Detailed Study of the Essenes: A Movement Emerged during the

Intertestamental Period -their religious beliefs, politics, life style,

and contributions with reference to present day context.

(yaphase.j@gmail.com)

1. Introduction

The period between the Old Testament and the New Testament is usually called as the
Intertestamental period. It was a time in which many of the theological ideas and religious
practices found in their New Testament were developed. One of the religious groups that
emerged in the Intertestamental period was the “Essenes.” In this paper, I would like to bring
out the brief history of Essenes community, their religious beliefs, politics, life style, and
contributions with reference to present day context.

2. General overview about Essenes

The Essenes were disciplined and ascetic sect which first appeared during the
Intertestamental period. Some scholars think that the Essenes developed out of the Hasidim.
Like the Hasidim and the Pharisees, the Essenes tried to preserve the purity of the Jewish
religion against Hellenism. The Essenes probably emerged as a group between 160-104 BCE.
The first Essene who was mentioned by name was a man called Judah who lived during the
reign of Aristobulus I (104-103 BCE).1 We have very little information about the history of
the Essenes. Few sources available about the Essenes are listed here.

3. Sources regarding the Essenes

The four main sources from the Intertestamental and the New Testament periods which
provide information about the Essenes, are the writings of Philo of Alexandria, Josephus, the
Elder Pliny, and Hippolytus of Rome.

Philo of Alexandria (c. 20 BCE- 50 CE) is the earliest source of information on the history
and life of the Essenes. His accounts of the group occur in his books Every Good Man is

1
John Holder, The Intertestamental Period, (Delhi: ISPCK, 2009), pp. 90-91.
1
Free, 12-13, and Hypothetica, 11:1-18. Hypothetica is an apology for the Jewish nation; it
explains Jewish ways, customs, and religion for non-Jews.

Josephus mentions the Essenes in his History of the Jewish War, ii, viii which talks about
their attitude to marriage and admission to the community. In his Antiquities of the Jews xviii,
he gives information with reference to their beliefs.

Hippolytus (c. 170-236 CE) was a Christian theologian who discusses about the later history
of the Essenes in his book Refutation of all the Heresies ix. 21. Hippolytus claims that the
Essenes split into four groups. He links one of these groups with the zealots, which suggests
that the Essenes had some revolutionary members.

The Roman writer Pliny the Elder (c. 23-79 CE) describes a community of Essenes living
near the Dead Sea, in his Natural History v. This is one of the strongest pieces of evidence for
identifying the Qumran community as an Essene group.2

4. Etymology

The name of the sect is variously given as Essaioi (Philo) or Essenoi (Josephus) in Greek,
Esseni in Latin (Pliny). Epiphanius mentions both Essenoi, which he identifies as a Samaritan
sect, and Ossaioi or Ossenoi from the vicinity of the Dead Sea. The etymology of the name
remains as an enigma although several proposals have been put forward. Philo suggested that
it was derived from the Greek hosiotes, “holiness”; and Josephus seems to imply a pun on
semnotes, “sanctify”. Most scholars have assumed that the name is of Semitic origin, like
Pharisee and Sadducee.3 Another suggestion is the name Essene probably derives from an
Aramaic word meaning „holy‟ or „pious‟ and corresponds to the Hebrew hasid.4 Interestingly,
another proposal by Vermes is the Aramaic „asya,’ „healer‟. According to Philo, they were
“therapeutae of God” who resembles the Therapeutai, a pious community of Jews in Egypt.5

2
John Holder, The Intertestamental Period, (Delhi: ISPCK, 2009), pp. 102-103.
3
David Noel Freedman, ed., Anchor Bible Dictionary, Vol. 2, (New York: Doubleday, 1992), pp.620-
621.
4
D. S. Russell, Between the Testaments, (London: SCM Press LTD, 1963), pp. 52-53.
5
F. F. Bruce, New Testament History, (London: Pickering & Inglis Ltd, 1982), p. 77.
2
5. Origin of the Essenes

Common presumption is that the Essenes, as well as the Pharisees may have originated
among the Hasideans who initially supported the Maccabees in the rebellion against
Antiochus Epiphanes. While the Pharisees were a lay group, the leaders of the Essenes were
of the Zadokite priestly line. It may have been the assumption of the high priesthood by the
non-Zadokite priest Jonathan in 152 BCE or by Simon in 140 BCE, that caused some
Essenes, led by the righteous teacher, a Zadokite priest to withdraw from contact with other
Jews and to establish a community in the Judean wilderness at Qumran. 6 The Essenes
probably first banded together around the 2nd century BCE and lasted throughout the 2nd
century CE.7 The Essenes appear in Josephus‟ account from the middle of 2nd century BCE to
the time of the war against Rome (66-70 CE). He gives no explanation of their origin, rather
than pointing out their difference from the ritual of the temple; and therefore one can infer
that this community is separated from the rest of Judaism.8 It is evident from the Damascus
Document (CD) that the sect had some history prior to the settlement at Qumran. On the
mostly widely interpretation of CD 1, the sect arose in the early 2nd century BCE during the
Hasmonean period, around 390 years after the fall of Jerusalem. J. Murphy-O‟Connor
understood from the CD that, the Essenes were originated in the Babylon itself and were
migrated.9 Josephus and Philo give additional information that there were about 4,000
Essenes who, for the most part lived in villages, although certain of them lived in the cities. 10
The destruction of Qumran would have brought the sect to an end, but it is possible that the
sect dissolved in the general turmoil of the war against Rome. Evidence for the existence of
Essenes after 70 CE is hard to find.11

6
Theodore N. Swanson, When the Time had Fully Come: A Study of the Intertestamental Period,
(Philadelphia: Parish Life Press, 1973), p. 36.
7
George A. Mather and Larry A. Nichols, eds., Dictionary of Cults, Sects, Religions and the Occult,
pp. 100-102.
8
David Noel Freedman, ed., Anchor Bible Dictionary, Vol. 2, (New York: Doubleday, 1992), p.625.
9
Gunter Stemberger, Jewish Contemporaries of Jesus: Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes (Minneapolis:
Fortress Press, 1995), p. 125.
10
D. S. Russell, Between the Testaments, (London: SCM Press LTD, 1963), p. 53.
11
David Noel Freedman, ed., Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. 2, (New York: Doubleday, 1992), p.626.
3
6. Location of the Essenes

6.1 Location of the Essenes in General

Both Philo and Josephus say that the Essenes were spread throughout the country, living in
cities, towns and villages in different parts of the country but sometimes under monastic-like
circumstances.12 Philo says that they lived in villages and avoided the iniquitous cities;
Josephus, on the contrary, says that many lived in each city, but they had none of their own.
The difference here may be due to romanticizing tendency in Philo. Epiphanes says the
Essenes were from Samaria but puts the Ossaioi in the vicinity of the Dead Sea. In view of
Pliny‟s notice, we should assume that there was a major settlement by the Dead Sea; but
evidently Essenes were not confined to one location.13

6.2 Possible Location of the Essenes in Qumran

Pliny located the Essene settlement between Jericho and En-gedi. The only oasis between
Jericho and En-gedi is the Ain Feshka oasis, at the North end which stands Qumran. The
excavations at Qumran have shown that there was a settlement at this site from the mid-2nd
century BCE to the time of Roman conquest. The period of occupation at Qumran
corresponds well to the period within which the Essenes are mentioned in Josephus‟s
writings.14

7. Religious Beliefs of the Essenes

The Essenes were very devout Jews who spent much of their time studying the scriptures.
They kept the Jewish ritual laws very strictly, especially the laws about ritual purity. They
lived together as a community, farming and sharing their property. 15 According to Josephus,
their intensive study of the scriptures indicates that certain of their number were able to
foretell the future by their reading of the sacred books. Philo refers to their method of group
study and states that one member of the group would read a passage aloud to the others and a
more experienced brother would then explain the meaning of it. In their religious outlook

12
Anders Runesson, The Origins of the Synagogue: A Socio-Historical Study, (Stockholm: Almqvist &
Wiksell International, 2001), p. 224.
13
David Noel Freedman, ed., Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. 2, (New York: Doubleday, 1992), p.621.
14
David Noel Freedman, ed., Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. 2, (New York: Doubleday, 1992), p. 623.
15
John Holder, The Intertestamental Period, (Delhi: ISPCK, 2009), p. 91.
4
they had much in common with the Pharisees, but in some respects at least appear to have
been stricter than they in their interpretation of the Torah.16

The Essenes believed that God was in control of life and everything should be left in His
hands. They probably believed in the doctrine of predestination.17 They abstained from
animal sacrifice, from swearing of oaths, from military service and ceremonial activity. 18

Prayers were inevitable part of the Essenes religious life. An Essene‟s day began before
sunrise, when he rose to recite morning prayers along with his fellows, „as though they were
entreating the sun to rise‟. This probably means that they said their prayers facing east, which
was not the general Jewish practise. Before these prayers were offered no word was spoken.
Then the brethren betook themselves to the various tasks which were assigned to them by the
overseers, and worked at them until noon was approaching. Then they assembled in the
community centre, bathed and entered the refectory in their linen habits. This midday meal
was a solemn occasion at which none but full members were present. They observed
quietness and sobriety at the time of meal and they did not all speak at once, but spoke in
turn, observing the rules of seniority.19

Communion with God in three times a day is their daily routine: actual morning
communions, actual evening communions and actual noon contemplations. Most important
among them is the noon contemplation-noon, peace contemplations. The Noon Peace
Contemplations were addressed to the Heavenly Father, requesting him to send the Angel of
Peace to all, and then to send certain one of the angels to strengthen each aspect of the
Sevenfold Peace. Every noon a Peace Contemplation was held with one aspect of Peace; and
every Sabbath was collectively dedicated to one, the entire cycle covering all phases of
human‟s life being contemplated in seven weeks‟ time. They considered that human life can
be divided into seven departments: physical, mental, emotional, social, and cultural, its
relationship with nature and its relationship with the entire cosmos.20

16
D. S. Russell, Between the Testaments, (London: SCM Press LTD, 1963), p. 53.
17
John Holder, The Intertestamental Period, (Delhi: ISPCK, 2009), p. 91.
18
F. F. Bruce, New Testament History, (London: Pickering & Inglis Ltd, 1982), p. 79.
19
F. F. Bruce, New Testament History, (London: Pickering & Inglis Ltd, 1982), p. 83.
20
Edmond Bordeaux Szekely, The Teachings of the Essenes from Enoch to the Dead Sea Scrolls,
(California: Edmond Bordeaux Szekely published, 1957), pp. 41-53.
5
The rules controlling membership of the Essenes were very strict. Men wishing to join the
21
group were on probation for three years. During this period they were tested in various
ways to make certain that they were called by God. At the end of the first year, the
probationer took part in a rite of cleansing by water. At the end of third year he made solemn
promises of obedience to the Essene way of life and was allowed to share in the fellowship
meal of the community. Anyone who broke the rules of the community was expelled. If the
man who had been expelled continued to keep vow of obedience to the Essene way of life, he
would probably die of starvation because all food outside the community was regarded as
unclean and could not be eaten by an Essene.22

The Essenes also believed that the end of all things was at hand, and that soon two messiahs-a
priestly and a Davidic messiah would come. Apparently, all the Essenes gathered at Qumran
once a year at the festival of Weeks (Pentecost), for a covenant renewal ceremony, for they
believed that they were God‟s true covenant people. They also believed that Jerusalem would
be renewed and the temple would be rededicated under true priests.23

8. Political Ideas of the Essenes

The relationship between the Essenes and the rulers of the Jewish community varied during
the Intertestamental period. The Essenes were probably active in Jerusalem during the reign
of Aristobulus I (104-103 BCE) but by the end of the reign of Alexander Janneus (103-107
BCE) they had broken away completely from the Hasmoneans. The Essenes considered that
the relationship between the Hasmoneans and the gentiles (Romans) was a betrayal of Jewish
faith. The group probably moved away from Jerusalem during the reign of Janneus, in order
to escape his cruelty. Traditionally, Alexander Janneus is the wicked priest mentioned in the
Dead Sea Scrolls.

The Essenes had a better relationship with Herod the Great. Both the Essenes and Herod were
against the Hasmoneans. Herod allowed the Essenes to return to Jerusalem and gave them

21
John Holder, The Intertestamental Period, (Delhi: ISPCK, 2009), p. 91.
22
John J. Collins, Beyond the Qumran Community: The Sectarian Movement of the Dead Sea Scrolls,
(Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2010), pp. 144-146.
23
Theodore N. Swanson, When the Time had Fully Come: A Study of the Intertestamental Period,
(Philadelphia: Parish Life Press, 1973), p. 36.
6
freedom to practise their version of Judaism. During the reign of Herod, Essene communities
were started in the villages and towns of Judea.24

9. Life Style of the Essenes

At Qumran the Essenes practised a type of communism, and awaited the coming end times
events as they worshipped according to what they thought was the true calendar, a 364-day-
year solar calendar.25 They paid keen attention to ceremonial purity and held all their
properties like money, food and clothes in common.26 Both Philo and Josephus endorsed this
kind of life by the Essenes. Pliny says that they lived “without money.” Josephus writes: “For
it is a law that those entering the sect transfer their property to the order; consequently,
among them all there appears neither abject poverty nor superabundance of wealth, but the
possessions of each are mingled, and there is, as among brothers, one property common to
all.”27

Essenes were mainly industrious workers, agriculturists and arboriculturists, having a vast
knowledge of crops, soil and climatic conditions which enabled them to grow a great variety
of fruits and vegetables in comparatively desert areas and with a minimal labour; they
avoided luxury, aiming only for what was necessary. There were no rich and poor among
them; they used to help each other in their needs as deviations from the Law. They
established their own economic system, based on the Law, and showed that the food and
material needs of all can be attained without struggle, through the knowledge of Law. 28 They
kept no slaves, made provision for those of their number who were unable to work through
sickness and old age, and in general cultivated all the virtues. According to Philo, Essenes
were the truly good and truly free.29

Scholars are not sure what the Essenes believed about marriage. They may have rejected
marriage completely, or they may simply have chosen not to marry. What is certain is that
everyone in the Essene community practised celibacy. Only adult men were allowed to join
24
John Holder, The Intertestamental Period, (Delhi: ISPCK, 2009), pp. 91-92.
25
Theodore N. Swanson, When the Time had Fully Come: A Study of the Intertestamental Period,
(Philadelphia: Parish Life Press, 1973), p. 36.
26
F. F. Bruce, New Testament History, (London: Pickering & Inglis Ltd, 1982), p. 79.
27
John J. Collins, Beyond the Qumran Community: The Sectarian Movement of the Dead Sea Scrolls,
(Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2010), p. 143.
28
Edmond Bordeaux Szekely, The Teachings of the Essenes from Enoch to the Dead Sea Scrolls
(California: Edmond Bordeaux Szekely Published, 1957), pp. 12-13.
29
F. F. Bruce, New Testament History, (London: Pickering & Inglis Ltd, 1982), p. 79.
7
the community, and none of them married.30 The reason for this according to Philo is that
they practise celibacy on the ground that wives and families distract men‟s attention from the
pursuit of goodness and truth. According to M. Black, celibacy was not traditionally regarded
as a superior state of life to matrimony by religious Jews: its maintenance among the Essenes
may have been due to the carrying over of regulations for the holy war in Israel into the
order‟s spiritual militancy.31 While the members of the Essene community at Qumran were
male and celibate, there were other Essenes who lived in towns and villages who could marry
and have families.32

10. Contributions of the Essenes

During the settlement of the Essenes at Qumran, they brought a bundle of documents and
kept it in Qumran caves. These documents are usually considered as the library of Essene
Community; and these documents are called Dead Sea Scrolls. The scrolls can be dated
palaeographically from the mid-3rd century BCE to the third quarter of the 1st century CE.

All the books of the traditional Hebrew canon have been found except the Book of Esther.
Dead Sea Scrolls are the documents which give extra ideas about the Essene community
along with Josephus and Philo. Halakic works such as 4QMMT and the “Temple Scroll” has
been found among the Scrolls. Temple Scroll was the Torah of Qumran community, in which
the law, which was given to Moses by God, is described. It is regarded as the revelation from
God. It was found by Yadin in 1967. It is the longest of all the Qumran Scrolls, extending for
nearly 9m. The Temple Scroll is primarily concerned to outline an ideal temple and system of
purity laws. It does not describe an eschatological or messianic temple. Qumran Scrolls is the
only available document in which Jewish idea of the dualism of light and darkness is
attested.33

30
John Holder, The Intertestamental Period, (Delhi: ISPCK, 2009), p. 91.
31
F. F. Bruce, New Testament History, (London: Pickering & Inglis Ltd, 1982), pp. 79-81.
32
Theodore N. Swanson, When the Time had Fully Come: A Study of the Intertestamental Period,
(Philadelphia: Parish Life Press, 1973), p. 36.
33
David Noel Freedman, ed., Anchor Bible Dictionary, Vol. 2, (New York: Doubleday, 1992), pp. 86-
96.
8
11. Reflection and Conclusion

I found that Essenes is the main Jewish group about which nothing is said in the New
Testament writings. It is surprising that the community is present in the first century CE, then
why the community is not attested by the New Testament writers, not even in the writings of
Paul which are regarded as the earliest literature in the New Testament. This is expected on
the reason that they were marginalized by the Jewish community and the New Testament
writers for they were make a distinction from the normal persons; and because of which the
authors may have not had any desire to make them famous. The criticism against the Essene
community is that, they were extremely exclusivist in their attitude. They claimed that they
were the only true, pure people of God in all Israel and the rest of the Jewish people were
completely corrupt.

From my study about Essenes in the Intertestamental period, I have identified four things that
Essenes have been influenced in their time through their work and life.

Firstly, they changed the world view of the people.

Secondly, they introduced a new way of living.

Thirdly, they developed faith in the lives of the people and

Fourthly, their life leads to transformation.

I strongly believe that as a community, Essenes did these things throughout their lives.

When we analyse today‟s church situation in the midst of religious pluralism which facing
multiple problems like pseudo spirituality, decline in the number of church attendance,
corruption, power struggle, politics in the churches, materialistic developments and so on, I
believe that such a kind of movement (Essenes in the Intertestamental period) will culminate
fake or name shake Christianity and create authentic spirituality. For renewal and revival in
today‟s church mission and ministry, a movement like Essenes in present day context will be
an appropriate solution. From their life we can follow, simplicity, sharing our wealth with
needy people, avoiding luxurious life, live with whatever we have, etc.

9
Bibliography

Beall, Todd S. Josephus’ Description of the Essenes Illustrated by the Dead Sea Scrolls. New
York: Cambridge University Press, 1988.

Bruce, F. F. New Testament History. London: Pickering & Inglis Ltd, 1982.

Charlesworth, James. H. ed., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, Vol. 2. New York:
Doubleday & Company INC, 1985.

Collins, John J. Beyond the Qumran Community: The Sectarian Movement of the Dead Sea,
Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2010.

Davies, Philip R. Behind the Essenes: History and Ideology in the Dead Sea Scrolls. Georgia:
Scholars Press, 1987.

Freedman, David Noel. ed., Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. 2. New York: Doubleday, 1992.

Holder, John. The Intertestamental Period. Delhi: ISPCK, 2009.

Mather, George A. and Larry A. Nichols, eds. Dictionary of Cults, Sects, Religions and the
Occult. Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1993.

Runesson, Anders. The Origins of the Synagogue: A Socio-Historical Study. Stockholm:

Almqvist & Wiksell International, 2001.

Russell, D. S. Between the Testaments. London: SCM Press LTD, 1963.

Simon, Marcel. Jewish Sects at the Time of Jesus. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980.

Stemberger, Gunter. Jewish Contemporaries of Jesus: Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes.

Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995.

Swanson, Theodore N. When the Time had Fully Come: A Study of the Intertestamental
Period. Philadelphia: Parish Life Press, 1973.

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Szekely, Edmond Bordeaux. The Teachings of the Essenes from Enoch to the Dead Sea
Scrolls. California: Edmond Bordeaux Szekely, 1957.

Toombs, Lawrence. E. The Threshold of Christianity: Between the Testaments. Philadelphia:

The Westminster Press, 1952.

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