bank instituted a
23
 THE JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING
special line for customers with large accounts,
since these customers tended to have more
complicated transaction needs. The special
line was a dismal failure. Customers refused to
use it for two reasons. They were embarrassed
to be seen in the "elite" line by other cus-
tomers, and they were concerned about being
identified as large account holders by virtue of
being in that line.
6. Overpromise Stretches Reasonable
Waits
Customers expect some wait for service to be
completed. A wait that falls within, or under,
their expectations will seem acceptable. When
a firm positions itself on the speed with which
it delivers its services — such as convenience
stores, drive-through and delivery fast food
operations, or one-hour film processing busi-
nesses — expectations are raised. Waiting
times in these purchase situations may seem
longer because of the promised "convenience."
Similarly when a supermarket or discount
operation begins to prominently feature such
promises as, "When three customers are in
line, we'll open new checkouts," explicit
promises are being made to customers. When
stores don't live up to these promises, even
though the actual wait may be what the cus-
tomer w o u l d have a n t i c i p a t e d , the wait
becomes intolerable. Overpromising sets a
company up for customer dissatisfaction.14,12
Recently a shopper in a New Jersey super-
market featuring such claims made a request
that another line be opened; the store refused.
When, in disgust, the shopper ripped down the
pledge sign, store management called in the
police to remove her. The incident continued
to demonstrate a failure to follow the premise
behind the promise when the chain's vice-
president of public affairs suggested the shop-
per should go somewhere else next time.
Undoubtedly, that will be the case.
7. Observable Time-Saving Actions
Make Waits seem Shorter
Technology has created a number of options
for firms wishing to speed up actual transac-
24
tion time. When these activities can be seen by
the customer, they reinforce customer percep-
tions that the actual wait for service is shorter.
Declining costs of equipment and standardiza-
tion of packages are creating broader retail
acceptance of debit cards. Some supermarkets,
such as Lucky's and Alpha Beta, and fast food
chains, such as Wendy's and McDonald's, have
in certain markets moved into the debit card
point-of-sale system.19
Between 1982 and 1987, grocer purchases of
UPC scanner systems went up nearly 90 per-
cent for i n d e p e n d e n t s and 75 percent for
chains. 8 A new security system coupled with
scanner technology is allowing customers to
complete the scanning portion of checkout on
their own before going to a central cashier. Not
only does this procedure give the customer a
greater perception of control in the point-of-
sale service activity, but labor costs to the
business are also reduced. 610
"In-process minutes" refers to the
time during which the customer
perceives progress." Unknown
waits are longer.
With scanner technology, sales transactions
by store can be tracked over much shorter time
periods. By the end of 1990, K-Mart will be
bar-code s c a n n i n g at all 2,000 p l u s U.S.
stores. 6 , 10 Where customers purchase a rela-
tively small number of items, the time savings
from scanning is reduced. For these firms elec-
tronic point-of-sale systems offer the capture of
more information in addition to time savings.
The major time reduction will be for customers
making credit card purchases.
For chain operations another benefit of the
PC and POS systems is the ability to transmit
data e l e c t r o n i c a l l y to a central location.
Scanning information can also be useful in con-
junction with in-store personal computers. PCs
can also be linked to cash registers. With PC
costs under $2,000 for typical retail needs, even
smaller operations can find these computers to
be time saving and cost effective.
 HATING TO WAIT: MANAGING THE FINAL SERVICE ENCOUNTER
Managerial Implications and
Recommendations
In a 1989 survey the number one service
complaint from customers was "waiting in
long lines while other windows or registers are
closed." 17 All the efforts businesses bring to
bear in the competition for customers may be
lost at the point of sale. To counteract cus-
tomer frustration with waiting for service, sev-
eral steps can be taken. To be effective, such
actions should fit within the strategic plans of
the business.
Distract Attention from the Wait.
Wall magazines, video displays in checkout
areas, mirrors, or samples of food items can be
used for in-firm purchase transactions. For
telephone customers, relevant recorded materi-
al, particularly material providing an added
service component, is appropriate.
Create a Quick In-Process Perception
Snake queues have been used effectively by
a m u s e m e n t parks to deal with this issue.
Sending someone out to the line to begin the
service process is another technique. Actions
that the customer can take, such as making
preliminary touch tone selections to reach the
appropriate personnel on the telephone or self
service scanners, also create the perception of
being in-process more quickly.
Reduce uncertainty
A customer waiting for point-of-sale service
has made the decision to buy—yet the business
has not effectively closed the sale until a satis-
fied customer leaves or hangs up the tele-
phone. Point-of-sale facilities should be easily
identifiable. Identifiable sales p e r s o n n e l
engaged in other activities should be out of the
sight of waiting consumers. For transactions
requiring comparable times, use of "take a
number" technique is effective. These actions
reduce customer uncertainty.
Let the Customer Choose
Different lines or telephone numbers should
be available for customers with different types
of transactions—cash or debit card only, limit-
ed items, layaway, balance inquiry, and so on.
The more control customers perceive they
have in selecting a line, the less they begrudge
waiting for service.
Fit the Point of Sale to the Customer's
Service Needs.
Segment customers into different lines
based on actual differences in c u s t o m e r
needs. Businesses offering special services to
some customers, such as personal shoppers
or private bankers, should have these trans-
action areas separate and out of view of
other customers.
Don't overpromise.
Do not prominently display promises of
m i n i m u m waits or m a x i m u m line lengths
unless those promises will be kept on a consis-
tent basis. Customers may not become per-
turbed at being fourth in line unless you have
vowed to open new lines when this happens.
Waiting ten minutes in some purchase situa-
tions may not seem intolerable, but it will be if
you have constantly promised "every wait
under five minutes." Management must moni-
tor the implementation of such promises at the
point of sale. Unrealistic promises may not
only produce angry, dissatisfied consumers;
service-out personnel may also become frus-
trated, since they are the visible scapegoats of
unattainable business promises.
Make Time Saving Visible
For situations in which customers typically
purchase a number of items, scanner technol-
ogy offers a strategic fit by delivering speed
and accuracy. When speed is a customer con-
cern but the number of items purchased is
too small to justify scanners, point-of-sale
PCs provide a strategic solution for most
businesses.
Conclusion
The final service encounter has the potential
to influence not only the customer's satisfac-
tion with that purchase experience but also the
25
 THE JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING

customer's total impression of the business
itself. It is not enough to manage the actual
length of the wait for service. Customers' expe-
riences of waiting to complete transactions
must also be effectively managed. Moreover,
the techniques used to manage the experience
of waiting for service should fit the strategic
focus the business has selected. On this small
but crucial service encounter may hang the
competitive survival of a business operation.

End Notes
1. Becker, Gary S., "A Theory of the Allocation of Time," The Economic Journal, 75 (September
1965), 493-517.
2. Bender, Wesley C., "Consumer Purchase-Costs: Do Retailers Recognize Them?" Journal of
Retailing, 40 (Spring 1964), 1-8, 52.
3. Berry, Leonard, "The Time-Buying Consumer," Journal of Retailing, 55 (Winter 1979), 58-69.
4. Brown, F. E., and George Fisk, "Department Stores and Discount Houses: Who Dies Next?
Journal of Retailing 41 (Fall 1965), 15-27.
5. Cooper, Peter, "The Begrudging Index and the Subjective Value of Money," Scientific
Business, 2 (November 1964), 122-151.
6. "Do-It-Yourself Promos Via Video POS," Chain Store Age Executive, 64 (April 1988), 76-78.
7. Gardner, Meryl Paula, "Mood States and Consumer Behavior: A Critical Review," Journal of
Consumer Research, 12 (December 1985), 218-300.
8. Graham, Robert }., "The Role of Perception of Time in Consumer Research," Journal of
Consumer Research, 7 (March 1981), 335-342.
9. Guirl, Gabrielle, "Pressed for Time? New Companies Mind Your Peas and Queues," Adweek,
27 (May 19, 1986), 1,6.
10. "Here Comes the Explosion," Chain Store Executive, 64 (June 1988), 64.
11. Hornik, Jacob, "Subjective vs. Objective Time Measures: A Note on the Perception of Time in
Consumer Behavior," Journal of Consumer Research, 11 (June 1984), 615-618.
12. Lele, Milind M., with Jagdish Sheth, The Customer if Key, New York: John Wiley & Sons,
1987.
13. Maister, David, "The Psychology of Waiting Lines," in The Service Encounter, ed. Czepiel,
Solomon, and Surprenant. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1985, pp. 113-123.
14. Peters, Tom, "Provide Superior Service/Emphasize The Intangibles," in Thriving on Chaos.
New York: Knopf, 1987, pp. 88-105.
15. Sasser, W. E., J. Olsen and D. D. Wyckoff, Management of Service Operations. New York:
Allyn and Bacon, 1979, pp. 88-89.
16. "The Tyranny of Life Without Options," Technology Review, (February 1977), p. 21.
17. Wessel, David, "Sure Ways to Annoy Consumers," Wall Street Journal, (November 11, 1989),
pp. B1, B6.
18. "What Grocers Are Buying," Progressive Grocer,(1988), 67 (May 1988), 107-114.
19. Woodworth, Jean, "1988: The Year of The Debit Card?" The Bankers Magazine. 171 (July-
August 1988). 34-38.

26