Scope of Biochemistry

Basic organic compounds and their functional groups

Functional Group​ - groups of atoms, covalently attached to the relatively inert carbon
backbone
- Attributes behaviors of biomolecules
- A biomolecule may contain more than one functional group
- The symbol “R” is used to represent any carbon chains or rings
Important functional groups

Functional group structure Significant properties biomolecules

Acids: carboxyl RCOOH Weakly acidic; proton Fats & amino acids
donor

Alcohol: Hydroxyl ROH Polar, water soluble; carbohydrates

forms H- bonds;
slightly acidic

Aldehyde: carbonyl RCHO polar carbohydrates

Ketone: carbonyl RCOR polar carbohydrates

Amines: amino RNH2 Weakly basic; proton Amino acids

acceptor forming
ionized salt

Alkenes: double bond RCH=CHR Reactive Carbohydrates, lipids,

proteins, nucleic
acids

Ester: ester RCOOR Generally neutral lipids

Phenol: aromatic C6H5OH Weakly acidic Specific amino acids

hydroxyl

Phosphate: -PO3 Energy carriers carbohydrates

phosphate

Biochemistry - chemical interactions of chemical substances found in living organisms

- Life - molecular level
- Molecules - structure
- Properties
- function
- Processes - internal factors
- External factors
Cell - highly organized complex system of biomolecules
- Site of biochemical activities
- Manifests all properties of living organisms
The cell: a biological solution
Insoluble components + soluble components = by nature, combination of a true and colloidal
solution
Biochemical substances - inorganic substances
- Water (about 70%)
- Inorganic salts (about 5%)
- Bioorganic substances
- Proteins (15%)
- Lipids (8%)
- Carbohydrates (about 8%)
- Nucleic acids (about 2%)
Properties of biological solution
● Diffusion​ - molecules in solution distribute themselves uniformly throughout the solution
in which the rate of distribution is influenced:
○ Temperature
○ Particle size of the solute
● Osmosis​ - passage of water molecules through a semipermeable membrane in
response to solute concentration gradient, pressure gradient or both between lipids
separated by this membrane
● Dialysis​ - process by which small simple molecules are separated from larger complex
molecules by allowing the simple molecules to diffuse through a semipermeable
membrane
● Depression of freezing point​ - lowering of the freezing point is proportional to amount
of dissolved substances in solution
● Surface tension​ - a property of liquid surfaces whereby they exhibit certain features
resembling the properties of stretched elastic membrane
- At the surface, the molecules are attracted more towards the
center of the liquid than they are by the molecules of air above the
liquid; hence, it is assumed that at the surface, the molecules are
more compact
Particles in Varied solutions
● True solution​ - particle size less than 10^-7 cm
● Colloidal solution ​- particle size between 10^-7 and 10^-5 cm
● Suspension​ - particle size greater than 10^-5 cm

Colloidal solution properties

● Size ranges
● Diffusibility
● Visibility
● Brownian movement - molecules that are bumping into each other
● Tyndall effect - scattering of beam of light when light pass through a colloidal solution
● Charged particles
Colloidal solution examples
● Milk
 ● Blood
● Starch solution
● Soap
● Gelatin

Metabolic reactions in living organisms

● Redox -​ Reduction​ - ​gains electron​ (oxidizing agent)
- Oxidation ​(dehydrogenation) - ​loses electron​ (reducing agent)
● Decarboxylation - removal of carboxyl group of organic acids after forming carbon
dioxide
● Transfer reaction - a certain group is being transferred
○ phosphate transfer - combination of organic molecules with phosphate
- -PO3
○ Transamination - transfer of an amino acid from one compound to another
- NH3
○ Acetyl transfer - activation of acetate produced by the breakdown of
carbohydrates and fatty acid
- C2H3O
● Hydrolysis - large complex molecules to simple molecules
- Addition of H2O to break molecules
● Condensation - smaller building stones to large molecules
Note: metabolic reactions are aided by enzymes

Classification of Carbohydrates

Name Class Examples

Sugars (1-2 monomers / Monosaccharides Glucose, Fructose, Galactose

degree of polymerization
(DP) 1-2) Disaccharides Maltose, Lactose, Sucrose

Sugar Alcohols: Polyols (1-2 Mannitol, Sorbitol

monomers)

Oligosaccharides (3-9 Maltooligosaccharides (​⍺ - Maltodextrins

monomers / DP 3-9) glucans​)

Non - ​⍺ - glucan Raffinose, Stachyose, Inulin

oligosaccharides

Polysaccharides (>10 Starch Amylose - helical form of

monomers/ DP>10) starch, ​⍺ -1,4 linkages only

Amylopectin - glycogen-like
structure, ​⍺ 1,6 linkages at 1
in 30 monomers
Non - starch Cellulose - insoluble
- Main
constituent of
plant cells and
vegetable fiber
e.g. cotton
- Chains of
glucose
monomers

Hemicellulose -
polysaccharides of simpler
structure than cellulose
- Any of a class
of substances
which occur as
constituents of
plant cell wall

Pectin - naturally occurring

substance (polysaccharide) in
berries, apple and other fruit.
Pectin + heat + sugar =
thickening characteristic of
jams and jellies

Mucilage - thick, glue-y

substance produced by
nearly all plants and some
microorganisms
- Storage of water and
food, seed
germination and
thickening
membranes (plants)

Plant gums - adhesive

substance
- Vegetable
origin
- Exudate from
bark of trees
or shrubs
- Some used in
form of water
solutions for
cosmetics,
pharmaceutica
ls, and foods
 Hydrocolloids - class of food
ingredients (polysaccharides
and some protein)
- Widely applied
in food
products
- Thickeners,
water retention
agents,
stabilizers,
emulsifiers,
gel-forming
agents, and
dietary fibers

Isomers - molecule with the same formula as another molecule but different chemical properties
- Same number of atoms of each element, different arrangement
2 types:
● Constitutional (structural)
● Stereoisomer (spatial) - same structural formula, different spatial configuration
○ Carbohydrates - 1 or more chiral centers (carbon with 4 different groups
attached) = possibility of stereoisomers
○ Number of asymmetric or chiral carbon atoms (n) = possible isomers of a given
compound (2​n​)
○ Ex. glucose with 4 chiral carbon atoms has (2​4​) 16 possible isomers
○ 2 types:
■ Enantiomers - non-superimposable ​mirror images​ of each other
- Optical isomers
- Similar physical properties
- Positive (+) - dextrorotatory
(right)(clockwise)
- Negative (-) - levorotatory
(left)(counterclockwise)

■ Diastereoisomer - different configurations at one or more (not all)

stereoisomers without
being mirror images of
each other
 ■ Epimer - diastereomer that differ in configuration at only one chiral center
● Anomer - kind of epimer
- Differs in configuration at acetal /
hemiacetal carbon (anomeric C)
- Ketose - C-2
- Aldose - C-1
- β-D-glucopyranose OH on C-1 point up
- α-D-glucopyranose OH on C1 point down
- Carbohydrates exist in cyclic / acyclic form
- Cyclization - carbon in carbonyl group - a
new stereocenter = 2 diastereomer which
differ in position of attachment of certain functional
group
- New stereocenter - “anomeric carbon”
- L and D isomer located on the penultimate (2nd to
the last) carbon
- 2 anomers are designed depending on
configurational relationship between anomeric
center and the anomeric reference atom
- C1 - α anomer if hydroxyl group on C-1 and
-CH2OH group on C-5 are on opposite side of
six-membered ring
- C1- β anomer if same side

Converting a fischer projection to haworth projection

Steps:

Step 3:
● Sets to form a bond between the C-5 -OH and the carbonyl carbon (C-1) to make a new
ring
● Make the stereochemistry of the ring clearer
● Interchanging any ​three​ groups on a carbon does a bond rotation
● Three “moves”: H→OH
■ OH→CH2OH
■ CH2OH→H
Step 4:
● Draw the C5 -OH attaching the carbonyl carbon, forming a new O-C1 single bond and
breaking the C1-O pi bond
● After proton transfer, we now have one of two rings (haworth projections)
● All the groups that were pointing “up” in the linear model (ex. C3 -OH) also point “up” in
the haworth
● All the groups that point “down” in the linear model (ex. C2 -OH and C4 -OH) point
“down” in the haworth
● One exception: C1 oxygen, can be “up” (β) or “down” (α) according to which face of the
carbonyl is attacked
Haworth projections for five-membered ring sugar (i.e. furanose)
● The shortcut is essentially the same, but since the C4 -OH is usually forming the ring
instead of C5 -OH, the mnemonic right → down, left → up only apply to two carbons
adjacent to the carbonyl (usually C2 and C3)
● If the C4 -OH is forming the ring, and if it’s on the right in the fischer (i.e. D, for a
pentose), then the C5 will point up on the haworth
● α and β are assigned by comparing the orientation of the C1 -OH with the C4 substituent
(not the C5 substituent as with a pyranose)
● C4 -OH points to the right in the fischer and the C5 substituent (CH2OH) points up in
haworth
Mutarotation - a difference in the specific rotation of plane-polarized light, due to the change in
the equilibrium between two anomers in the solution
- Configuration is specified as a prefix to the IUPAC name (CIS, TRANS, SYN,
ANTI, E, Z, R, S, etc.)
- Molecule must have hemiketal (an alcohol and ether attached to the same
carbon, along with two other carbons) or hemiacetal group
- First observed in sugar
- Specific rotation of sugar in aqueous solution varies from sugar to sugar
Chemical Reactions of simple sugars
Monosaccharide general formula: C​n​(H​2​O)​n
Functional groups:
Aldehyde Ketone

Reactions:
● Oxidation - aldehyde group or ketone group or terminal hydroxyl group oxidized to form
acids

-
● Reduction - aldehyde or ketone group forms alcohol
 - Glucose - Sorbitol
- Galactose - Dulcitol
- Mannose - Mannitol
- Fructose - Mannitol + Sorbitol
● Phenyl Hydrazine - in acidic condition, forms osazone

- Structures of osazone
- Glucose and Fructose - Needle shaped
- Lactose and Galactose - Fluffy ball shaped
- Maltose - Sunflower shaped
● Esterification - gives Glucose-1 phosphate or Glucose 6 Phosphate

● Dehydration - when treated with concentrated sulfuric acid, releases 3H​2​O = furfural
- Furfural - chemically active
- Can react with phenolic compound
- + α Napthol (phenolic compound) = colored product
 ● Tautomerization - shifting of hydrogens from one carbon to the other to form any diols

- Enediol formation occurs in an alkaline condition

- Glucose can be converted to fructose by its intermediate enediol in an alkaline
environment

Polysaccharides - major classes of biomolecules

- Formed by >9 monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds
- A carbohydrate polymer consisting of hundreds or thousands of
monosaccharides covalently bonded together
- Storage of excess glucose as starch (plants) and glycogen (animals)
- Cellulose - found in plants for rigidity and flexibility
2 types of polysaccharides
● Homopolysaccharides - contains the same type of monosaccharides
- Ex. starch - formed by the condensation of amylose and
amylopectin
- Found largely in plants, fruits, seeds, etc.
Structure of starch

○ α -(1→6) linkage - amylopectin

○ α -(1→4) linkage - amylose
● Heteropolysaccharides - different types of monosaccharides
- Ex. hyaluronic acid - formed by thousands of alternative
units of n-acetyl glucosamine and glucoronic acid
 - Provide extracellular support to
different organisms, from bacteria to
humans
Structure of Hyaluronic acid

Note: many polysaccharides become covalently bonded with lipids and proteins to form
glycolipids and glycoproteins that send messages between and within the cells

Lipids​ - form a group of organic compounds which are widely distributed in living organisms.
- Made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen but the proportion of oxygen is much less than
2:1.
- Most lipids are esters formed by condensation of alcohols and fatty acids.
- Insoluble in water
- Soluble in organic solvents (e.g. chloroform, alcohol, acetone, etc.)
Functions
● Precursors of hormone
● Helps in digestion
● Energy storage
● Metabolic fuel
● Part of cell membrane
● Protection and lubrication

Simple Lipids​ - consist of long chain fatty acids which may be either free or combined with an
alcohol by an ester linkage
- Main simple lipids are ​triglycerides (aka triglycerols), steryl esters​ and ​wax
esters
- Hydrolysis of these lipids yields glycerol and fatty acids (for triglycerides), sterol
and fatty acid (for steryl esters), fatty alcohols and fatty acids (for wax esters)
Triglycerides​ - most important
- Major components of edible oils and fats, often representing more than
95% of refined oils
- Esters of the trihydric alcohol glycerol with 3 fatty acids
Structure of triglycerides
- Glycerol​ - hydrophilic : attracts water
 - Fatty Acids​ ​- are carboxylic acids with hydrocarbon side chains.
- the simplest form of lipids and they are water soluble.
- exist in the body either as free acids or fatty acyl esters such as
triacylglycerol.
- are released from these lipids on hydrolysis by lipases.
- Divided into: saturated and unsaturated

Saturated fatty acids​ - do not contain carbon

double bonds
General formula: C​n​H​2n+1​COOH
Ex. Acetic acid - CH​3​COOH
If total carbon number of atom is 2, one is already
counted in COOH
Formula: C​n​H​2n+1​COOH
C​(1)​H​2(1)+1​COOH = CH​3​COOH
Propionic acid - 3 carbon atoms
Formula: C​n​H​2n+1​COOH
C​(2)​H​2(2)+1​COOH = C​2​H​5​COOH

Unsaturated fatty acids​ - contain double bonds

General formula: C​n​H​2n-1​COOH (less H+, because
of double bond)
2 types
● Monounsaturated​ - 1 double bond
Ex. Oleic acid = CH​3​(CH​2​)​7​CH=CH(CH​2​)​7​COOH
Formula: C​n​H​2n-1​COOH
C​17​H​2(17)-1​COOH = C​17​H​33​COOH
● Polyunsaturated​ - >1 double bond
Ex. Linoleic acid, linolenic acid, arachidonic acid
Essential Fatty Acids (EFA​) - Cannot be synthesized by the body
- Must be supplied in the diet
- Chemically polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)

Structure of Triglycerides

Green - glycerol
Red - fatty acids

Simple (pure) glyceride​ - 3 hydroxyl groups are esterified with same type of fatty acid
- Ex. Tristearin
Mixed glyceride​ - 3 hydroxyl groups are esterified with different type of fatty acid

Wax ​- ​are esters of long-chain (C14 to C36) saturated and unsaturated fatty acids with
long-chain (C16 to C30) alcohols.
- Melting points (60​° to 100°C​) generally higher than those of triglycerides
- Unusually inert due to saturated nature of the hydrocarbon chain
- Can be split slowly with hot alcoholic KOH
- Insoluble in water
- Highly resistant to atmospheric oxidation
- Most waxes are mixtures of esters
- Chief storage form of metabolic fuel for planktons
- Certain skin glands of vertebrates secrete waxes to protect hair and skin and keep it
pliable, lubricated, and waterproof
- Shiny leaves of holly, rhododendrons, poison ivy, and many tropical plants are coated
with a thick layer of waxes, which prevents excessive evaporation of water and protects
against parasites
- Examples of biological waxes:
- Plant waxes - coats leaves and stems
- Beeswax - abdominal glands of bees
- Lanolin - sheep’s wool
- Cerumen - ceruminous gland in ear
- Suberin - bark of trees
- Sebum - sebaceous gland
- Application of biological waxes:
- Pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and other industries
- Lanolin, beeswax, canauba wax (from a brazilian palm tree), and wax extracted
from spermaceti oil (from sperm whale) are widely used in the manufacture of
lotions, ointments, and polishes
- Triacontanoylpalmitate - major component of beeswax
- Ester of palmitic acid with the alcohol triacontanol
- Structure

Conjugated lipids​ - esters of fatty acids with alcohol but contains extra groups
Classifications:
● Phospholipids​ - phosphoglycerides
- Membrane lipids
- 2 fatty acids are attached in easter linkage to the first and second
carbons of glycerol
- A highly polar or charged group is attached through a
phosphodiester linkage to the third carbon
- Special property: amphipathic
- Has polar and nonpolar ends:
- Polar hydrophilic - phosphate group attached to glycerol
and a positively charged base
- Nonpolar hydrophobic - two long fatty acids
- Arranged as bilayer because of polar and nonpolar ends
Important phospholipids
● Lecithins​ - framework of cell, nuclear membrane, etc.
● Cephalins​ - play important role in blood clotting
● Sphingophospholipids ​- cell membranes, myelin sheath of axons

● Glycolipids​ - complex lipids with one or more simple sugars, with long chain
fatty acids or alcohols
- Ex. ​cerebrosides​ - white matter of brain cells and myelin sheath
of nerve
- Gangliosides​ - gray matter of brain

● Lipoproteins​ - phospholipids containing lipids and proteins in their molecules

- Many enzymes, transporters, structural proteins, antigens,
adhesives, and toxins
- Occur in milk and egg yolk
- Constituents of cell membrane, cutin and suberin
- Classified based on density:
- Chylomicron​ - largest
- Lowest in density due to high lipid/protein
ratio
- Highest in triacylglycerols as % of weight
- VLDL​ - very low density lipoprotein
- 2nd highest in triacylglycerols as % of weight
- IDL - ​intermediate density lipoprotein
- LDL​ - low density lipoprotein
- Highest in cholesteryl esters as % of weight
- Bad cholesterol
- HDL​ - high density lipoprotein
- Highest in density due to high protein/lipid ratio
- Good cholesterol

Derived Lipids​ - includes a large variety of highly lipid-like compounds derived from the
intermediates of lipid metabolism
 - These compounds can be classified into 2 main groups or more units of a common
precursor molecule (isoprene)
- Isoprene ​- 5 carbon compound derived from condensation of Acetyl coenzyme A
molecule
- Terpenes - steroids, sterols, fat soluble vitamins, bile salts, pigments, etc.
- Steroids - not formed from fatty acids but have lipid-like characteristics
- Possess 17 carbon nucleus of 4 fused hydrocarbon rings
- Various steroids differ in the number and position of double bonds between
carbon atoms and in the side group linked to the ring.
- Ex. sterols like cholesterol (constituent of membranes; source of steroid
hormones), ergosterol, bile salts, sex hormones, pigments, cortisol (secreted by
adrenal gland), Vitamin D2 (produced in the skin by the action of light on a
cholesterol derivative)
- Icosanoid​ - has 3 types:
- Prostaglandins​ - hormone-like compounds
- Hydroxy derivatives of 20 carbon polyunsaturated
fatty acids
- Found in human seminal fluid, uterus, stomach,
lungs, etc.
- Functions:
- Inflammation
- Allergic reaction
- Blood clotting
- Smooth muscle contraction

- Thromboxanes​ - formed in blood platelets

- Associated with blood clotting
- Leukotrienes - ​secreted by leukocytes
- Include contraction of muscle in the lining of air passages
to the lungs
- Overproduction causes asthmatic attacks

Nucleic acid
Nucleotides​ - building blocks of nucleic acid
- Contain Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen and Phosphorus
- Made up of 3 components:
- Ribose sugar​ - 5-carbon pentose sugar molecules
- Represented by either ribose sugar (​ C​5​H​10​O​5​) or
deoxyribose sugar (​C​5​H​10​O​4​)
- Phosphoric acid​ - made up of 3 acid groups
- Acid groups react with OH group of ribose or deoxyribose
to form pentose monophosphate esters

- Nitrogenous bases​ - in the form of heterocyclic aromatic rings, formed of

Carbon and Nitrogen
- 2 types:
- Purines - double ring
- Adenine (DNA & RNA)(A)
- Guanine (DNA & RNA)(G)
- Pyrimidines - single ring
- Cytosine (DNA & RNA)(C)
- Thymine (DNA only)(T)
- Uracil (RNA only)(U)
Formation of Nucleosides and Nucleotides
Nucleosides​ - combination of nitrogenous base with
pentose sugar
- N-base is joined to the sugar molecules
by a glycosidic bond
- The bond develops between the first
carbon of sugar and the nitrogen at
position 1 in the case of pyrimidine
base and at 9 in the case of purine
base

Nucleotides​ - formed by the combination of nucleosides with phosphate group at 5’ position

(sugar) by an ester bond
- Nucleotide with ribose sugar
- ribonucleotide
- Nucleotide with deoxyribose
sugar - deoxyribonucleotide
Functions of nucleotides
● Building blocks of nucleic acid (RNA, DNA)
● Regulatory chemicals (cAMP)
● Formation of energy carriers (ADP and ATP)
● Formation of coenzymes (NAD, NADP, FMN, FAD)

Higher nucleotides (energy carriers) - nucleotides with more than one phosphate molecule
● ADP - Adenosine diphosphate
● ATP - Adenosine triphosphate
● CDP - Cytidine diphosphate
● CTP - Cytidine triphosphate
● TDP - Thymidine diphosphate
● TTP - Thymidine triphosphate
● GDP - Guanosine diphosphate
● GTP - Guanosine triphosphate
● UDP - Uridine diphosphate
● UTP - Uridine triphosphate

High energy or energy rich bond​ - ​Linkage of additional phosphate groups involves large
amounts of energy.
- provided by the oxidation of food.
- Separation of phosphate groups release large amounts of energy
 - Bonds joining the additional phosphate groups to nucleotides

Coenzymes​ - organic carrier molecule cooperating with an enzyme in promoting a chemical

reaction in a cell
- Composition: formed from nucleotides by replacing nitrogenous base with a
vitamin
- Mode of action: in many reactions, removal of group of atoms and addition to
other. This is done with enzyme and coenzyme helps in its transfer to another
acceptor compound
- Examples: NAD - Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide
- Compound with one nucleotide containing an adenine
base and other containing nicotinamide
- NADP - Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate

- FMN - Flavin Mononucleotide

- FAD - Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide
- Made up of one nucleotide containing ribose and adenine
and one with an unusual structure involving a linear
molecule ribitol instead of ribose
 - Coenzyme A

History of Nucleic Acid

● Freidrich Miescher (1844 - 1895)​ - isolated “nuclein”, DNA with associated proteins,
from cell nuclei.
- First to identify DNA as a distinct molecule
● Albert Kossel (1853-1927)​ - isolated and described the five organic compounds present
in nucleic acid: adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, and uracil (later shown to be
nucleobases)
● Oscar Hertwig​ (1849-1922) - discovered fertilization of sea urchins
- Recognized role of the cell nucleus during inheritance and chromosome
reduction during meiosis
● Richard Altman​ (1852-1900) - coining the term “nucleic acid” in exchange for Friedrich
Miescher’s ​nuclein​, when it was demonstrated that nucleic had acidic properties

Formation of Dinucleotide and Polynucleotide

Nucleic Acid​ - polynucleotides consisting of repeated units of mononucleotides
- Classified into: DNA - Deoxyribonucleic Acid
RNA - Ribonucleic Acid

History of DNA
● Phoebus Levene (1869-1940)​ - had discovered that the cell nucleus contains 2 types of
nucleic acids: DNA and RNA
- Found that DNA contained the four bases, deoxyribose,
and a phosphate group
● Erwin Chargaff - ​published a paper stating that in DNA of any given species, the ratio of
adenine to thymine is equal, as is the ratio of cytosine to guanine (1950).
- This is known as “Chargaff’s ratios” and was a crucial clue that
helped solve the structure of DNA
- Chargaff’s ratios are universal: all forms of life obey this rule
 - Only the balance of A-T pairs and C-G pairs varies between
species
● Rosalind Franklin​ - together with Raymond Gosling obtained x-ray diffraction pattern,
which triggered the idea that DNA was a helix
- She produced the x-ray crystallography pictures of DNA which
Watson and Crick used to determine the structure of
double-stranded DNA
● Watson and Crick​ - James D. Watson and Francis Crick were the two co-discoverers of
the structure of DNA in 1953
- Used x-ray diffraction data collected by Rosalind Franklin and
proposed the double helix or spiral staircase structure of the DNA
molecule

Watson and Crick model of DNA

● Two polynucleotide chains are coiled around a central axis in the form of a right handed
double helix.
 ● The backbone of each strand consists of alternating sugar and phosphate. The bases
project inwards and they are perpendicular to the central axis.
● The 2 strands run in opposite directions (ie.) they are antiparallel. Each polynucleotide
chain has 5’ phosphorylated and 3’ hydroxyl ends
● The strands are complementary to each other due to specific base pairing of the
opposite strands. Base pairing occurs through hydrogen bonding and it is specific.
Adenine pairs with thymine through two hydrogen bonds. Guanine pairs with cytosine
with three hydrogen bonds.
● Major and minor grooves are present on the double helix.
● One turn of helix measures 34 angstrom and has 10 nucleotides.
● Distance between adjacent nucleotides is 3.4 angstrom.
● The diameter of the helix is 20 angstrom.

FUNCTIONS OF DNA
● Carries hereditary information.
● Controls the metabolic activity of the cell.
● Enables cell to maintain, grow and divide.
● Contributes to variation by undergoing mutation.
● Brings about differentiation of cells

RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA) - ​are present in the nucleus, ribosomes and cytoplasm of
eukaryotic cells.
- Function as genetic material for some plant virus, animal viruses and bacteriophage.
- Are also polynucleotides. In RNA polymer, purine and pyrimidine nucleotides are linked
together through phosphodiester linkages. The sugar present is ribose. The nitrogenous
bases present in RNA are adenine and guanine (purine bases), uracil and cytosine
(pyrimidine bases).
3 Types of RNA
Messenger RNA (m RNA) -​ accounts for 1-5% of cellular RNA.
- Single stranded linear molecules consist of 1000-10,000
nucleotides
- Have a free or phosphorylated 3’ and 5’ end.
- A direct carrier of genetic information from the nucleus to the
cytoplasm.
- Contains information required for the synthesis of protein
molecules.

Ribosomal RNA (r RNA)​ - accounts for 80%

of the total cellular RNA.
- In ribosomes, r-RNA is found in
combination with protein.
- Known as ribonucleoprotein.
- Length of rRNA ranges from 100-600
nucleotides.
- Are required for the formation of
ribosomes
- Are involved in the initiation of protein
synthesis.

Transfer RNA (t RNA)​ ​-​ accounts for 10-15% of total

cell RNA.
- Smallest of all the RNAs. Usually they consist of
50-100 nucleotides.
- Secondary structure of t-RNA is in the form of a
clover leaf.
- The carrier of amino acids to the site of protein
synthesis.
- There is at least one t-RNA molecule to each of
20 amino acids required for protein synthesis.

FUNCTIONS OF RNA
● Protein synthesis
● Genetic material
● Component of ribosomes
● Associated with DNA replication
● Some RNA have enzymatic activity (ribonuclease)
Difference between DNA and RNA