210 OPTICAL COMPONENTS

Probe
Pump signal
Wavelength
generated
Power
(dBm)

Figure 2.89 When two high power wavelengths are in close proximity and in dispersion-shifted
doped fiber, a third wavelength is produced .

Figure 2.90 At the output of the dispersion-shifted fiber a filter eliminates the probe and pump
wavelengths.

in clo se wavelength proximity interact (in the range of 1,550 nrn), as in four-w ave
mixing .
Thu s, by launchin g into a lO-km disper sion- shifted fiber a modul ated wavelength,
AI , called the probe signal, and a continuous power wavelength, A2, called the pump ,
a third modul ated wavelength, A3, is gen erated (Fig. 2.89) .
The newly created wavelength, A3, is shifted by an amount equal to the difference
between the original wavelength of the signal, AI , and the pump, A2 . At the output
of the dispersion- shifted fiber, band pass filters eliminate the probe and the pump
wavelengths and allow only the frequ ency-shifted A3 to pass through (Fig. 2.90) .

2.19 OPTICAL PHASE-LOCKED LOOPS

An optical phas e-locked loop (aPLL) is a device that is based on a tunable laser
source, a filter , and a photodiode bridge . Its principle of operation is similar to that of

Photodiode
Bridge
Laser #1
Fibers
Laser #2
R

Amp 1-- - ---'

Figure 2.91 An optical phase-locked loop (OPLL) is a dev ice based on a tunable laser source (#2), a
photod iode bridge, an electronic amplifier and a filter.
220 OPTICAL COMPONENTS

and coherent photoluminescence in a wide spectral range that covers the C-bands and
L-bands and beyond.
Among them, gallium nitride is a stable semiconductor material that can be used for
light-emitting diodes (LED) that emit an intense blue light when electricity is passed
through it. These LEDs are expected to find many applications in home, entertainment
(DVDs), displays, and communications.
In addition to solid-state materials, researchers are experimenting with organic com-
pounds that absorb one wavelength and emit another (useful in wavelength conversion
and memory applications), or they absorb a wavelength and emit it back when it is
stimulated (useful in memory applications).
Organic compounds, although not challenge-free (thermal, mechanical, birefrin-
gence, etc.) promise easily manufacturable and very inexpensive components (can be
molded for mass-production). Some organic compounds can be deposited to virtually
any type of material, such as glass, plastic, and treated paper. As an example, consider
organic compounds that can be made into an optical organic thin film (OTF). Then,
when a voltage excites their molecular state, based on fluorescence they emit light of a
specific wavelength, a phenomenon known as exciton. However, the duration of light
emission of such compounds is on the order of many microseconds. Such compound is
perylene that emits blue light, coumarin-6 that emits green and other compounds that
emit different wavelengths. These compounds have high luminescent efficiency and
emit at a wide angle. Organic thin films may find several optoelectronic applications,
such as flat thin displays with transparent electrical contacts made of titanium oxides
by deposition.
Other organic compounds, such as pentacene, have electrical properties that are suit-
able for field-effect transistors. Pentacene is a simple molecule made of five connected
benzene rings that forms good crystals. They may find several applications in portable
devices, communications, electronic identification, and others.
In a different endeavor, organic materials are used to extract compounds that can
be used in the optical and semiconductor fields. For example, corn is used to extract
compounds that can be turned into plastic films. Rice hull and coconut are rich in
silicon dioxide, or silica, which can be used for semiconductors. Silica from the world
of plants may also possess other convenient properties.

2.23.2 Hollow Fibers

Photonic crystal fibers (PCF) comprise a new type of fiber that promises improved
optical propagation for longer fiber lengths. As described in Chapter 1, PCFs consist of
a bundle of microscopic silica tubes, about 1 micrometer in diameter (Fig. 1.66). Such
fibers exhibit spectral selectivity, no dispersion, very low loss, and uniform propagation
characteristics for all supported wavelengths. Because of these properties, PCFs are
expected to find applications not only in fiber transmission but also in components
with specialized functionality, including amplifiers and sensors.

2.23.3 Lasers and Receivers

Low-cost lasers are important in all applications. Some researchers are even experi-
menting with organic compounds to create inexpensive high-density plastic lasers and
other components.
 NEW MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS 221

High-power tunable inexpensive lasers and dense laser arrays and matrices with
narrow linewidth and sufficient optical power for DWDM applications are other note-
worthy activities.
A similar activity aims to produce tunable receivers and receiver arrays and matrices
at low cost. In this venue, some researchers have succeeded in generating hundreds of
wavelength channels with a single laser. In a similar venue, announcements have been
made demonstrating dense sources and receivers all integrated on the same substrate,
combining mixed technologies for lasers, receivers, and standard CMOS, thus enabling
parallel transmission and reception of many fiber links, with an aggregate bandwidth
that may be beyond imagination.

2.23.4 Optical Cross-Connects

As the number of wavelengths increases to large numbers, large 1000 x 1000 optical
cross-connecting fabrics, nonblocking, with low loss and fast switching become a
challenge. Today, there is a substantial effort to develop high-density devices switching
fabrics based on MEMS, bubbles, and other technologies.
In addition, there is ongoing research to develop ultrafast switching devices; these
are based on glasses that contain chalcogenides. Chalcogenide glasses (Ge-Se- Te) have
an index of refraction 1000 times higher than that of Si02 glass, they have an ultrafast
response time (they can switch from high nonlinear absorption to low) in less than
1 psec, they have a low linear loss and a low nonlinear loss f3, and a high figure of
merit (FOM) on the order of 20.

2.23.5 Optical Memories

To date, optical storage, or memory devices, is in the infancy state. However, storage
is an important function in signal processing and thus optical memory components are
expected to also play their role when in mature state. Consequently, there is substantial
ongoing research aimed at the development of new materials, methods, and techniques
that will be able to "freeze" light, or at best delay it in a manageable manner so that
optical information can be stored and retrieved at some later time.
Another form of optical storage is based on holographic storage in certain electro-
holographic nonlinear crystals, known as paraelectric photorefractive. These crystals
can store many holograms in a latent form as a trapped space charge. When a specific
voltage is applied to them, one of the holograms is activated. Ongoing research aims
to store a very large number of patterns and to make them rewriteable. In a similar
venue, researchers are experimenting with glass doped with samarium and europium
elements to produce clusters of fluorescent spots (each dot about 400 nm in diameter)
and arranged in layers in the three-dimensional space (each layer about 100 nm apart).
Thus, dots correspond to bits, and if millions of bits are stored on each of millions of
layers, the potential storage capacity in such material is on the order of many terabits
per unit volume.
Photochromicity is not a new application; one may think of it as write once read
many (WORM).
Another type of temporary optical storage is the optical delay line. Light slows
down as it travels in optically transparent matter by a factor equal to its refractive
304 DWDM SYSTEMS

• optical converters
• timing units (optical clock extraction and optical retiming)
• switching (amplification, switching fabric, drivers, equalization)
• multiplexing (filtering, amplification, multiplexing, equalization)
• demultiplexing (filtering, polarization, amplification, demultiplexing, equalization)
• controller
• program store and database
• drivers
• display (LED, LCD, status, alarms, equipage, neighborhood, ambient conditions)
• power (sensing, distribution)
• cooling fans and air intake
• fuse panel
• connector panel and cable ducting
• cable drawer
• other (depending on system architecture partitioning)

4.4.1 Transmitters and Receivers

In DWDM systems, the main function of the transmitter is to source a modulated

optical signal complying with a set of specifications (as specified by standards and
application), a list of which is (those with an asterisk are, in addition, specific to
tunable transmitters):

• sourced maximum output optical power

• center wavelength(s), compliant to ITU-T grid
• spectral line-width of optical channel
• optical channel separation (spectral distance from adjacent channels)
• center frequency drift limits
• wander and jitter variability and allowed limits
• bit rate accuracy and drift limits
• modulation and modulation depth
• accuracy of new acquired center wavelength*
• spectral range of tunable transmitter*
• dynamic response or (wavelength) acquisition time*
• state of polarization
• TE/TM mode of photonic beam
• beam profile and uniformity
• signal to noise ratio
• floor noise
• source dependency on bias
• source dependency on temperature
 KEY BUILDING BLOCKS OF A DWDM SYSTEM 305

The actual values in this list depend on the application the transmitter is designed for.
For example, the bit rate may be as low as several Mb/s or as high as 40 Gb/s. The
signal modulation may be nonreturn to zero (NRZ) or return to zero (RZ); the latter
may also be 50% RZ or 33% RZ. The output optical power may be specified for short
fiber lengths or for long fiber lengths (in all cases, sources must comply with eye safety
specifications). Center frequency may be based on a C-band 80-A grid, on a 40-A grid,
or on a 160-A C + L-band grid, and for different fiber types (such as SSMF, DSF,
and MMF).
The main function of the receiver is to detect and respond to a modulated photonic
signal with a predetermined level of accuracy, which is measured in bit error rate. The
modulated photonic signal has traveled through the fiber and many components so that
when it arrives at the photodetector it is already degraded in power, spectral, and noise
content. When fiber is many kilometers long, the incident light at the receiver is very
weak due to signal attenuation, and a logic "one" contains photons counted in single
digit; the minimum number of photons required for a receiver to recognize a logic
"one" is known as the quantum limit.
At minimum, a receiver consists of an optical preamplifier (optional); a polari-
zation filter (optional); a power equalizer; a focusing lens (preferred); an efficient,
fast-responding, and low-noise photodetector; an electronic low pass filter; a circuit
that extracts the clock from the incoming signal and determines the time and threshold
level for sampling (in on-off keying demodulation); and other components needed to
demodulate the signal.
In DWDM systems, after the preamplifier, polarizer, and power equalizer, an opti-
cal wavelength demultiplexer separates the wavelengths, and each is directed to its
receiver either via an optical waveguide, by a short fiber, or directly. Thus, the key
characteristics of the DWDM receiver are:

• receiver sensitivity
• optical preamplifier spectral response
• optical preamplifier gain and gain flatness
• optical preamplifier noise
• demultiplexer polarization effects
• power equalization spectral range and flatness
• demultiplexer insertion loss
• waveguide, connector, and splices insertion loss
• waveguide polarization effects
• detector technology (e.g., APD, PIN)
• detector minimum threshold optical power, min-max threshold level (one-zero) at
a given BER (e.g., less than 10- 12 )
• detector quantum efficiency
• detector dependency on polarization
• detector temporal responsivity, max-min bit rate
• detector spectral responsivity per wavelength, Ao
• detector wavelength discrimination
• detector polarization dependency
306 DWDM SYSTEMS

• detector shot noise

• detector dependency on bias
• detector dependency on jitter
• detector dependency on temperature
• low-pass filtering characteristics
• receiver clock sensitivity on one's density
• demodulation method
• clock sensitivity

From the transmitter launched power in the fiber (T x) and the receiver sensitivity (Rs),
the maximum allowable loss is calculated (Loss max ) :

Loss max == Tx - Rs (dB)

For example, if T x == 0 dBm and Rs == - 20 dBm, then Loss max == 0 - (- 20) ==

20 dll; remember that we can subtract dBms yielding a difference in dBs (Chapter 2).
The maximum allowable loss helps determine the optical path span, the required ampli-
fication gain, and the needed compensation.

4.4. 1.1 Modulation and Demodulation of the Optical Signal

Modulation is the action of temporally altering one or more of the parameters of the
photonic signal. In optical communications, these parameters are phase, frequency,
and amplitude of an optical carrier or wavelength. When the phase is modulated, the
method is called phase-shift keying (PSK); when the frequency is modulated, it is
called frequency-shift keying (FSK); and when the amplitude is modulated, it is called
amplitude-shift keying (ASK). The latter case includes the intensity modulation with
direct detection (IM/DD) and the on-off keying (OOK) modulation method.
In optical communications, the modulation method plays a key role in:

• optical power coupled into the fiber

• bit rate limits
• dispersion limits
• fiber span limit
• linear and nonlinear contributing effects
• overall signal-to-noise ratio and BER
• reliability of signal detection and receiver penalty

Coherent heterodyne and homodyne detection techniques were initially developed

for radio communications. In optical transmission, the term coherent indicates that
another light source is used as the local oscillator at the receiver; optical coherent
methods improve receiver sensitivity by approximately 20 dB, allowing longer fibers
to be used (by an additional 100 Km at 1.55 urn). In addition, using IM/DD the channel
spacing is on the order of 100 GHz; with coherent techniques it can be as small as 1 to
10 GHz. A metric of good line coders (for 10 Gb/s) is an acceptable eye diagram at the
 KEY BUILDING BLOCKS OF A DWDM SYSTEM 307

Optical
Pre-amplifier
Modulated Coupler

fOtOd't'~
opt. signal
--H- ,-------, ....
Data out
Filter &
Demodulator •
Electronic
Laser source as amplifier
local oscillator, (J)

Figure 4.8 Coherent detection requires a low-noise local oscillator with narrow linewidth comparable
to or better than the incoming optical signal.

receiver (see Chapter 2) such that the uncertainty of the state (lor 0) of the received
bits is less than I bit per second per Hert z « I b/s/Hz) . Optical communications
systems are designed with error rates (as specified in ITU-T standards) at less than
10- 12 BER.
Coherent detection of an incoming modulated signal uses a local oscillator (i.e., a
light source of a frequency in the vicinity of the transmitted source), which must have
a narrow spectral (line) width comparable to that of the source (Fig . 4.8). In addition,
the local oscillator must have low noise characteristics; otherwise the spontaneously
emitted light adds to noise and the method is not practical. Therefore, amplitude of
the local oscillator in coherent receiver design is important. In the case of 1M/DO, the
incoming signal is directly coupled into the detector, thus eliminating the coupler and
the local oscillator.

4.4.1.2 Line Coding Techniques

Several coding techniques have been proposed for optical communications: the on-off
keying (OOK), the frequency shift keying (FSK) , and the phase shift keying (PSK) .
Currently, the most popular technique is the OOK with return to zero (RZ) or with
nonreturn to zero (NRZ).

On-Off Keying. This is a modulation method according to which a logic "one" is

manifested by the presence of light ; similarly, logic "zero" is manifested by the absence
of light. When the logic "one" is lighted for the full period (T = 1/ f), this OOK is
termed nonreturn to zero (NRZ), and when for a fraction of the period (such as *
or ~) , it is termed return to zero (RZ) (Fig . 4.9).
The OOK can be used in coherent detection or in 1M/DO detection. However,
coherent detection requires constant phase. As a consequence, the laser source cannot be
directly modulated because this may shift the signal phase . Therefore, in this case, the
signal amplitude is modulated externally with a titanium-diffused LiNb0 3 waveguide
in a Mach-Zehnder configuration or with a semiconductor directional coupler based
on electroabsorption multiquantum-well (MQW) properties and structures. Conversely,
IM/DD detection does not require constant phase, and thus phase shift is unimportant
(however, direct laser modulation may also alter the spectral content of the source).

Phase Shift Keying. This method modulates the phase of a light beam (the carrier)
at the transitions between logic "zero" and logic "one" ; that is, it shifts the phase by
308 DWDM SYSTEMS

NRZ ~ + L -
o
L-....V OL - ----I-- -'-----'-----'''---'----'-- '---''------- -'---4--

Figure 4.9 OOK RZ and NRZ optical coding .

180 degrees while the frequency and amplitude of the signal remain con stant during
all bits, thus appearing as a continuous light wave . For multilevel PSK , the change
may be in increments of 45 degrees (8-levels). PSK is a coherent technique.
PSK is implemented by passing the light beam through a device that operates on the
principle that, when a voltage is applied to it, its refractive index changes; this is known
as electrorefraction modulation (ERM). Such devices are made with electro-optic crys-
tals, such as LiNb0 3 , with proper orientation . The phase difference is expressed by:

81 = (27T /"A)(8n)L m

where the index change 8n is proportional to applied voltage, V , and L,n is the length
over which the index changes by the applied voltage (Fig. 4.10).

Frequency-Shift Keying. This method modulates the frequency w of a light beam

(the carrier) at the transitions between logic "zero" and logic "one"; that is, it shifts
the frequency while the amplitude of the signal remain constant during all bits . At
the transitions, the frequency changes by I::,.f , f + I::,.f for logic " I," and f - I::,.f for
logic "0." Thus , FSK is a coherent two-state (on-off) FM technique. Typical frequency
changes are about I GHz .
The total bandwidth of a FSK signal is approximated to 21::,.f + 2B, where B is the
bit rate and /s] is the frequency deviation.

• When the deviation is large, I::,.f » B, the bandwidth approaches 21::,./ , and this
case is known as wideband-FSK.

Voltage

Waveguid e

Figure 4.10 PSK modulator: a varying voltage modulates the refractive index of its electro-refractive
element and thus the phase of coherent light passing through it.
 KEY BUILDI NG BLOCKS OF A DWDM SYSTEM 309

Binary data
1 I 0 I 1 1 0 I 1 I
OOK (NRZ) I I I I
OOK (RZ) n n n in
tiep ti ep tl ep tl ep
PSK "s I I I I I
W, W2 w, Wl W2 w,
FSK Os IIIIIIIIIIII! 1111111111111111:111111111111111 111111111111 111
•

tl ep = phase change
tlw = frequency change 2Jrlf, - f2 1

Figure 4.11 Optical modulation methods .

• Wh en the deviation is narrow, !:"'f « 13, the bandwidth approaches 213 , and this
ca se is known as na rrowband-FSK.

A fre quency modulation index (FMI), defined by !:". f /B = f3FM , distinguishes the two
case s; wideb and-FSK has an FMI f3FM » I and narrowband-FSK has an FMI f3FM « I.
FSK is achi ev ed with electro acoustic Bragg modul ators or with DrB semiconduc-
tor laser s that shift their operatin g frequency by I GHz when the operating curre nt
change s by a mere I rnA. The small current ch ange required for FSK is viewed posi-
tively becau se it ca uses a small variation on the opti cal output power of the laser
beam . Thu s, DFB semico nductor lasers mak e very good and fast coherent FSK source s
with high modul ation effici enc y. Figure 4.11 summa rizes all shift ke ying modul ation
methods.

4.4.1.3 Line Decoding Techniques

Optical dec oding entails dete cting the optical signal and retrieving binary coded infor-
mati on (or demodulate) from the recei ved modulated lightwave, based on one of the
three coding techniques:

• det ect optical ampl itude level if amplitude shift keying (ASK or OaK) is used
• detect phase chan ge (from 0° to 180°) if binary PSK is used
• detect frequ ency change (from w - !:"'w to w + !:"'w) if FSK is used

The employed technique clearl y imp act s the recei ver and demodulator desi gn com-
ple xity , but it primaril y affects the quality of the receiv ed signal and the fiber span.

OOK RZ and NRZ Demodulators. On-off keying demodulators use recei vers that
directly detect incident photons. The number of incident photons in the time domain
generates an electrical signal with similar amplitude fluctuation, plus some electrical
noi se added by the photo detector. When the optical signal has been con verted to an
310 DWDM SYSTEMS

electrical signal, amplitude high-frequenc y fluctuation (and noise) is low-pass filtered.

In addition, the signal is sampled at the rate of the ex pecte d incoming bit rate by a local
phase-locked loop to minimi ze jitter and sig nal level uncertainty. Thu s. the numb er
of incide nt photons is interpreted as logic " I" when it is above a threshold level and
as logic "0" when it is below that level (see Fig. 2.90). However, there are instances
when the incident amplitude is ambiguous due to excessive noise and j itter (manifes ted
by a co rrupted eye diagram ), and an erroneous I or 0 may be produ ced .
OaK modulation/demodul ation may be return to zero (RZ) or nonr eturn to zero
(NRZ), see Figur e 4.15. It should be noted that a NRZ signal provides photon s for
the full duration of the bit period, whereas a RZ signal for a percentag e of the period .
Popular percentages are 33%, 40 %, and 50 %. The NRZ or RZ modulation, and the
percent, is particularly important in ultrahi gh bit rates such as 10 or 40 Gb/s. For
example, a 50 % OaK 40 Gb/ s signal has logic " I" illuminated for 12.5 ps, whereas
a 33% for 8.25 ps, that is a redu ction by 34%. All other things being equal, this
reduction is significant in the amount of recei ved power and thus in the received bit
error rate . However, if the path is engineered and bud geted corr ectly , the RZ peak
power is higher , pro vides better noise isolation, and thus improves the overall optical
signal-to-noise ratio.

PSK and FSK Demodulators. PSK and FSK demodul ation is based on coherent
detection ; that is, in additi on to the received optic al signal from the fiber, one or two
local (optical) oscill ators are required to interferometrically interact with the received
optica l signal and con vert it to OaK.
Th e received PSK modul ated optical signal, ws , is mixed coherently with a locally
ge nerated laser light , WLQ , and because both are of the same frequency, they interact
inter ferometric ally (Fig. 4.12), so that when both frequencies are in phase, there is
co nstructive contribution , and when they are not in phase, destruc tive, and thus (idea lly)
an on- off keying signal is generated. Since the acc uracy of this method depend s on
the phase variation of the sig nal, phase stability and low noise are very critica l.
Th e basic principle of a simplified hom odyne FS K demodul ator is shown in
Figur e 4.13 .
The received FSK modul ated optical signal, ws, is passed through a narrow-band
optical filter tuned to pass the frequency WI = W + S co. Thu s, whene ver this frequ ency

Recovered
PSK incoming electrical
signal, Ws _ _-./I!-_-I"',. binary signal
---+

OOK

Figure 4.12 Principles of a homodyne PSK demodulator.

 KEY BUILDING BLOCKS OF A DWDM SYSTEM 311

Photodetector Recovered
Narrow-pass OK electrica l
optical filter
W1 = ws+ t. W H ---. Filter (R,L,C)
+ Clock
binary signal
---.

OOK

Figure 4.13 A simplified FSK demodulator.

only passes the filter, the frequency W2 is rejected and the outcome is equivalent to an
OOK modulated signal. Since the accuracy of this method depends on the frequency
variation of the signal, no frequency shift (high frequency stability) and low optical
noise are very critical.

4.4.2 Optical Amplifiers and Regenerators

4.4.2.1 Amplifiers
In Chapter 2 (Section 2.17) , we described the physics and technology of optical ampli-
fication . Amplification is required to overcome signal losses in the fiber and other
components (depending on application and fiber, span loss is in the range of 23 to
15 dB). The key three types of optical amplifiers were the fiber (OFA) , the Raman,
and the semiconductor (SOA). Each of them has distinct benefits and limitations so
that no one type by itself is currently suitable for all applications and for the complete
spectrum from 1,250 to 1,650 nm (see Figs. 2.66 and 2.81) . As such, each amplifier
must be evaluated on its own merits and should be applied where it makes more sense
in technical and cost terms.
OFAs (EDFA , YEDFA , TDFA , etc.) and have been suitable and largely been
deployed in fiber networks. There is a continuous effort to improve them in terms
of increased gain , bandwidth, and functionality . However, although YEDFAs (yttrium-
erbium doped fiber amplifiers) have extended the EDFA range in the C-band and the
L-band, they still have a limited range (1,530- 1,620 nm) . Table 4.1 lists the optical
channels (frequency and wavelength) in the extended L-band. Thus, EDFA or YEDFA
is optimized for power restoration with minimal added noise of the depleted optical
signal in the 1,550-nm wavelength band .
EDFAs are applicable as booster optical amplifiers in DWDM and CATV, as low-
noise (5 dB typical) low power consumption «3 .5 W) compact optical preamplifiers
in optical cross-connects and in metropolitan networks. EDFA preamplifiers have a rela-
tively small package size (approximately 7 x 9 x 1.2 cm ' ) so that they can be installed
on a board. The complete package includes the pump laser, couplers, isolators, filters,
434 EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

• New cost-effective, lighter, and durable materials, better than fiberglass and plas-
tics, will emerge to increase safety and decrease energy consumption.
• The vehicle of the future will be optimized according to type of transportation as
well as for comfort, for short as well as for long-distance travel. Some pioneering
examples of such vehicles are already in use, and some recommendations for
modular vehicles have been made .
• Roads with improved synthetic pavement and cars with advanced wheel technol-
ogy will increase safety, riding comfort, and cruising speed . When constructed
properly, such roads will also decrease maintenance costs.

6.2.5 Intelligent Powering Systems

Recently, many experienced power interruptions due to power shortage. One may won -
der , with all advanced technology available how can these happen in this millennium?
The near future we will experience:

• New photochemical and electrochemical methods that will enable alternate pow-
ering methods amalgamated into intelligent powering systems.
• Alternate powering technologies will be integrated and advanced power manage-
ment software will determine which type of energy, or combination of energies,
will be used for cost efficiency and uninterrupted service.
• Intelligent power distribution networks will automatically sense and balance loads,
so that areas in greater need will "borrow" power from areas with less need .

And the list of emerging technologies may go on and on as new methods and materials
are explored as the economy permits.

6.3 CURRENT RESEARCH

However, research in photonic technology continues which is expected to find direct

applicability in DWDM systems . In this section we look into some current research
(see also Fig. 6.1). The objective is to eventually have an all-optical and intelligent
network that will monitor the quality of signal and service in the photonic regime, and
traditional performance monitoring and error-detection and correction (EDe) will take
place at the two ends of the path (and if it is needed) (Fig. 6.2).

6.3.1 Advanced Lasers

There are three major activities: in laser development low-cost high-density matrix
lasers, high-quality tunable lasers, and laser arrays with narrow spectral line and suffi-
cient optical power, as well as high-power pump lasers. Low-cost lasers, some made
with organic compounds, are critical in many applications. High-quality tunable lasers
are critical in all-optical networks with optimized bandwidth and wavelength manage-
ment , with dynamic reconfiguration, and in optical cross-connects.
Another activity is to make lasers with nanometer dimensions, known as nanolasers.
This activity stems from an effort to grow nanowires needed in massive interconnect
of very small devices, that is a wire density in the millions per square ern.
 CURRENT RESEARCH 435

,OTN
client
OT N
client
Opaque node

OADM

Opt. Cross-connecting node

3R optical regenerator

Figure 6.2 In a true all-optical DWDM network , end-to-end performance monitoring and EDC is
performed at the edges of the path whereas network nodes monitor QoS intelligently.

Nanolasers will miniaturiz e many optical devices which at low power will provide
cri tical functionality in many systems. Thus the applicability of nanolasers includes
communications, medic ine, biotechnology, analytic chemistry, optical computing, stor-
age, displ ays, optical connectivity, and co nsumer produ cts.

6.3.2 Artificial Optical Materials

Artificia l new solid-state optical material s exhibit unusual charac teristics based on very
high values of the refrac tive index. A recent revision of theory assume s a negative
refractive index , which, if pro ven correct, will open new horizons. Other prop erties are
based on optica l energy absorption and cohere nt photoluminescence in a wide spectral
range that covers the C-band s and L-bands and beyond .
In this area of research , gallium nitride is a stable semiconductor material with
which light-emitting diodes (LED ) emitting an intense blue light can be made when
electricity is passed throu gh it. These LED s are expected to find many applications in
home entertainment (DVDs), displa ys, and communications.
Certain organ ic compounds absorb one wavelength and emit anoth er (useful in
wavelength conversion and memory appl icat ions), or they can abso rb a wavelen gth and
emit it back when they are stimulated (memory applications). Such organic compounds
are perylene, coumarin-6, and others . Organ ic compounds, such as pentac ene , have
electr ical properties suitable for field-effect transistors. Organi c thin films (OTF) may
also find severa l optoel ectron ic applications, such as flat thin displ ays.

6.3.3 Optical Cross-Connect

As the number of wavelengths increases to den sities approac hing 1000 x 1000, low-
loss, nonblo ckin g and fast-switchin g optical cross-connecting technologies are a chal-
lenge. Today, there is substantial effort in this direction, and cur rentl y there are at least
a dozen or more different technologies, each claiming benefits that the other technology
does not have.