DOI: 10.1002/hrdq.
21405
QUALITATIVE STUDY
Coaching techniques for sustained individual
change during career transitions
Nicky Terblanche NHD
University of Stellenbosch Business School,
Cape Town, South Africa
Correspondence
Nicky Terblanche, University of Stellenbosch
Business School, Cape Town, South Africa.
Email: nickyt@usb.ac.za
© 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC.
Human Resource Development Quarterly. 2020;1–23.
Abstract
Career development and transitions are forms of learning
integral to human resource development (HRD). Under-
standing these phenomena is becoming critical due to the
changing nature of work. Transition coaching, an individual-
ized HRD learning intervention, is gaining traction as a
career support mechanism, yet the details of how this type
of coaching works are not clear. To investigate the potential
role of transition coaching as an HRD intervention that
facilitates learning beyond the acquisition of knowledge and
skills, this study examined which coaching techniques, from
the perspective of the transitioning manager (coachee), are
likely to contribute to transformative individual learning
during transition coaching. Perceptions of these coaching
techniques were identified through deductive and summa-
tive content analyses of interview transcripts of 20 coached
transitioning managers. Of the 13 coaching techniques
identified, five were perceived to be experienced substan-
tially more than the others: active experimentation,
questioning, reflection, challenging views and assumptions,
and using theories and frameworks. The findings suggest
empirically that transition coaching could facilitate transfor-
mative individual learning during career transitions. The
findings also indicate that, unlike what is generally pro-
fessed during coaching, transitioning managers value a
directive, knowledge-imparting coach and confirm that
reflection and experiential learning are key to succeed in a
new role. This study advances HRD, transformative learn-
ing, and coaching theory and practice through the
wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/hrdq 1
2 TERBLANCHE

operationalization of coaching in the specific HRD context

of career development and transitions aimed at transforma-
tive learning.

KEYWORDS

career development, career transition, coaching techniques,

executive coaching, human resource development,
transformative learning, transition coaching

1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N

Career development and transitions are core components of human resource development (HRD) and have become
“significant” for the discipline (Sun & Wang, 2009, p. 511), yet it is widely acknowledged that career development
has received inadequate research attention (Egan, Upton, & Lynham, 2006; McDonald & Hite, 2005; Swanson & Hol-
ton, 2009). This is surprising, since career transitions have become more prevalent and therefore critically important
in organizations due to the increasingly flexible nature of work (Black & Warhurst, 2019). If the study of career tran-
sitions is important to HRD, then understanding how career transitions can be supported becomes an urgent area of
inquiry for HRD scholars and practitioners.
A promising approach to studying career transitions in HRD is to view it as “an experience of learning” (Black &
Warhurst, 2019, p. 26). In fact, Black and Warhurst (2019, p. 29) describe career transitions as “particular, but as yet
not widely recognized, form of learning and of HRD.” They emphasize the importance of identifying HRD interven-
tions that can assist with learning during career transitions, in particular deeper learning that goes beyond the mere
acquisition of skills and knowledge. An intervention that may fit this description is coaching (since many organiza-
tions already use coaching as part of their standard HRD practice; Bozer & Delegach, 2019), and specifically, transi-
tion coaching aimed at promoting transformative learning. Transformative learning is concerned with the study of
deep, permanent perspective and worldview changes in adults as a result of a learning experience (Mezirow, 1994).
Transition coaching is often used to support managers' learning during career transitions (McGill, Clarke, & Shef-
field, 2019), however, not much is known about the detailed “active ingredients” (McKenna & Davis, 2009, p. 244) or
“significant aspects” (Bachkirova, Sibley, & Myers, 2015, p. 435) of coaching in general, and for transition coaching
specifically. The importance of this knowledge gap becomes evident when considering the definition of coaching
adopted in this study: “a human development process that involves structured, focused interaction and the use of
appropriate strategies, tools, and techniques to promote desirable and sustainable change for the benefit of the
coachee and potentially for other stakeholders” (Bachkirova, Cox, & Clutterbuck, 2014, p. 1). This definition under-
scores the importance of “how” to coach in different coaching contexts, especially when sustained change is a
desired outcome.
The lack of knowledge about the “how” of coaching is a result of the numerous theoretical underpinnings of
coaching (Grant, 2014; Shoukry & Cox, 2018), leading in practice to coaches applying strategies, tools, and tech-
niques from other fields, with little consideration for empirical evidence that supports the appropriateness of these
choices in given coaching contexts (Spence & Oades, 2011; Theeboom, Beersma, & Van Vianen, 2013). Recently, this
has led to the focus of coaching research shifting away from efficacy studies, to “how” coaching works in general,
and in particular contexts such as career transition coaching (De Haan, Bertie, Day, & Sills, 2010; Gray, 2011;
McKenna & Davis, 2009).
In this study, “coaching context” refers to the predominant circumstances that influence the coaching interven-
tion. No clear topology of coaching contexts is evident from the literature, and classifications include executive, busi-
ness, life, and various types of workplace coaching (Hamlin, Ellinger, & Beattie, 2009; Grant, 2012; Stern, 2004), as
TERBLANCHE 3

well as distinctions between coaching mode, role, and supervisory relationship (Fillery-Travis & Lane, 2006). At a high
level, however, workplace coaching is more prevalent than non-workplace coaching (Bozer & Jones, 2018; Shoukry
& Cox, 2018).
Transition coaching, defined as “an individual intervention aimed at supporting the transitioning leader by
addressing issues that may prevent them from being effective in the new role” (Witherspoon & Cannon, 2004, p.
203), is an example of a context-specific workplace coaching intervention. Transition coaching occurs during a career
transition, in this study, understood to be the phenomenon where a manager is promoted to a more senior job level
involving more complex responsibilities. These career transitions are considered by some as one of the most chal-
lenging periods of a manager's career (Martin, 2015). Transition coaching supports the learning of transitioning man-
agers by providing a customized, one-on-one intervention that leads to increased confidence, capabilities, and
strengthened identity (McGill et al., 2019). What remains unknown is exactly which strategies, tools, and techniques
are best suited to the transition coaching context, and in particular to facilitating learning beyond skills and knowl-
edge—transformative learning. This knowledge gap echoes the findings of Grover and Furnham (2016), who note
that limited research has investigated the effectiveness of different coaching techniques in similar settings. Further-
more, understanding the contributors to coaching efficacy is important, as coaching is growing in importance as an
HRD intervention, placing the learner at “the center of the experience” in an “adaptable and tailored manner” (Bozer
& Jones, 2018, p. 342).
In this study, transformative learning (Mezirow, 1994) is used as a theory to examine a deeper, more sustainable
form of learning during career transitions. While perhaps not all career transitions warrant transformative learning,
this study chose to focus on a deeper level of learning, in line with the chosen definition of coaching that emphasizes
the need and importance of sustained change (Bachkirova et al., 2014) and the need in HRD for learning during
career transitions that goes beyond the acquisition of skills and knowledge (Black & Warhurst, 2019).
Given the gap in knowledge on “how” coaching works in general and specifically during career transitions aimed
at promoting transformative learning, the question this research therefore asks is: How should transition coaching be
applied as an HRD intervention aimed at facilitating transformative learning during career transitions? An answer to
this question may assist coaches and HRD practitioners to use transition coaching as a learning intervention that
facilitates significant, deep learning that is fit for purpose and based on research, and not on intuition or anecdotal
evidence (Passmore & Fillery-Travis, 2011).

2 | T H E C O N F LU E N C E O F C A R E E R TR A N S I T I O N S , TR A N S F O R M A T I V E
L E A RN I N G , A N D T R A N S I T I O N C O A C H I N G

Career transitions in the form of job role changes present significant challenges to the incumbent. Many managers
fail full transition (operate at the required job level), with potentially severe negative implications for the individual
and the organization, especially at senior levels (Martin & Gentry, 2011), therefore some organizations resort to tran-
sition coaching. Transition coaching is a specialization of business or executive coaching and is an emerging practice
that is in high demand (Bond & Naughton, 2011). It is, however, not well researched, with only a few empirical stud-
ies noted (McGill et al., 2019; G. Reynolds, 2011). Although many forms of workplace coaching implicitly aim to sup-
port career growth, transition coaching specifically focuses on the transition event and aims to help incumbents
identify critical issues; define the expectations of their stakeholders; gain an outside perspective on their new role;
and communicate more effectively within the organization. Transition coaching aims to help the newly appointed
manager to become effective in their new role, as well as protecting the organization against the significant cost of
transition failure (Bond & Naughton, 2011; G. Reynolds, 2011).
During career transitions, learning beyond the obvious acquisition of skills and knowledge is needed to ensure
success (Black & Warhurst, 2019). Transformative learning provides a framework to explore a deeper form of learn-
ing by studying the phenomenon of significant structural and permanent changes in adults (Mezirow, 1997). It is a
4 TERBLANCHE

process by which previously uncritically assimilated assumptions, beliefs, values, and perspectives are questioned
and thereby become more open and permeable (Cranton, 2005). Transformative learning typically results from a
challenging situation that causes temporary confusion, called a disorienting dilemma (Mezirow, 1994). In this
research, the disorienting dilemma is the career transition event, since it can cause a “discomforting sense of floun-
dering on a journey through a zone of liminality toward an uncertain future self” (Black & Warhurst, 2019, p. 29).
Links have been made between transformative learning theory and coaching (Cox, Bachkirova, & Clutterbuck, 2014;
Gray, 2006), with Gray's (2006) discussion in particular providing a thorough overview. However, there are no clear
pragmatic guidelines on how to apply transformative learning during coaching, a topic addressed in the present
study.
Undergoing transformative learning implies changing meaning perspectives. Mezirow distinguishes between a
number of meaning perspectives in Table 1.
These meaning perspectives act as filters through which all experiences are interpreted. In career transitions,
unhelpful perspectives, such as the unconscious use of inappropriate language (sociolinguistic perspective), could
prevent an incumbent from succeeding in the new role. Terblanche, Albertyn, and Van Coller-Peter (2018) show that
transition coaching aimed at transformative learning has the ability to identify and change problematic perspectives
into more appropriate ones, thus assisting in a more successful tenure.
Mezirow identified 10 phases of transformative learning (Kitchenham, 2008):

1 A disorienting dilemma;
2 Self-examination with feelings of guilt or shame;
3 Critical assessment of assumptions;
4 Relating discontent to others;
5 Exploration of options for new roles, relationships, and actions;
6 Planning a course of action;
7 Acquisition of knowledge and skills for implementing one's plans;
8 Provisional trying of new roles;
9 Building of competence and self-confidence in new roles and relationships; and
10 A reintegration into one's life on the basis of conditions dictated by new perspectives.

TABLE 1 Mezirow's meaning perspectives (Hoggan, 2016; Kitchenham, 2008; Mezirow, 2008)

Mezirow's meaning perspective Description

Sociolinguistic The use of language in social settings, social norms, and cultural expectations
and the way language reflects these norms and expectations.
Moral ethical Involving conscience, moral norms, and values.
Epistemic Concerning what knowledge is and how it is acquired.
Psychological Self-concept, inhibitions, anxieties and fears, emotional response patterns;
how people view themselves.
Philosophical World view, political view, and religious doctrine.
Health View on approach to health; interpreting health problems.
Political Informal, unofficial, and sometimes behind-the-scenes efforts to sell ideas,
influence an organization, increase power, or achieve other targeted
objectives.
Aesthetic Taste, attitude, standards, judgments about beauty, and the insight and
authenticity of aesthetic expressions.
TERBLANCHE 5

The exploration of new options could include a process of experiential learning where, through the
transformation of experience, new knowledge is created (Kolb, 2014). Experiential learning is an important
mechanism in management learning; however, it does not guarantee transformative learning, since it may not
necessarily lead to a new, reintegrated self that embodies the new worldviews (Kitchenham, 2008). Mezirow
states that critical reflection is a key aspect of transformative learning and distinguishes between content reflec-
tion (learning from past actions), process reflection (learning from the origins of actions) and premise reflection
(learning from questioning current assumptions) (Mezirow, 2008). Only premise reflection, also referred to as
double-loop learning, can facilitate transformative learning (Argyris, 1991), because it involves a global, “much
deeper, more complex” assessment of reality (Kitchenham, 2008, p. 115). Transformative learning is not without
criticism, with Newman (2012, p. 36) pointing out that transformative learning is nothing more than “good
learning.” He argues that any form of significant learning potentially leads to the claims made by transformative
learning theory. Nevertheless, transformative learning is a well-established and well-researched field that pro-
vides a concrete basis for the study of management learning in a coaching context (Gray, 2006). Transformative
learning fosters critical reflection, a necessary prerequisite in examining personal and organizational assumptions
that ultimately lead to learning (Gray, 2006).
The aim of transition coaching that facilitates lasting change in individuals is to create a transformative learning
experience through which managers question their beliefs, assumptions, and values, previously taken for granted.
Through critical reflection and discourse facilitated by the transition coach, they change their perspectives in favor
of a more inclusive, open, and accommodating worldview in relation to the situations they face and people they
interact with in their new roles (Cranton, 2005; Mezirow, 2008). Terblanche et al. (2018, p. 71) provide the example
of a recently promoted senior manager who held an unhelpful political perspective (Mezirow, 1994) of “I don't need
to play the political game at work since all my previous promotions ‘came to me.’” After undergoing transition
coaching of a transformative nature, the manager's political perspective changed to “I am naïve to think that politics
are bad. At a senior level politics is the name of the game….” This instance of transformative learning assisted the
manager to enact new required behavior in line with the complexities of his job level.
When is a learning experience transformative? There are no easy answers. Cranton and Hoggan (2012, p. 527)
state that “the literature is oddly silent on the issue of evaluation of transformative learning.” Cranton and
Hoggan (2012) propose a number of schemes for assessing transformative learning, including conducting retrospec-
tive interviews with participants, and to search for themes in the narratives that align with generally agreed defini-
tions of the transformative process. Hoggan (2016) provides a more pragmatic approach and asserts that
transformative learning occurs when the learning experience fulfills three criteria:

1 Depth: The learning must generate a significant change of a substantial nature in the person's life.
2 Breadth: The change must present itself in multiple contexts in the person's life (e.g., work and private life).
3 Relative stability: The change must be of a permanent nature.

A key tenet of the present study is how transition coaching could be conducted to assist with transformative
learning and Hoggan's criteria provide an intuitive, pragmatic guide for this assessment. In fact, by searching for spe-
cific techniques that may promote transformative learning and by applying Hoggan's criteria, this study engages with
one of the critiques on transformative learning, namely lack of quantifiability and the “unarticulated mechanisms that
may be at play” (Howie & Bagnall, 2013, p. 826).
The confluence of career transitions and transition coaching aimed at creating transformative learning as dis-
cussed in this section, sets a very specific coaching context and therefore presents fertile ground for investigating
the phenomenon of context-specific coaching techniques. This in turn, helps to answer the call of coaching scholars
for more empirical evidence on “how” coaching works in particular contexts (Spence & Oades, 2011; Theeboom
et al., 2013) and the call of HRD scholars for the need to better understand career transitions (Black &
Warhurst, 2019; Egan et al., 2006; McDonald & Hite, 2005; Swanson & Holton, 2009).
6 TERBLANCHE

3 | “ H O W” C O A C H I N G W O R K S

Coaching research has made significant strides in the last 20 years (Grant, 2016), with the focus shifting from
efficacy studies to how it works (De Haan et al., 2010; Theeboom et al., 2013). The “how” of coaching research
is described in various ways in the literature and has sometimes led to contrasting findings. De Haan et al. (2010,
p. 607) refer to “critical moments” and looked at coachees' perspectives on what they found helpful during a
coaching intervention. They report that coachees value new insights and realizations above anything else.
McKenna and Davis (2009, p. 244) refer to the “active ingredients” of coaching and found that the coach–
coachee relationship is an important contributor to coaching success. A study by De Haan, Grant, Burger, and
Eriksson (2016) found that the strength of the coach–coachee working alliance as well as coachee self-efficacy
had a positive effect on coaching outcomes. In a meta-analysis on the association between working alliance and
coaching outcomes, Graßmann, Schölmerich, and Schermuly (2020) found that working alliance and coaching
outcomes were positively related. They also found a negative relation between working alliance and unintended
negative effects of coaching such as clients being less satisfied with their jobs after coaching. In another meta-
analysis, Bozer and Jones (2018) identified seven factors that contribute to successful workplace coaching: self-
efficacy, coachee motivation, goal orientation, trust, interpersonal attraction, feedback intervention, and supervi-
sory support. Of particular interest to the present study is the fact that “if coachees are not motivated to
invest effort and persistence toward change in attitude, skills, and performance following coaching, then the
coaching is unlikely to have the desired impact” (p. 349). Transitioning managers must therefore be actively
involved in the transition coaching process to benefit from the intervention.
In other studies, Scoular and Linley (2006) found no link between coach–coachee personality match and
coaching efficacy, and according to Grant (2012, 2014), goal setting is more important than the level of satisfaction
with coach–coachee relationships. Bachkirova et al. (2015) created an instrument to measure significant aspects of a
coaching session. Their results indicate that “there may be considerable similarities in how coaching is actually prac-
ticed,” despite variations in coaching approaches, and they conclude that their finding “makes possible a number of
research projects” (Bachkirova et al., 2015, p. 431). This finding is significant to the present study, since transition
coaching denotes a coaching context, not a specific coaching approach such as solution-focused, relational, or cogni-
tive-behavioral (Ives, 2008). This assertion provides a premise in the present study for assuming relative similarities
among coaching approaches as a way of managing the complexity of studying context—specifically transition
coaching.
In summary, the focus on “how” coaching works is an active research area with contradictions and
unanswered questions. Understanding how to apply coaching in specific contexts holds the potential to
improve coaching efficacy, and therefore the present study aims to contribute to the understanding of which
coaching techniques promote a specific outcome (transformative learning) in a narrow context (transition
coaching).

4 | M E TH O DO LO GY

A two-phased qualitative research design was used to investigate the nature and prevalence of coaching techniques
that could facilitate transformative individual learning during transition coaching. This enquiry was done from the
perspective of managers (coachees) who had received coaching during their job role change. Deductive and summa-
tive content analysis (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005) was performed on 20 coachee interviews. Deductive content analysis
was used to identify instances of transformative learning, underpinned by perspective changes (Mezirow, 1994) as a
result of transition coaching. Summative content analysis was used to cluster and enumerate the frequency of
coaching techniques identified by participants as having assisted in their transformative learning and perspective
changes. A detailed discussion follows.
TERBLANCHE 7

4.1 | Sampling

Purposive sampling was used to identify participants who fulfill the following inclusion criteria: worked in a corporate
organization of any size; were promoted to a more senior management position in the last 3 years; received at least
five coaching sessions during the transition period from a business or executive coach who is external to their orga-
nization; had ended the coaching at least 1 year ago before the interview; and experienced significant personal
change as a result of the coaching. Participants were sourced via the researcher's coaching network. Coaches were
asked to identify managers (after confirming their willingness to participate) whom they have coached and who met
the inclusion criteria. In total, 9 coaches suggested 27 participants. The 27 prospective participants were pre-
screened by the researcher via telephone to assess their eligibility against the inclusion criteria. Twenty-three partici-
pants passed the pre-screening of which the first 20 who were contacted (denoted as P1 to P20) were eventually
included in the study (see discussion on data saturation). All participants worked in South African corporate organiza-
tions. Table 2 provides a summary of the demographic and organizational details of the participants. There were 12
males and 8 females. Eight participants were middle managers (managing a team or group of managers), eight senior
managers (responsible for a function or business unit), and four executive managers (Charan, Drotter, & Noel, 2011).
For Hoggan's (2016) criteria of transformative learning to be met, a measure of relative stability was required.
This inclusion criterion of a 1-year time lapse since coaching ended was deemed sufficiently long to meet Hoggan's
requirement, yet it raised the known issue of the perceived weakness of retrospective data collection due to recall
bias (Moss & Goldstein, 1979; Theeboom et al., 2013). The researcher remained conscious of this compromise during

TABLE 2 Participant demographics

Reference Gender Hierarchical position Industry and organizational sizea Years of work experience
P1 Male Middle manager Banking—large 11
P2 Female Senior manager Telecommunication—large 22
P3 Female Middle manager Manufacturing—medium 15
P4 Male Executive manager Retail—large 29
P5 Male Middle manager Health and fitness—medium 13
P6 Female Senior manager Retail—large 16
P7 Male Senior manager Telecommunication—large 14
P8 Male Middle manager Manufacturing—large 16
P9 Female Executive manager Retail—medium 19
P10 Male Middle manager Retail—large 13
P11 Female Senior manager Insurance—large 20
P12 Male Senior manager Telecommunication—Large 25
P13 Female Middle manager Banking—large 11
P14 Male Middle manager Insurance—large 14
P15 Male Executive manager Manufacturing—large 28
P16 Female Senior manager Insurance—medium 18
P17 Male Senior manager Banking—large 20
P18 Male Executive manager Retail—large 31
P19 Female Middle manager Financial services—medium 9
P20 Male Senior manager Financial services—medium 14
a
Number of employees in the organization: small: 0–250; medium: 251–5,000; large: >5,000.
8 TERBLANCHE

the data collection process and attempted to aid recollection through questions on the change event (the promotion
and new role) itself, as this assists in recollection accuracy (Blane, 1996).

4.2 | Data gathering and deductive and summative content analysis

Sample size in qualitative research is much debated, with suggestions ranging from 5 to 50 participants (Marshall,
Cardon, Poddar, & Fontenot, 2013; Morse, 2000). For this study, data saturation, defined as “the point in data collec-
tion and analysis when new information produces little or no change” (Guest, Bunce, & Johnson, 2006, p. 65) to the
result, was used to determine the sample size of 20. This number, arrived at after the deductive and summative con-
tent analyses of the first 14 interviews, was used as a baseline to reveal a clear gap in frequency of occurrence
between the top five and the rest of the coaching techniques. For subsequent interviews, deductive and summative
analyses were performed for each interview before moving on to the next interview. The count of techniques for
each newly analyzed interview was added to the cumulative total of the previously analyzed interviews before con-
ducting and analyzing the next interview. The relative gap in frequency of occurrence between the top five tech-
niques and the rest was maintained throughout these per-interview analyses, suggesting that the top five techniques
were in fact used more frequently than the others. After 20 interviews, a judgment call was made that a sufficient
form of data saturation was reached, given the objectives of the study (Morse, 2000).
The aim of the interviews was to elicit specific information about instances of transformative learning and asso-
ciated coaching techniques so that deductive content analysis could be used to identify and further analyze these
occurrences. Note that in deductive content analysis, the aim is to use existing theory to identify key concepts. An
example in the HRD context would be to use a theory of job performance factors to investigate its relevance to call
center workers (Pandey, 2019). This is different to inductive content analysis where the researcher avoids
preconceived categories, allowing categories to emerge from the data (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). In line with
suggested deductive content analysis practice, a combination of open-ended and focused questions was asked
(Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). This allowed the researcher to focus the interviews and hone in on the information
required. Thus, interviews lasted on average between 45 and 60 min, a maximum time set by the senior managers,
given their busy schedules.
It was assumed that the participants were unfamiliar with transformative learning theory. Participants were
therefore not asked about specific theoretical constructs (e.g., sociolinguistic perspective change). Instead, questions
were asked to elicit information that could be analyzed. The first question (Appendix A) invited participants to recall
all significant changes they experienced as a result of coaching, while the questions that followed elicited more infor-
mation on the nature and significance of each change, as well as the perceived coaching techniques used by the
coach. Participants were free to describe the perceived coaching technique in their own words—no list was
provided.
After the audio-recorded interviews were transcribed, deductive content analysis (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005) was
used to search for reported instances of meaning perspective changes (Mezirow, 2008) that comply with
Hoggan's (2016) criteria for transformative learning. The majority of meaning perspective changes identified com-
plied with Hoggan's criteria. This is possibly due to participants being recommended by their coaches based on inclu-
sion criteria that included a significant personal change, as well as the subsequently pre-screening via telephone by
the researcher that informally assessed Hoggan's criteria. The few cases that did not meet Hoggan's criteria all
related to the second criterion, breadth (perspective change was not observable in multiple life domains). An example
is P1 who described a perspective change of how he sees himself (psychological perspective) that led to him being
more assertive at work, but not yet in his private life.
All cases where Hoggan's (2016) criteria were met were then marked as transformative learning instances.
Transformative learning instances were classified into types of perspectives (sociolinguistic, moral ethical, epistemic,
psychological, philosophical, health, political, and aesthetic) (Mezirow, 2008). The transformative learning instances
TERBLANCHE 9

were further analyzed to identify the perceived coaching techniques used to create each of the perspective changes.
Identified coaching techniques were grouped, consolidated, and categorized by the researcher. The result was a list
of coaching techniques experienced by the coachee, associated with perspective changes that in turn may have
assisted with instances of transformative learning.
Following the deductive analysis, a frequency analysis of the coaching techniques relative to perspective
changes was performed using summative content analysis. Summative content analysis involves counting occur-
rences of certain predefined instances in the data (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). In this study, it implied recording the
number of instances where the coaching techniques identified in the previous step may have contributed to a
change in one of Mezirow's (2008) eight perspectives as perceived by the participants. However, this approach goes
beyond regimented quantification, and includes interpreting the content and “discovering the underlying meaning of
the words” (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005, p. 1284), since multiple words could refer to the same concept. Summative con-
tent analysis of this nature is used in studies involving complex issues such as end-of-life events, death and bereave-
ment, and spirituality (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005), and it was deemed appropriate given the complex nature of
transformative learning.

4.3 | Research quality assurance

To promote research credibility, a second experienced qualitative researcher (an expert in coaching and transforma-
tive learning) was asked to verify the deductive and summative analysis steps. All interview transcripts were rea-
nalyzed for transformative learning instances and associated perspective changes, as well as associated coaching
techniques. Findings from this second analysis were compared with the initial findings across all transcripts. Possibly
due to the clear, pragmatic nature of Hoggan's (2016) transformative learning criteria, the first and second analyses
were in agreement in terms of whether transformative learning occurred. The identification of types of perspective
change and coaching techniques were more nuanced but also largely aligned due to the focused questioning during
the interviews. In cases of disagreement, a discussion using the guiding theories (Hoggan, 2016; Hsieh &
Shannon, 2005; Mezirow, 2008) served to arrive at a joint decision. In addition, participants were asked to perform
member-checking (Anderson, 2017) of the transcribed interviews. Due to the busy nature of especially senior and
executive managers, only 7 of the 20 participants responded to the request. The feedback received indicated that
the transcripts were generally sufficiently accurate.
As a qualitative researcher, the author applied reflexivity (being critically self-aware of the researcher's role in
this research) (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) in an attempt to remain conscious of context and positionality (Ander-
son, 2017). The researcher is a practicing coach, which assisted in the identification of coaching scenarios and tech-
niques, but care was taken during the deductive analysis to strictly enforce Hoggan's criteria for transformative
learning to avoid over-identification of transformative learning instances. Reflexivity was practiced through keeping
a researcher's journal and consulting with the second experienced qualitative researcher on a regular basis.

5 | FINDINGS

The main objective of this research was to investigate which coaching techniques are able to facilitate transformative
learning in individuals during career transition coaching, as experienced by the coachees. Each of the 20 participants
indicated one significant change with one participant (P11) indicating a second, thus leading to a total of 21 instances
of transformative learning. In turn, each of the 21 transformative learning instances was deconstructed into 61 per-
spective changes that underpinned the transformative learning instances (Table 3).
A transformative learning instance is the perception of an occurrence of significant change in a participant's life
that satisfies Hoggan's three criteria: depth, breath, and relative stability. Transformative learning instances were
 10

TABLE 3 Perspective change per transformative learning (TL) instance

TL perspective

TL instance Sociolinguistic Moral ethical Epistemic Philosophical Psychological Political Health Aesthetic Total

1 X X X 3
2 X X 2
3 X X X X 4
4 X X X 3
5 X X 2
6 X X X 3
7 X X X X 4
8 X X X 3
9 X X 2
10 X X X 3
11 X X X X 4
12 X X 2
13 X X X 3
14 X X X X 4
15 X X X X 4
16 X X X 3
17 X X X 3
18 X X X 3
19 X X 2
20 X X 2
21 X X 2
Total 17 5 6 8 20 5 0 0 61
TERBLANCHE
TERBLANCHE 11

identified by classifying participants' accounts of their perceived change according to Mezirow's perspectives in
Table 1. Each transformative learning instance was accompanied by a change in one or more of the eight Mezirow
perspectives. This is indicated by each row in Table 3. Transformative learning instance 1, for example (first row),
represents changes in the participant's sociolinguistic, moral ethical, and psychological perspectives as follows: Par-
ticipant 11 (P11) experienced a dramatic change as a result of transition coaching. Her old worldview amounted to a
comparative intellectual superiority in relation to her peers and subordinates, leading to socially unacceptable behav-
ior. She would, in the presence of co-workers, express her disdain at their perceived incompetence. She felt it her
moral duty to point out “rotten apples.” The coaching helped her realize that this worldview was hindering her
success in her new role. Despite her intellectual and technical aptitude, her relationships were eroding, she was
disliked by her colleagues, and she was being excluded from decision-making. Coaching assisted her in creating
a new, more inclusive worldview (an instance of transformative learning). She became more self-aware of the
responsibilities that accompany a high intellect (change in psychological perspective). She acknowledged the
effects of her actions and language on others and stopped acting and speaking in a condescending manner
(change in sociolinguistic perspective). She no longer wanted to “rid the world of idiocy,” but acknowledged that
people are different and “deserve their place in the sun” (change in moral ethical perspective). This transforma-
tion passed Hoggan's three criteria for transformative learning. It had significant depth, since no change would
have led to stunted career prospects. It had breadth, since she also noticed the change in her private life where
she had previously struggled with maintaining personal relationships, especially with the opposite sex. It had rel-
ative stability, since P11 was interviewed approximately 1 year after the coaching ended, and she stated that
the change was still in effect.
In cases where transformative learning instances occurred, participants were probed as to how the coaching
facilitated the change. The responses were extracted from the interview data, classified, labeled, and clustered into
groups of similar coaching techniques, for example, “questioning.” This coaching technique classification process led
to a final set of 13 techniques that coachees thought had assisted their transformative learning event (Table 4).
The first column in Table 4 lists the eight Mezirow (2008) perspectives while the top row lists the 13 consoli-
dated coaching techniques, the latter ranked from most to least frequently experienced (Table 5). Tables 4 and 5
indicate that five techniques were experienced significantly more by coachees than the rest.
The highest infrequently used technique (listening with 9 occurrences) is still considerably lower than the lowest
frequently used technique (frameworks and theory with 17 occurrences). The other coaching techniques all had a
frequency of less than 10. The frequently used techniques are presented next.

5.1 | Active experimentation

The most frequently experienced coaching technique that helped facilitate transformative learning in a number of
participants (P2, P6, P7, P10, P11, P14, P15, P18, and P20) was “active experimentation.” Coaches encouraged their
clients to test new insights gained during the coaching sessions in practice, by applying it in their new roles. One per-
tinent example is P6 who struggled to have the confidence to speak in front of a large audience. Her coach
suggested that she practice in front of the mirror. This boosted her self-confidence and ultimately contributed to a
transformation in her sociolinguistic perspective:

I've always grown up knowing that I'm a shy person—that talking in public is one thing I've hated the
most in my life and even in meetings. I would attend and even if I had something to say, I would sit
and keep quiet, but the coaching changed all of that. It helped me to start talking. (P6)

The experimentation was not always easy. P2's coach dared her to engage in the challenging task of having difficult
conversations (a change in sociolinguistic perspective), which she normally shied away from:
 12

TABLE 4 Coaching technique used to facilitate perspective changes

Coaching techniques

Consulting Analyzing Challenging

Goal Active Frameworks external Networking current Future Role views and
Listening Questioning Reflection setting experimentation and theory Assessments parties and branding situation vision playing perspectives Unclear
Perspectives Sociolinguistic 3 8 8 1 15 8 0 3 1 4 0 5 11 3
Moral ethical 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0
Epistemic 0 2 3 0 4 2 0 0 0 4 3 0 0 0
Philosophical 0 4 4 1 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1
Psychological 5 22 13 3 16 4 7 0 0 0 0 1 12 5
Political 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 5 0 3 0 0 0
Health 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Aesthetic 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total 9 37 29 5 41 17 7 3 6 8 6 6 27 9
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TERBLANCHE 13

TABLE 5 Ranked coaching techniques that potentially aided in transformative learning

Coaching technique Occurrences Description Selected verbatim quotes

Active experimentation 41 Co-designing behavioral I embraced the experimentation to see how
experiments with the manager people would react. Again this was not
in between coaching sessions. messing with people's brains but it was
experimenting to see how it would impact
on people and it did, it changed me. (P15)
Questioning 37 The coach asking incisive It felt to me that the coach was equipped to
questions that stimulated at least understand and provide me with
reflection and promoted some ways of thinking. (P1)
alternative perspectives.
Reflection 29 Allowing the manager to reflect So it [coaching] made me you know, reflect,
during and after the coaching take a step back reflect and challenge
sessions on insights and myself, to say “listen ok you've been doing
outcomes of experimentation. it this way, what about the following?”
Umm, “where can you improve on your
approach or, my views of stuff.” (P9)
Challenging views and 27 Managers liked being challenged [My coach said] I also need to be open and
providing different openly in a directive manner in have some emotional intelligence to
perspectives order to gain alternative understand, listen ok, this is who I am, this
perspectives. is my beliefs and the way I do stuff, umm,
but I need to be open and honest with
myself with regards to other approaches.
So that I did appreciate. (P7)
Frameworks and 17 Managers valued the acquisition The coach gave me some models I'm aware
theories of new knowledge in the form of, like for example Jaques's stratified
of theories and frameworks systems … I'm conscious of things like the
(shared by their coaches) on leadership pipeline … my coach would say
how they were learning, “have a look at that and think about what
changing, and the challenges is the passage that you're making at that
they faced. level.” (P1)
Listening 9 The ability of the coach to listen So the coach, through listening skills, could
attentively. pick up on the main things that actually
was the root of why progress couldn't be
made. (P11)
Unclear 9 Participants were not sure which I really can't say what the coach did to cause
coaching techniques were this change in me. It was all together as a
used. package, the coaching. (P20)
Analyzing current 8 Gaining more insight into the [That coaching session] was around you
situation present state of the coachee. know, where am I in a whole lot of aspects
of my life, so a financial aspect, do I feel
financially secure, am I making
investments, you know, so a whole kind of
audit of a financial side, a whole audit of a
family relationships side, a whole audit of
friends, an audit of fitness, and an audit of
professional development, and an audit of
intellectual stimulation. (P13)
Assessments 7 Using psychometric or other Something else she [the coach] did was to
types of assessments. conduct a 360. She got the 360 to be done
by the members of the board as well as the
senior management team and team. (P18)

(Continues)
14 TERBLANCHE

TABLE 5 (Continued)

Coaching technique Occurrences Description Selected verbatim quotes

Networking and 6 Expanding the coachee's [My coach] made me realize that despite the
branding network and actively fact that I've got a very good network, I
promoting themselves. didn't have a very good network at the
level that I would need to operate at. (P12)
Future vision 6 Imagining an ideal future state. [My coach] really opened up the kind of
question of how, where would I see myself
in a couple of years' time, what aspirations
do I have? (P8)
Role playing 6 Enacting potential social My coach would just say let's rehearse: If it's
scenarios. a senior person and you are bit nervous
about approaching the person, imaging you
are now talking to that person, when you
walk in how would you start the
conversation? (P14)
Goal setting 5 Agreeing on and actively aiming These important things you put on the
to fulfill a coaching outcome. backburner, you don't get to it, but with
those specific goals I was actually
challenged to execute because I had to
give feedback. (P11)
Consulting external 3 Enlisting the help of people [The coach] encouraged me to reconnect
parties outside of the coaching dyad. with my old manager, to be like a mentor
of me here in the new role. (P12)

I had my first such a difficult conversation with a director. I became emotional, and … umm … I nearly
walked out of his office. But then, at the same time, you know, the little voice in your head telling you
if you walk out now, you've lost the plot. So, stick around and get through it. (P2)

P11, (referenced earlier), found value in active experimentation to change her sociolinguistic perspective:

Go into a meeting and try and come out of it with the other party feeling: I love this person. Or go
into a meeting and try and get the person at the end going … “you really struck me as someone with
very high EQ” [emotional intelligence]. (P11)

By engaging in active experimentation, participants could convince themselves of the practical, real-life utility of
insights gained through the reflective process in the coaching sessions, and this evidence assisted them with trans-
forming previously deeply held beliefs and perspectives.

5.2 | Questioning

The second most frequently experienced technique was “questioning,” where the coach asked incisive questions that
stimulated reflection. P18 saw the questions as a mirror in which he could identify his blind spots. P12 was surprised
at how effectively the questions stimulated his thinking:

The questions my coach asked were much more effective than me, each December [holiday] go and
sit there under a tree with a glass of red wine and think … oh, that time of year … how do I do
stuff? (P12)
TERBLANCHE 15

Participants particularly valued the fact that their coaches were “equipped” to ask the “right kind” of question:
“open-ended” (P3 and P19); “Socratic” (P14); “non-judgmental” (P1, P8, and P14) and “probing” (P3, P17, and
P19). Participants generally indicated that they gained significant insights from the questions posed by their
coaches.

5.3 | Reflection

Participants experienced “reflection” as the third most frequently used coaching technique that assisted them
to experience transformative learning. Reflection occurred both during and between coaching sessions. Dur-
ing coaching sessions, coachees considered their actions, experiences, feelings, and responses under the guid-
ance of the coach. For some, this was the first step in reassessing their worldviews and associated
perspectives:

The space that the coaching sessions gave me, I think it helped a lot to think deeply about my posi-
tion, my life, everything! It helped me to realize I was not on the right path here. (P4)

Outside of coaching sessions, participants (P1, P9, P11, P16, P17, and P19) continued the process of reflection, and
in some cases, they mimicked their coach's in-session reflection to ask themselves pertinent questions:

Am I enjoying this? Is this where I want to go? Is it in line with my ethics and principles? Does it build
on my strengths? (P11)

Reflection was new to some participants and not easy to do initially (P2, P8, P15, and P17), but once they experi-
enced the benefits of this practice, they applied it regularly and it has become part of how they think even after the
coaching intervention had ended.

5.4 | Challenging views and providing different perspectives

Challenging their views and offering alternative perspectives were the fourth most frequently experienced tech-
nique. For some of the participants (P3, P4, P9, P12, and P16), it was necessary to hear the “harsh realities” from
their coaches, as was the case with P9, regarding her unhelpful psychological perspective:

She [my coach] challenged me: You can't say on the one hand that you can't stand to have people
under your shadow because they will never grow, and yet, when they are given the opportunity to
stretch, despite the fact that they may fail, you still want to play mother hen. This struck me hard, but
it was true… (P9)

Through this realization, she overcame her need to be involved in the detail of the business operations, a new per-
spective much needed in her more senior role. A number of participants valued the fact that their coaches encour-
aged them to see the “other side of the story” (P3, P9, and P14), consider the pros and cons of an approach (P5, P9,
P16, and P20) and generally do a “reality check” (P3, P9, and P15). The sentiment of being challenged to reconsider
current approaches is summarized by P9:
Umm, so that challenged my thinking of my traditional ways of approaching certain things which in my mind, in
my paradigm, I thought “no awesome, I know it all.” Obviously not. (P9).
16 TERBLANCHE

5.5 | Frameworks and theories

The final frequently experienced technique, was the coach explicitly sharing their knowledge on theoretical models
and frameworks about career transitions and behavioral change. Participants valued the inclusion of theoretical
models and frameworks in the coaching process. Coaches shared cognitive behavioral theory (P1 and P7), leadership
theory (P4, P8, P9, and P14), video clips on various aspects of learning and change (P3, P9, P15, and P18), and the
leadership pipeline model (P2, P7, P13, and P16). As an engineer and technically minded individual, P7 appreciated
the theoretical frameworks his coach shared with him:

I understood, you know, that I was not some kind of freak, that this happens to people and the people
of my personality type have ways of responding to stresses and stimuli in the business and that's
OK. (P7)

For P4 to be exposed to literature by his coach on being a senior executive, provided valuable insights and contrib-
uted to an epistemic perspective transformation:

I always thought I should just know what to do—I'm bright. But through the reading my coach gave
me, I tried to frame the work that I was doing against what a world-class executive would be
doing. (P4)

Knowing what is happening to them and understanding their transition in the context of an existing body of knowl-
edge seemed to normalize the situation for some participants and helped them to put into perspective the journey
they were on.

6 | DISCUSSION

Five coaching techniques, from transitioning managers' perspectives, were identified that appear to promote trans-
formative learning during career transition coaching more readily than other techniques. The findings are now inter-
preted through three theoretical lenses relevant to this study context: coaching, HRD, and transformative learning
theories.
From a coaching theory perspective, three of the five techniques (active experimentation, questioning, and
reflection) are considered standard in the traditional non-directive approach (Passmore & Fillery-Travis, 2011;
Peltier, 2010). For example, Gray (2006) refers to work from Schön (1987) to emphasize the importance of action in
coaching through a process of experimentation. In the study by Bachkirova et al. (2015), the items “Coach asks ques-
tions helping the client to elaborate” and “Coach asks questions that appear to open new possibilities for the client,”
were rated highest by participants regarding perceived importance. Gray (2006) thinks that using critical reflection in
coaching can stimulate a manager's thinking, judgment, and decision making, whereas in transition coaching, G. Reyn-
olds (2011) emphasizes that reflection helps coachees to become aware of limiting assumptions pertaining to the
new role. These findings therefore confirm the importance of experimentation, questioning, and reflection in
coaching, also in a career transition context.
A somewhat surprising finding, however, is that challenging the coachee and proving frameworks and theories
were also valued by the transitioning managers. The notion of the coach challenging coachees and imparting knowl-
edge is not generally advocated by the non-directive schools of coaching where a Rogerian approach is encouraged
instead (Ives, 2008). Bachkirova et al. (2015) found that coaches do not consider “Coach taking an active role in the
session” as very important, implying, contrary to this finding, that coaches should not actively challenge the views of
coachees. However, Bozer and Jones (2018) found that the questioning of faulty assumptions and re-examining of
TERBLANCHE 17

the realities they are based on improve coachee self-efficacy, an important predictor of coaching success. Further-
more, Jones and Spooner (2006) also found that challenging the coachee in their comfort zone was a necessary
ingredient of general coaching success.
Both findings from Bozer and Jones (2018) and Jones and Spooner (2006), however, stop short of rec-
ommending that coaches should share new knowledge in the form of theories and frameworks with their clients.
The finding from the present study extends our theoretical understanding of the epistemic boundaries of coaching. It
appears that in certain contexts, such as career transitions, clients value the acquisition of knowledge directly from
their coaches. One explanation could be that the new knowledge provides an informed, even pragmatic basis on
which to practice reflection and experimentation, thereby increasing the effectiveness of these two known agents of
change in coaching.
In terms of HRD theory, the present study addresses two aspects of career transitions: the view that career
transitions are learning experiences and the importance of supported reflection. Black and Warhurst (2019), p.
40) describe career transitions as “immersive and social learning experiences” while Hutchins and Ranbolt
(2017) point out that support is needed to reflect on the significance and impact of the transition event. The
findings suggest that both of these aspects were addressed by transition coaching. Through active experimenta-
tion, participants were able to apply in their work environment new ideas and suggestions emanating from their
coaching sessions. This is in line with M. Reynolds (2009, p. 390) who found that the immediacy and work-
related relevance of experiential learning are of great appeal, as it allows managers to confront “dilemmas and
problems that form the stuff of work experience.” The findings also indicate that reflection was supported by
the coach and allowed participants to gain significant new insights. The combination of reflection and action is
important. Reflection on its own may result in conceptual learning only; therefore, insights gained through
reflection must be applied in practice (Gray, 2007; Høyrup, 2004; Kolb, 2014; Raelin, 2005). The findings of the
present study position transition coaching and the use of specific techniques as a mechanism to support and
facilitate social learning and reflection during career transitions, thereby extending our understanding of career
transitions as an HRD phenomenon.
Transformative learning theory provides a basis for exploring significant learning that goes beyond the acquisi-
tion of skills and knowledge. Four of the five frequently used techniques can be directly linked back to transforma-
tive learning theory. The first is active experimentation. Of the 10 transformation phases described by Mezirow, 2
relate to active experimentation: “exploration of options for new roles, relationships and actions” (Phase 5) and “pro-
visional trying of new roles” (Phase 8) (Kitchenham, 2008, p. 105). In fact, Mezirow encourages learners to “take
action on one's reflective insight, and critically assess it” (Mezirow, 1997, p. 11). The cycle of learning is completed
only once the plans are put into action. The second is reflection (Kitchenham, 2008; Mezirow, 1994). Mezirow men-
tions the importance of critical reflection as a necessary condition for transformative learning by changing problem-
atic perspectives and mental frames leading to “significant personal transformations” (Mezirow, 1997, p. 7).
Cranton (2005) notes that critical reflection is vital in becoming aware of distorted perspectives. The third, frame-
works and theories, relates to the fact that transformative learning is a second-order (double-loop) learning event
(Argyris, 1991) that requires new knowledge and skills (Mezirow, 1994). In adult learning, there is a need for self-
directed learning (Merriam, 2001), and therefore, being equipped with factual knowledge could assist this learning
process of managers in transition. In terms of the fourth, challenging assumptions and providing different perspec-
tives, Mezirow (1994) states that discourse that presents and critically examines alternative points of view is
unavoidable if deep transformation is to be achieved. It is the role of the facilitator, in this case the coach, to chal-
lenge and reframe the learner's assumptions (Mezirow, 1997). With four of the five techniques identified in the pre-
sent study linking directly to Mezirow's theory, it appears that career transitions provide fertile ground for
transformative learning when coaching is applied in a specific manner. This is not surprising when one considers that
career transitions can provoke an identity crisis in the individual whereby they experience insecurity, anxiety, and
self-doubt (Nicholson & Carroll, 2013). These emotions are akin to disorienting dilemmas that often trigger transfor-
mative learning (Mezirow, 1997). The present study extends our understanding of how to act on this trigger through
18 TERBLANCHE

practical coaching techniques that not only help the client transition, but also promote significant learning in the
process.

6.1 | Anomalies in infrequently used techniques

Two of the eight infrequently used coaching techniques (listening—9 occurrences; and goal setting—5 occurrences)
warrant closer scrutiny, as their perceived infrequent application comes as a surprise for various reasons. The skill of
listening is regarded as a fundamental and core competency of any coach (Passmore & Fillery-Travis, 2011). Why
then did coachees in this research not consider listening to be important in their transformative learning experience?
It can be argued that listening by the coach is a fundamental ever-present skill and is perceived by the coachee as
passive and intangible. Participants in this research were not presented with a predefined list of coaching techniques,
but instead asked their opinion on what the coach did to help them with their transformative learning. If they had
been specifically asked whether their coach listened to them, the result may well have been different, since it is
unlikely that coaching can be effective without skilled listening by the coach. This finding therefore highlights that
the coaching techniques identified in this study are those recalled by coachees, and may not accurately reflect the
techniques employed by the coach.
Goal setting in coaching is an active research area. Grant (2012) in particular is among the avid proponents of
the importance of goal-focused coaching and claims that a goal-focused coaching style is more effective than “com-
mon factors” or person-centered coaching styles. A number of coaching definitions also include the notion of goal-
attainment (Maltbia, Marsick, & Ghosh, 2014, p. 165), yet participants in this study did not consider goal setting as
an important technique that facilitated their transformative learning experience, possibly because transformative
learning was not explicitly agreed upon as a goal. Instead, it manifested as a secondary effect during the process of
working toward an overt transition goal. Coachees would therefore not necessarily link goal setting with their trans-
formative learning experience, even though it may have played a part. Another interpretation could be that since this
study did not control for different coaching approaches, it is not possible to say to which extent coaches used goal-
oriented coaching.

7 | C O N TR I B U TI O N S

This research contributes theoretically on four fronts. First, career development and transitions are key focus
areas in HRD and increasingly so due to the ever dynamic nature of work. A contribution to this under
researched area of HRD is made by not only showing that coaching can be used as a career transition learning
intervention, but also identifying five coaching techniques that appear to be able to promote transformative
learning beyond mere skills and knowledge acquisition. Second, transformative learning is considered a natural
foundational theory of coaching and while conceptual links have been made between the two fields
(Gray, 2007), few studies have attempted to operationalize transformative learning for coaching interventions.
The present study fills this gap by showing how certain coaching techniques can facilitate perspective transfor-
mations in individuals during career transition coaching. Third, coaching research itself is moving beyond efficacy
studies to investigating “how” coaching works in specific contexts such as career transitions. The study pres-
ented here contributes to this line of inquiry by identifying coaching techniques that lead to a defined outcome
(transformative learning) in the narrow context of career transitions (job role changes). Finally, by applying
Hoggan's criteria to practically assess the level of transformative learning during a career transition, this study
engages with one of the critiques on transformative learning, namely the lack of quantifiability and the “unartic-
ulated mechanisms” thereof (Howie & Bagnall, 2013, p. 826).
TERBLANCHE 19

7.1 | Implications for HRD practice

On a practice level, a number of coaching and HRD stakeholders may benefit from this research. Coaches may bene-
fit from knowing which coaching techniques their clients consider effective in the context of transformative learning,
irrespective of the coaching approach used (Bachkirova et al., 2015). Coaches could start using the frequently used
techniques identified in this study more deliberately in their practice when engaging in transition coaching aimed to
promote transformative learning. The findings further suggest that transitioning managers value what they perceive
to be a knowledge-imparting coach. Transition coaches should therefore consider schooling themselves in career
transition and transformative learning theories and be prepared to impart this knowledge to their transitioning cli-
ents. Coach trainers could incorporate theory on career transitions and transformative learning in their teaching cur-
ricula as it pertains to transition coaching. Purchasers and custodians of coaching and HRD (especially career
transitions) in organizations could use these findings to include information on career transitions and transformative
learning in their career support programs. Finally, this study provides a motivation for HRD practitioners to consider
transition coaching as a career transition intervention.

8 | L I M I T A T I O NS A ND F U R T H ER R E S E A RC H

It is not easy to measure transformative learning, as acknowledged by leading scholars in the field, due to the subjec-
tive nature of the change (Cranton & Hoggan, 2012; Hoggan, 2016). This challenge therefore warranted a qualitative
approach. Within this paradigm, the limited sample characteristic of qualitative research implies that findings must
be interpreted within the study context and not be generalized.
In terms of participants, the present study used three broad classifications of managers (middle, senior, and exec-
utive) and did not consider differences such as demographics, industries, and so forth. Future research could focus
more on specific management roles or individual characteristics of coachees for an in-depth understanding of the
relationships between individual characteristics and coaching techniques they consider helpful.
Data were gathered through coachees' recollection of events that took place a year after the coaching ended
and relies on their interpretation of what a coach does. Although this provides a novel perspective, the results must
be interpreted with these limitations in mind. Future studies could be enhanced by taking a more diverse, longitudi-
nal approach of including the views of coaches, line managers of coachees, and coaching sponsors in organizations,
captured at various times both during and after the coaching intervention.
The findings of this research suggest that narrowly defined coaching contexts (career transitions in this case)
and specific outcomes (transformative learning) may warrant a deviation from standard coaching approaches. Future
research should explore these concepts in other contexts and desired outcomes, for example, retrenchments and
organizational restructures (Gray, Gabriel, & Goregaokar, 2015). The use of the identified coaching techniques should
also be researched in other contexts to verify that coaching techniques are indeed context-dependent.
Coaching is a non-linear, highly complex process and breaking it up into a mechanistic set of techniques is
indeed an oversimplification. This study simplified the problem by looking at coaching techniques in isolation to man-
age the complexity of the research problem. In reality, a coach may use a combination of techniques to achieve an
outcome. It is important, therefore, to view the techniques identified in this research as a set of contributing ele-
ments that together could lead to a certain result. Future research could investigate the possibility of how combined
coaching techniques can facilitate transformative learning.
In terms of methodology, summative content analysis tends to suffer from “inattention to broader meaning pre-
sent in the data” (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005, p. 1285). The summation of coaching techniques may be criticized as isola-
tionist, reductionist, and over simplistic. However, with so little known about the “how of coaching,” and even less in
the transition coaching context, this approach seemed justified to create a baseline understanding. Future research
20 TERBLANCHE

should consider a qualitative methodology that could incorporate and account for the complex, interwoven nature of
transition coaching interventions.
In this research, the interpretation of “transition coaching” as a context-specific rather than modality-specific (e.
g., solution-focused vs. goal-oriented) activity implies that the findings cannot be interpreted in terms of a coaching
modality. The justification for this approach is based on findings of Bachkirova et al. (2015) that a limited difference
exists between coaching modalities. Future research could, however, introduce the notion of varying modalities
within a set context as a basis for investigating appropriate coaching techniques.

9 | C O N CL U S I O N S

Transition coaching that employs specific coaching techniques identified in this research appears to help
transitioning managers undergo deep, transformative learning. This study enhances our understanding of how
coaching works in a specific HRD context by empirically linking coaching, transformative learning, and HRD. In a
world where career transitions occur more frequently due to the changing nature of work, individuals could benefit
considerably from the support provided by a targeted transition coaching intervention, employing the techniques
identified in this study.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Nicky Terblanche is an author and a researcher.

ORCID
Nicky Terblanche https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6796-6008

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AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY

Dr. Nicky Terblanche is a senior lecturer and researcher at the University of Stellenbosch Business School, South
Africa. His research interests include transition coaching, transformative learning, Social Network Analysis, com-
plexity theory and the use of artificial intelligence and machine learning in coaching and management.

How to cite this article: Terblanche N. Coaching techniques for sustained individual change during career
transitions. Human Resource Development Quarterly. 2020;1–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.21405

APP E NDIX A. : The interview questions

• Would you say that something changed significantly in your life as a result of the coaching you received during
your career transition?
• Can you describe the change?
• When did it occur?
• How did you become aware of the change?
• Why do you think it was significant?
• How permanent is this change?
• Does this change show itself in other areas of your life outside of work? How?
• How do you know it was the coaching that caused the change in you?
• What specifically did your coach do to create this change?