Semiconductor Physics

UNIT 1
Three Theories
Classic free electron theory
Quantum Free Electron Theory
Zone or Band Theory

Density of energy of states:

Number of available electron states per unit volume. In the energy interval E and E+dE and is
denoted by Z(E)
Derivation

find value of 'n' using the formula for E and find the value of dn by differentiating the E formula and
then add in this equation.
According to Pauli's Exclusion Principle, two electrons of opposite spin can occupy each states and
hence number of states available will be

Energy band in Solids:

When two identical atoms are brought closer, the outermost orbit of atom overlap and interact.
The width of the band depends on degree of overlap of electrons of adjacent electrons.
The width is the largest for outer most atomic electrons.
Outer most orbit is conduction, inner band is valence and the gap available between is know as
forbidden energy gap.
Metals
Non-Metals
Semiconductor

KP Model
The failure of Zone or Band Theory was overcome by KP Model. The energy of particles could be
found using this model giving us the following formulas
At p=infinity
At p =0
Kinetic Energy formula

Brillouin Zones:
It is the representation of permissive value of 'k' of the electrons in one,two or three
dimensional system.
Electrons travelling through the periodic array of atom in crystal get diffracted when they satisfy
Bragg's Law.
A discontinuity in energy of electron between first and second zone is known as as forbidden
gap.

E-K Diagram
1. Periodic Zone Scheme
2. Extended Zone Scheme
3. Reduced Zone Scheme

Direct and Indirect Band Gap

Direct: The maximum energy level of valence band aligns with the minimum energy level of
conduction band. The probability of radiative recombination is high and hence are used for making
optical sources.
Ex: GaAs, ZnS
Indirect:  The maximum energy level of valence band and the minimum energy level of conduction
band are misaligned with respect to momentum..

Influence of Donor and Acceptor:

Sometimes thermal energy is not enough to excite the electrons from valence bond to conduction
band.
Donor: Pentavalent
Acceptor: Trivalent

Phonons:
Derived from vibrations, carry momenta, do not have rest mass, responsible for electrical and thermal
properties and has longitudinal waves.

Non-Equilibrium carrier densities:

The total carrier density for a non-degenerate semiconductor is
Effective mass:
When an electron in a periodic potential of lattice is accelerated by an electric or magnetic field.

Fermi Level:
It decides the electrical conductivity of semiconductors:
When E-Ef is negative, less than (value is 1)
When E-Ef is positive, greater than (value is 0)
When T=0 then all levels below and above are filled
When T>0(value is 1/2)
When T<0 then levels are partially filled

UNIT 2
Intrinsic Semiconductor:
They have no impurities but may have defects. Examples: Silicon and Germanium.
The field that needs to be applied for electrons to jump from valence band to conduction band is
extremely large. This is achieved through thermal transition  but it can only excite a limited number
of electrons.
N-Type Semiconductor:
Formed through pentavalent impurity.
When T=0, phosphorous atoms will be unionised. The donor elements are very close bottom of
conduction band.

T>0, donor electrons are excited to conduction band and become majority charge carriers.

P-Type Semiconductor:
Formed through trivalent impurity.
When T=0, aluminum is ready to accept electrons. Acceptor levels is close to top and valence
bond.
 T>0, acceptor level takes electrons from valence band.

Carrier Generation:
Free electrons and holes are generated in pair of semiconductor by light or thermal energy
1. Generation due to light absorption: Occurs when photon energy is high enough to excite
electrons from one band to another. Forms 1 electron-hole pair
2. Generation due to high energy beam: High energy beam is larger than eg. Forms multiple pairs
and is used in nuclear particle context.
3. Generation due to impact ionization: Caused by an electron with energy larger than the
conduction band.

Recombination Process:
In this process the electrons and holes disappear and leads to one possible classification of
recombination: radioactive or non-radioactive
Types of Mechanisms:
1. Band to Band: Electrons move from conduction band to valence state It is mostly reactive.
2. Trap assisted(Shockley-Read-Hall): Electron falls into a trap or energy level within the band gap
caused due to impurity.
3. Auger Recombination: Similar to band to band but energy released moves to next level in
conduction or valence band.

Drift Current:
Electrons move in the opposite direction while holes in the direction of the applied electric field. This
directional movement is called as drift current.

Diffusion Current:
When there is a concentration gradient the carriers move from higher concentration to a lower
concentration creating a current known as diffusion current.
Continuity Equation:
The overall effect is expressed by this equation
P-N Junction:
Forms due to close contact of p and n type semiconductors. Electric field is formed due to the
movement of holes and carriers which causes the formation of drift current. no net transportation is
observed which is caused as depletion layer.
Forward Biasing:
P is connected to positive and N is connected to negative. Potential difference and width of depletion
decreases, more electrons move from n to p creating more drift current.
Reverse Biasing:
P is connected to negative and N is connected to positive. Potential difference and width of depletion
increases, no flow of carriers. Current is sue to diffusion which is extremely small.

Metal semiconductor Junction:

1. Rectifying/Schottky/Non-Ohmic:
Work function of n type is smaller OR work function of p type is greater than that of the metal.
Forward biased - Current and voltage are directly proportional
Reverse biased - Current is constant
2. Non-Rectifying/Ohmic:
When work function of metal is less than n type.

Opto-Electronic:
Elements used for the process are III-V and II-VI
4 and 5 are more suitable as they easily convert electric to light energy
2 to 4 are used from IR to UV region as they can incorporate magnetic ions. They also have
stronger polarity.

Photo Current in P-N Junction Diode:

Incident optical signal generates photo current.
The carriers contribute towards external circuit by separating and then recombining .
The photogenerated minority can diffuse without recombining.
The photogenerated current is opposite to forward biased diode.

LED:
PN Junctions that convert electrical energy to optical under forward biased.
Principle: Electrons from n region move to p region and become minority whereas holes  move from
p region to n region and become minority. This process is called minority carrier injection.
Types of LED:
1. Surface: Reflects light from bottom edge to top surface
2. Edge: Emit light in wide angles and are highly incoherent. Used in signalling devices and as
indicators.
External Quantum Efficiency:
Decreases as light strikes the surface at an agle greater than the critical angle and gets trapped within
the device.
Internal quantum efficiency is 100%

Organic Light Emitting Diode(OLED)

LED where one layer is a film of an organic compound which emits light in response to electric current
Layers:
1. Seal
2. Cathode
3. Emissive layer i
4. Emissive layer ii
5. Anode
6. Bottom
Types:
Passive: Organic layer is perpendicular. Useful for small screens
Active: organic layer is between. Less power and is suitable for large screens.
Advantages:
Thinner, less weight, less power consumed, response time is faster and cheaper.
Disadvantage:
Does not last long and is sensitive

UNIT 3
Optical Transition in Bulk Semiconductors:
For the following to occur the photons should interact with the charge carriers. This causes
absorption or recombination process to take place.
Band to Band Transition (Inter-band):
Absorbed photon transitions from valence to conduction band. This results in electron hole
regeneration followed by recombination.
Impurity to Band Transition
Transition between a donor or acceptor level and a band. It is mostly observed in doped
semiconductors.
 P type: Electron is lifted from valence band to acceptor level. The acceptor atom is ionised.
Free Carrier Transition (Intra-band)
Electrons moves to higher energy level by absorbing photon energy which is referred as
absorption process. Similarly, electrons relax to lower levels while releasing energy and is called
as recombination process.
Optical Absorption Process:
Electrons moves to higher energy level by absorbing photon energy. Then electron hole pair is
generated, this adds to the concentration of mobile charge carriers and increases the conductivity.
The material behaves as a photoconductor with a conductivity proportional to photon flux. This effect
is used to detect light
Optical Recombination Process:
Electrons relax to lower levels while releasing energy. In radiative photon of energy is released
whereas in non-radiative phonons are released.
Optical Properties:
1. Luminescence: Electron hole pairs are created and and recombined radiatively.
2. Photo-Luminescence: Electron hole pairs are created and and recombined radiatively. The pairs
occur due to photon absorption.
3. Catho-Luminescence: Generation of pairs is through electron bombardment.
4. Electro-Luminescence: generation followed by injection with pn junction or similar devices.
Carrier Concentration is calculated as:

Emission Process:
De-excitation of electron further leads to spontaneous or stimulated emission. Spontaneous is
majorly used is LED designs while stimulated is responsible for laser diode.
Spontaneous Emission: When pairs come back to their ground state without any external stimulus
after being generated.
Stimulated Emission: When pairs come back to their ground state with external stimulus(emission of
photons) after being generated.
Ratio b/w them:

Drude Model:
It is also called as classic free electron theory and it is responsible for electrical conductivity and
metals obey the laws of classical mechanics.
Postulates:
 1. Free electrons move in random motion in the absence of an electric field. Their collisions are
considered elastic and the energy is assumed to be purely kinetical.
2. Presence of electric field electrons gain energy and move to higher potential. They are also
known to acquire drift velocity and relaxation time.
Expression for Electrical Conductivity:

UNIT 4
Conductivity Measurement:
Relates to a material's ability to conduct electricity.
Metal - Based on electrons(density,scattering), conductivity decreases with increase in temperature .
Semiconductor - Based on number of available charge carriers and carrier mobilities, conductivity
increases with increase in temperature .
Two Point Probe Technique:
Principle: The conductivity is based on measurement of resistance and sample dimension.n Ohm's
law is applicable.

Two point measurement of a bar is done by a parallel voltmeter.

The rod is connected in a two-point arrangement.
The typical value of R id 100-1000 ohms.
Resistance is calculated by

Four Point Probe - Linear Method:

Used for measuring sheet or surface conductivity.
Principle: Current is driven between two probes and voltage is measured on the other two. It is made
by connecting a flat film surface with four equally spaced in-line probes.
Experiment:
 An ohmic contact is assumed
Current is passed between two outer probes and voltage in the inner.
Resistivity is measured by

Connector factor f is dependent on thickness of conducting layer, sample thickness and the
nature of the sample.

Four Point Probe - Van der Paw Method:

Used for measuring sheet or surface conductivity.
Principle: Measures resistivity of small, arbitrarily shaped layers where the probes are placed around
the sample.
Experiment:
Often used in integrated circuit processing.
The resistance is determined by driving a current from point 'a' to 'b' and measuring the voltage
from point 'c' to 'd'
It is common to calculate resistivity from two sets of measurement for uniform samples with
good contacts, the same results should be measured.
Hot Probe Method for Semiconductor Thin Films:
Principle:  Efficient way to distinguish between n and p type. For n type voltage is positive and for p
type the voltage is negative.
Experiment:
A cold and hot probe are connected to the semiconductor
Hot probe is connected to the positive terminal and the cold probe is connected to the
negative terminal.
Free charge carriers are excited from hot probe to cold probe
The hot probe measurement is described in three step process:

Capacitance Voltage Measurement:

To determine the majority carrier concentration in semiconductor, they yield accurate information
about the doping concentrations of majority carriers.
Principle: The capacitance depends on the properties of the charge-depletion formed by the junction.
it is depleted due to drift fields required to maintain charge neutrality.
Experiment:
 Bandgap is defined by difference of conduction band and valence band.
Fermi energy defines the equilibrium condition for charge neutrality.
The difference in energy between the conduction band as one crosses the P-N junction is called
the diffusion potential.

Deep-Level Transient Spectroscopy:

Defects play a crucial role in determining the characteristic properties of a semiconductor. DLTS
probes the temperature dependence of the charge carriers escaping from trapping centers by the
point defects in the material.
Principle:
It depends on the capacitance of a space charge region on the occupancy of the traps within the
space change region in a semiconductor.
Under non-equilibrium, a trapped carrier can escape from a trapping center by thermal excitation to
the nearest energy band.
Experiment:
Necessary to fabricate a junction diode such as P-N
A space-charge region is formed by reverse biasing the p-n, it is done to empty the traps.
When bias is restored, the space charge is again recreated but this time the carriers are trapped.
This equilibrium causes the trapped carriers to be thermally re-emitted.
De-trapping is temperature dependent
Both majority and minority charge carriers are involved, which makes this method all more
effective.

By monitoring the DLTS, it is observed that at low and high temperature, the signal is very small.
 At intermediate temperature, the maximum value is

The solution of these equation is a form useful for C-V measurement is

Photo-luminescence:
The process where crystalline solid absorbs energy and re-emits it in the visible region of the
spectrum
It is a two step process:
1. Excitation of electron from a lower region to higher region (absorption)
2. Emission of light when electrons fall back to lower energy state.
The time during which the luminescence is observed depends on the time interval between the acts
of excitation and emission.
If emission takes place within 10^-8 or of the emission takes place as long as the excitation then it is
called fluorescence.
If it continues even after the excitation has been removed then it is called as phosphorescence or
afterglow.

UNIT 5

Density of states in 2D,1D AND 0D Systems

2D - Quantum well where electrons are confined in 1D
Graph and Formula

1D-Quantum wire where electrons are confined in 2D

Graph and Formula
0D-Quantum dot where electrons are confined in 3D
Graph and Formula

Low dimensional systems

Development and production of components at a small scale, the technology used to manipulate
matters at atomic level to produce low dimension system is called nanotechnology.
When surface to volume ratio increases, it results in better chemical, electronic, magnetic, optical and
mechanical properties.

Types:
1. Quantum well: One dimension is reduced to nanometer while the other remain same. The
exciton can move freely in 2 dimension
2. Quantum wire: Two dimensions are reduced to nanometer while the other remains same. The
exciton can move freely in 1 dimension
3. Quantum dot: Size reduction in which all three dimensions are in nanometer. Exciton cannot
move freely.

Fullerences:
Allotropy of carbon in which atoms are arranged in a closed shell.
Most abundant form is C60 which resembles a soccer ball. Chemically stable and can be
stretched into rod and tubes
Used for hydrogen or oxygen storage

Graphene:
Allotrope of carbon which is a two dimensional building block. Also referred as atomic scale
honey comb lattice.
It is a million times thinner than paper, stronger than diamond and better conductor than
copper.
It can be functionalised by several chemical groups
Edge has more reactivity than surface.
 Used to detect single molecule gas, ultra capacitors and as reinforcement layer for polymer
nano-composites

Carbon Nanotubes(CNT)
Sheet of graphite rolled in cylindrical form or constructed from hexagonal rings of covalently
bonded carbon/graphene layer. If it is constructed with single layer than its called single-walled
else it is referred to as multi-walled
Hamade method: Used to classify geometries by how the carbon sheets are wrapped in the
tubes
Chemical reactivity is higher compared to graphene sheet
CNT with smaller diameter are semi-conducting or metallic.
Have very large Young's Modulus in their axial direction.
The optical activity disappears if the nanotubes become large
Synthesis:
Laser ablation
Arc-discharge method
Chemical Vapour deposition(CVD)
Applications:
1. Hydrogen storage
2. Lithium Intercalation
3. Transistors
4. Field emitting devices
5. Nanoprobes
6. Sensors

Fabrication Techniques:
1. CVD: Involves depositing a solid material from a gaseous phase. Results from the chemical
reaction of gaseous precursor at a heated substance to yield a fully dense deposit.
Types based on chemical reaction - hot and cold walled
Types based on operating pressure - atmospheric, low and plasma enhanced
Application: Turbine blades for aircrafts, parts of automotive industry, anti-corrosive, surface
modification.
2. Physical Vapour Deposition(PVD): Involves transfer of material on an atomic level. Alternative
process of electroplating, carried in vacuum condition in four steps: evaporation, transport,
reaction and deposition.
Types: Evaporation Deposition, Electron beam PVD, Sputter deposition, Cathodic Arc deposition
and Pulsed laser Deposition.
Advantages: Any kind of inorganic and organic material coating, environment friendly, used to
improve oxidation.
 Disadvantages: High capital cost, operates at high vacuum and required large heat with
appropriate cooling system

Characterisation Techniques:
1. Powder X-Ray diffraction technique: Employs powdered samples in which the crystals are
oriented in all directions so that some of the crysatls will be properly oriented for all observable
reactions.
Structure determination of crystal:

Applications: employed to study microcrystalline substances

2. Electron Microscopy Technique: Uses a high beam of energetic electrons to examine objects on
a very high scale. It examines: topography, morphology, composition and crystallographic
information.
1. Transmission Electron Microscopy: Shine a beam of electrons through the specimen and the
transmitted beam is projected on a phosphorus screen. Uses: Un-scattered electrons,
Elastically Scattered Electrons, Inelastically Scattered Electrons
 2. Scanning Electron Microscopy: Allows surface of objects to be seen in their natural state
without staining. As electron strikes the object they knick loose showers of electrons that
are captured by a detector to form the image. Uses: Back Scattered Electrons, Secondary
Electrons and Auger Electrons

Atomic Force Microscopy(AFM):

Also called as Scanning Force Microscope(SFM), it scans a sharp probe over the surface of a sample
and measures the changes in force between the probe tip and the sample.
It consists of a cantilever with a sharp tip, a scanner range in 80x80 nanometer. The force between
the tip and sample is measured by the amount of bending of the cantilever.
Applications: To obtain 3D topographic information of insulting and conducting structures and to
study powder catalysts.
Advantages: Works in ambient air, no special treatment requires for sample, tests biological and
living organisms.

Hetero Junctions:
They are defined as the junctions of two or more semiconductors each with a different bandgap.
nP and Pn - Anisotype heterojunction
Nn and pP - Isotype heterojunction
Band Diagrams for heterojunction: