BAR208

THEORY AND DESIGN OF STRUCTURES II.

College Of Architecture & Engineering

Civil & Construction Engineering Department.

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Lecturer: Eng. Hayowa
Civil Engineering
Introduction

Civil Engineering is divided into five main areas: -

Structural Engineering

Water Resources Engineering

Environmental Health Engineering

Transportation Engineering

Geotechnical Engineering
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Built Environment

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Engineered Environment

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Structural Materials
Structural materials include:
Structural materials include:
Steel,
Steel, Natural stone,
reinforced concrete,

pre-stressed
Reinforcedconcrete,
concrete, Burnt clay bricks,

timber,
Pre-stressed concrete, Aluminum
natural stone,

burnt
Timber,
clay bricks, Composite materials.

aluminium

composite materials. 5
BAR208
Introduces structural design of buildings using steel and
timber as the structural material.

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Topic
1.0 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS:

2.0 STRUCTURAL STEEL:

3.0 STRUCTURAL DESIGN PHYLOSOPHY:

4.0 STRUCTURAL DESIGN IN STEEL:

5.0 STRUCTURAL DESIGN IN TIMBER:

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Chapter 1.0
STRUCTURAL MATERIALS:

Introduction.

Loads, stresses and strains.

Stress-Strain curves.

Elasticity and plasticity.

Ductility

Essential properties of structural materials.

A Qualitative Comparison of Some Structural Materials

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1.1 Introoduction

A Structure may be generally defined as anything that When a load is applied to a

supports forces (called the applied loads), or acts as a structure, the structure responds
shelter for something, or does both of the two functions. by developing a specific level of
The function of supporting forces forms the core of stresses at each cross-section
structural engineering, while the function of shelter forms in its members. As a
the core of architectural studies. consequence of these stresses,
the material strains and hence
the structure deforms.

A structure may be specifically defined as a system of members joined together in such a manner as
to form a framework which is capable of transmitting the applied loads safely from their points of
application, via the connections, to the points of restraint, in a stable manner, in equilibrium and
without excessive deformation.
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Introoduction

The term structural material refers to the material used to

make the structural members (i.e those members which
carry the applied loads and give the structure its strength and
stability).
The structural members are part and parcel of the structure
and cannot be removed without compromising on the
structural integrity.

The aim of structural analysis is to predict the external forces

(called support reactions) that will be induced at the supports,
the internal forces (called member forces) that will be induced
in the members of the structure and the deformations (called
displacements) that the structure will suffer, due to a given set
of loads (called a load scenario).

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1.2 Loads, Stresses and Strains

1.2.1 Loads
There are two categories of loads: -

1. Static Loads: These are loads whose magnitude and direction does not change
appreciably with time. Examples are self weight, stored materials, people, etc

2. Dynamic Loads: These are loads whose magnitude and/or direction varies with
time. Examples are wind, earthquake, machine vibrations, etc

In BAR 208, we shall limit our scope to static loads only.

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1.2.2 Stresses

When a material is subjected to an internal force, the intensity of that

force at any given cross-section, on the plane of the section, is termed
stress, and is given by:

Stress = Force/Area

There are four types of stress, namely: -

1. Normal stress: Stress induced by a force which is normal to the
plane of the section. Examples are tensile stress, compressive
stress, and thermal stress.

2. Shear stress: Stress induced by a force which is tangential to the

plane of the section.

3. Flexural stress: Stress induced by bending (a combination of tensile

and compressive stresses).

4. Torsional stress: Stress induced by twisting (a special form of shear

stress)
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1.2.3 Strains

When a material is subjected to stress, it will deform. The measure of deformation is termed strain.
There are four types of strains corresponding to the four types of stress, namely: -

1. Linear strain: The ratio of change in length to the original length:

2. Shear strain: The relative angle of twist:

3. Flexural strain: The ratio of distance from NA to the radius of curvature:

4. Torsional strain: Similar to shear strain:

In structural engineering, torsional stress and strain are avoided, by design, as much as possible.
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1.3 Stress-Strain Curves

A tensile test is the simplest experimental way to study a structural material. The results are
used to make a graph of the stress against the strain (referred to as a stress-strain curve)
Stress-strain curves may be used to classify all materials into three broad categories: -

Elastic/Plastic materials can be further divided into three categories.

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1.4 Elasticity and Plasticity

A material is said to be elastic if the strain due to loading disappears on

removal of the load.

Elasticity is therefore defined as the ability of a material to resume its

original shape, form and size after removal of the applied load,

Elastic-Plastic materials exhibit linear elastic behavior up to yield point. If

stressed beyond the yield point, the material exhibits plastic behavior.

A material is said to be plastic if the strain due to loading does not disappear
on removal of the load. Plasticity is therefore defined as the inability of a
material to resume its original shape, form and size after removal of the
applied load.

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1.5 Ductility
A material is said to be ductile if it is able to strain plastically after yield
point. Ductility is therefore defined as the strain range that the
material undergoes after yield point and before fracture.

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1.6 Essential Properties of Structural Materials
1.6.1 Strength

Strength is defined as the stress at which failure occurs. Strength is the most important
property of a structural material. This is because strength signifies safety (the material
can carry heavy loads before it fails), convenience (the members can span longer clear
distances), and economy (smaller sizes can be used)

1.6.2 Stiffness

Hooke’s law of linear elasticity relates the stress directly to the strain, thus:
The constant of proportionality E is called the Young’s modulus of Elasticity. (E is the
gradient of the straight portion of the stress-strain curve)

In structural engineering, the Young’s modulus is combined with a section property to

define stiffness. (e.g. EA = axial stiffness, EI = flexural stiffness, etc).

Stiffness is defined as the ability of a material to resist deformation. Therefore, the higher the
E value, the more stiff the material.
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1.6.3 Ductility

A ductile material is one which is able to strain plastically after yield point. The material
therefore gives ample warning before it fails (by fracture). This fail- safe mode is preferred
in structural engineering works

1.6.4 Durability

Durability refers to the capability of a material to resist processes of deterioration when

exposed to its working environment. A durable material is one which is able to retain its
original form, quality and serviceability for the whole of its design life, with nominal
maintenance.

1.6.5 Economy

A structural material must be economical with regard to initial manufacturing costs,

fabrication/erection/construction costs, and maintenance costs.
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1.7 A Qualitative Comparison of Some Structural Materials

NOTE:
1. Composite materials include glass reinforced plastics commonly called fibre glass.
2. Conventional structural materials are: Timber, Stone, Bricks, Steel and Reinforced concrete. 19
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THANK YOU

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