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Metal CLG
Metal CLG
Internal
Structure
Properties
Performance
1.3 METALLURGY:The metallurgy is a science of study of metals. The main classe of metallurgy are
as under:
C. Organic Materials:
b. Function Requirement:
I)Mechanical Properties:
i) Tensile Strength- Ability to withstand tensile forces. ii)Hardness- Resistance to penetration.
iii)Ductility- Ability to withstand elongation. iv)Impact Strength- Ability to absorb impact.
v)Wear/Corrosion Resistance- Ability to resist wear or corrosion. vi)Elasticity- Stress
disappears completely after removal of load. vii)Plasticity- Property that enables the formation
of permanent deformation.
b)Thermal Properties:
i)Specific Heat: Amount of heat required to change the temperature of unit mass of the body by
one degree Celsius. ii)Thermal Conductivity: Ability to conduct heat. iii)Thermal Expansion:
Tendency of matter to change in volume in response to change in temperature
c)Electrical Properties:
i)Conductivity: Ability to conduct electric current. ii)Resistivity: Ability to oppose electric
current.
d) Magnetic Properties: This property demonstrates the response of a material to the
application of a magnetic field. Magnetic moment, magnetic permeability
E. Chemical Properties: This property relate to the chemical reactivity of materials. Atomic
weight, Atomic Number, Molecular Number, Valancy, Chemical Composition
F. Optical Properties :This property means a material‟s response to exposure to
electromagnetic radiation and, in particular, to visible light Refractive Index, Reflectivity,
Absorption Coefficient.
c.Cost Consideration: Raw Material, Processing, Storage,Special Tratment, Packaging,
Inventory, Taxes
E. Chemical Properties: This property relate to the chemical reactivity of materials. Atomic
weight, Atomic Number, Molecular Number, Valancy, Chemical Composition
Handle Requirements:
2. Aesthetics.
1.6 THE STRUCTURE OF A MATERIAL: The structure of a material usually relates to the
arrangement of its internal components.
i)Subatomic structure ii) Atomic structure iii) Microscopic str. iv) Macroscopic str.
1. Crystalline: Atoms pack in periodic 3D arrays . typical of: metals, many ceramics, few
polymers eg.
a. Single Crystal: Anisotropic having directional properties. The modulus of elasticity (E) in
BCC iron is different in different directions as shown in the figure.e.g. Sugar, NaCl, Diamond.
`
Iron Crystal BCC Isotropic grains(Epoly iron =210 GPa) Anisotropic grains( Textured)
b.Polycrystalline: Isotropic having same properties in all directions. e.g. Sugar, NaCl, Diamond.
Most engineering metals are polycrystals. Each "grain" is a single crystal. If crystals are
randomly oriented, overall component properties are not directional. Crystal sizes range from
1 nm to 2 cm. (i.e. From a few to millions of atomic layers).
2. Amorphous: Non-crystalline. Atoms have no periodic packing. typical for complex
structures, during rapid cooling . e.g. ordinary glass, selenium, glycerin.
3. A combination of two.
METALLIC CRYSTALS: These crystals have the simplest crystal structures. They tend to be
densely packed and have several reasons for dense packing:
i)Typically, only one element is present, so all atomic radii are the same.
ii)Metallic bonding is not directional.
iii)Nearest neighbor distances tend to be small in order to lower bond energy.
Some Definitions
Space Lattice:
A regular distribution of points in space that has adentical surrounding.
Crystal Lattice:
Whrn atoms actually occupy the positions on or in relation to these lattice points, we get a crystal lattice.
Unit Cell:
It is the smallest regular shape in the space which when repeated, generates the whole crystal lattice.
Crystal Systems
The shape & size of a unit cell can be defined by help of three vectors a, b, c: specifying the vextor
lengths & the angles Alpha(α), Beta(β) and Gamma(γ) between them.
On the basis of different vector lengths & angles seven crystal systems have been recognized. Depending
on the arrangements of atoms in these systems 14 Bravais space lattices have been defined.
14 Bravais Lattices in 7 crystal systems
Crystal Systems Lattice Type No. of Lattices Vector lengths Angles Relation
Cubic P,F,C 3 a=b=c α=β=γ≠90°
Monoclinic P,B 2 a≠b≠c α=β=90°≠γ
Triclinic P 1 a≠b≠c α≠β≠γ≠90°
Tetragonal P,C 2 a=b≠c α=β=γ=90°
Orthogonal P,B,F,C 4 a≠b≠c α=β=γ=90°
Trigonal P or R 1 a=b=c α=β=γ≠90°
Hexagonal P 1 a=b≠c α=β=90°
γ=120°
5
Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC)
• Atoms touch each other along cube diagonals.
Atomic Packing Factor: BCC
• APF for a body-centered cubic structure = 0.68
--Note: All atoms are identical; the center atom is shaded
differently only for ease of viewing.
3a
ex: Cr, W, Fe (), Tantalum, Molybdenum
a
• Coordination # = 8
2a
Close-packed directions:
R length = 4R = 3 a
Adapted from a
Fig. 3.2(a), Callister 7e.
atoms
4 volume
unit cell 2 p ( 3 a/4 ) 3 Unit cell contains:
Adapted from Fig. 3.2, 3 atom 1 + 8 x 1/8
Callister 7e.
APF = = 2 atoms/unit cell
volume
2 atoms/unit cell: 1 center + 8 corners x 1/8 a3
(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)
50
unit cell
Plane ABC has intercepts of 2 units along X-axis, 3 units along Y-axis and 2 units along Z-axis.
DETERMINATION OF ‘MILLER INDICES’
Step 1:The intercepts are 2,3 and 2 on the three axes.
Step 2:The reciprocals are 1/2, 1/3 and 1/2.
Step 3:The least common denominator is „6‟. Multiplying each reciprocal by lcd, we get, 3,2
and 3.
Step 4:Hence Miller indices for the plane ABC is (3 2 3)
IMPORTANT FEATURES OF MILLER INDICES
For the cubic crystal especially, the important features of Miller indices are,
A plane which is parallel to any one of the co-ordinate axes has an intercept of infinity
(). Therefore the Miller index for that axis is zero; i.e. for an intercept at infinity, the
corresponding index is zero.
A plane passing through the origin is defined in terms of a parallel plane having non zero
intercepts.
All equally spaced parallel planes have same „Miller indices‟ i.e. The Miller indices do
not only define a particular plane but also a set of parallel planes. Thus the plane whose
intercepts are 1, 1, 1; 2,2,2; -3,-3,-3 etc., are all represented by the same set of Miller
indices.
It is only the ratio of the indices which is important in this notation. The (6 2 2) planes are
the same as (3 1 1) planes.
-If a plane cuts an axis on the negative side of the origin, corresponding index is negative. It is
represented by a bar, like (1 0 0). i.e.Miller indices (1 0 0) indicates that the plane has an
intercept in the –ve X –axis.
Worked Example:
A certain crystal has lattice parameters of 4.24, 10 and 3.66 Å on X, Y, Z axes
respectively. Determine the Miller indices of a plane having intercepts of 2.12, 10 and 1.83
Å on the X, Y and Z axes.
Lattice parameters are = 4.24, 10 and 3.66 Å
The intercepts of the given plane = 2.12, 10 and 1.83 Å i.e. The intercepts are, 0.5, 1 and 0.5.
Step 1:The Intercepts are 1/2, 1 and 1/2.
Step 2:The reciprocals are 2, 1 and 2.
Step 3:The least common denominator is 2.
Step 4:Multiplying the lcd by each reciprocal we get, 4, 2 &4.
Step 5:By writing them in parenthesis we get (4 2 4)
Therefore the Miller indices of the given plane is (4 2 4) or (2 1 2).
SOLID SOLUTIONS
Alloys : A macroscopically homogeneous mixture of two or more elements, one of which is
essentially a metal is called alloy. The alloy exhibits metallic properties. Eg. An alloy of Fe and
C is plain carbon steel, An alloy of Cu and Zn is Brass.
Solid solutions: A microscopically homogeneous (mixture of two or more elements, one of
which is essentially a metal) alloy is called solid solution. Thus all solid solutions are alloys but
all alloys need not be homogeneous at microscopic level and hence cannot be solid solutions. In
the solid solution both solute and solvent atoms are solid.
The solid solutions may be Substitutional when both solute & solvent atoms are having almost
same size, Crystal structure, valances and electro negativity (Cu & Ni). Or Interstial when the
size of solute atom is relatively very small as compared to solvent atoms ( E.g. Fe & C). The
conditions in which the different types of solid solutions are formed is governed by the Hume
Rothery rules .
HUME-ROTHERY RULES
• The Hume-Rothery rules are a set of basic rules describing the conditions under which
an element could dissolve in a metal, forming a solid solution. There are two sets of rules,
one which refers to substitutional solid solutions, and another which refers to interstitial
solid solutions.
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INTERMETALLIC COMPOUNDS:
i)For substitutional solid solution to be formed the solute and solvent should have similar
electronegativity. If the electronegativity difference is too great, the metals will tend to form
intermetallic compounds instead of solid solutions.
ii)These phases range between the ideal solid solutions and the ideal chemical compunds .
iii)There are two types of intermetallic compounds. Viz
a) intermetallic compounds of fixed composition which obeys the valence laws of ideal chemical
compound ( like Nacl), eg Mg2 Sn which has 29.02% Mg, and a fixed M. P.
b) intermetallic compounds of variable composition which do not obey the valence laws of ideal
chemical compound
Solidification of pure metal
2 Inverse (Negative) temp gradient at liquid solid interface ( Impure metal): During
solidification for impure metal the Inverse temp gradient exist between solid interface
and liquid ( i. e. temp of solid< temp of liquid < temp of interface. ) . Under such
Negative temp gradient condition as the relatively impure molten metal touch the side
walls of the mould the nuclei grow preferentially faster in certain directions than in
other giving rise to branch like structure called dendrites. In highly pure metal however
the dendrites are not formed as the Inverse temp gradient is never present.
Fig b Inverse temp gradient in impure metal Fig c Dendrites in impure metal
a) Formation of nuclei.
b) Small Dendrites begin to grow from the nuclei.
c) The Dendrites continue to grow from the nuclei along all directions and occupying
the space between them starts filling.
d) Solidification is complete and shows no existence of dendrites but only different grains
having different crystal orientation.
1 Chilled grain: When liquid is poured into ingot mould, the liquid in contact with the
bottom wall of mould is chilled. A large number of heterogeneous nuclei are formed (due
to the heat extraction by the mould walls & suspended impurity particles in the liquid)
on the mould and these nuclei grow on this bottom wall to small grains called “chilled
grains.”
2. Columnar Grains: As the molten metal starts touching the mould walls the chilled
grains are formed along it and they grow preferentially normal to mould walls. These
elongated grains look like columns and hence they are called “Columnar Grains”. During
the growth of these grains the temperature goes down below its melting point.
QUESTION BANK
Q.1 What is metallurgy? What are its main branches? Explain.
Q.2 How are the engineering materials classified? State the main characteristics and
applications of each class.
Q.3 What is the significance of internal structure, properties and performance
of material? Explain.
Q.4 What are the factors to be considered for selecting material for a particular purpose?
With a suitable example explain the process.
Q. 5 State different structures of metal and alloys.
Q.6Define atomic packing factor. Describe the procedure of calculating the value of APF
for BCC and FCC structure.
Q.7Define co-ordination number. Explain how the co-ordination number for BCC and
FCC are calculated?
Q.8 Define solid solution and explain „Hume-Rothery‟ rules applicable to formation of
substitutional solid solution.
Q.9Define the following term
i ) Space lattice ii ) Crystal lattice iii) Unit cell iv)coordination number v)Atomic packing
factor
Q.10 What is the procedure of finding Miller Indices for crystallographic planes and
also draw (0 1 1) and (123) planes.
Q.11 What is the procedure of finding Miller Indices for crystallographic directions and
also draw [0 1 1] and [1 0 1] planes. What do <100> mean?
Q. 12 A certain crystal has lattice parameters of 4.24, 10 and 3.66 Å on X, Y, Z axes
respectively. Determine the Miller indices of a plane having intercepts of 2.12, 10 and
1.83 Å on the X, Y and Z axes.
Q.13Describe how solidification of pure metal occurs? Also explain the phenomenon of
nucleation and growth in pure metal
Q. 14 Explain in brief solidification of ingot in a mould. Also show the different types of
grains formed during solidification with neat sketch.