HIMANSHU MAHAJAN

(PHYSICS EDUCATOR )
MOBILE NO. 9891574257 , 7042574657
C-5A/ 298C, JANAKPURI, NEW DELHI - 110058
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
CHARACTERISTICS PROPERTIES OF PHOTON
1) The interaction of radiation with matter, radiations behaves as if it is made up of particles like photons.
ν h
2) Each photon has an energy E = hν = hc/λ and momentum P = c = λ
where ‘h’ is planck’s constant, ‘ν’ and ‘λ’ are
the frequency and wavelength of radiation and ‘c’ is the velocity of light.
3) Irrespective of the intensity of radiation, all the photons of a particular frequency or wavelength on a metal
surface, there is only increase in the number of photons falling on that surface, while each photon is having the
same energy. It shows that the photons energy is independent of intensity of radiation
4) Irrespective of intensity of radiation, all the photons of a particular frequency v or wavelength λ, have the same
hν h
energy (E = hν = hc/λ) and same momentum (P = c
= λ)
5) All the photons emitted from a source of radiations travel through space with the same speed ‘c’ (equal to the
speed of light).
6) The frequency of photon gives the radiation , a definite energy (or colour) which does not change when photon
travels through different media.
7) The velocity of photon in different media is different which is due to change in its wavelength.
8) The rest mass of a photon is zero. Ac to the theory of relativity the mass ‘m’ of the particle moving with velocity ‘v’,
comparable with the velocity of light ‘c’ , is given by-
m∘ v2
m= 2
OR m ∘ = m√1 − c2 ……….(1)
√1−v2
c

where
mo is the rest mass of particle. As a photon moves with the speed of light i.e. v = c , so from eq (1), mo = 0.
Hence photon has zero rest mass.
9) Photons are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields. This shows that photons are electrically neutral
10) In a photon, particle collision (such as photon-electric collision), the energy and momentum are conserved.
However, the number of photons may not be conserved in a collision. One photon may be absorbed or a new
photon may be created.

Free electrons in metals. In metals the electrons in the outer shells of the atoms are loosely bound. They move about
freely throughout the lattice of positive ions. Such loosely bound electrons are called free electrons.
The free electrons, however, remain confined to the conductor and cannot leave its surface at ordinary temperature
and under moderate electric fields. The moment an electron comes out of a metal surface with its negative charge (-e),
the metal surface acquires an equal positive charge (+e) and pulls it back. There is thus a potential barrier at the metal
surface which the free electrons have to overcome in order to just escape from the metal surface.
The minimum amount of energy required by an electron to just escape from the metal surface is called work function of
the metal.
The work function depends on (i) the nature of the metal and (ii) the conditions of its surface. It is generally denote
by 𝑊𝑜 (or ϕo ) and measured in electron volt (eV).
Electron volt. One electron volt is the kinetic energy gained by an electron when it is accelerated through a potential
difference of 1 volt.
Energy gained by electron
= Work done by electric field = qV
∴ 1 eV =1.602 × 10−19 C × 1 V
or 1 eV = 1.602 × 10−19 J
Electron volt is a commonly used unit of energy in atomic and nuclear physics.

ELECTRON EMISSION
Electron emission. The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal surface is called electron emission. For the
emission of electrons from the metal surface, the energy of electrons must be higher than the work function of the
metal . For their release from the metal surface, the electrons may be supplied the required amount of energy by any

1
one of the following methods :
 1) Thermionic emission. When a metal is heated, its free electrons get sufficient thermal energy and they can
overcome surface barrier. This method of removal of electrons is called thermionic emission and the emitted
electrons are called thermions or thermo-electrons.
2) Field emission or cold cathode emission. When a metal surface is subjected to very high electric fields, of the
order of 103 to 108 Vm−1 , electrons are emitted from it. This is known as field or cold cathode emission. This
method of electron emission is dangerous and less efficient.
3) Photoelectric emission. It is the process in which electrons are emitted from a metal surface when
electromagnetic radiations of sufficiently high frequency are incident on it. The emitted electrons are called
photoelectrons but their rate of emission is very low.
4) Secondary emission. When fast moving electrons strike a metal surface, they transfer some of their energy to the
free electrons of the metal . As a result , the energy of the free electrons becomes more than the work function of
the metal and they get ejected from the metal surface. The emitted electrons are called secondary electrons and
this method of removal of electrons is called secondary emission.

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

1) Effect of intensity of light on photoelectric current. If we allow radiations of a fixed frequency to fall on plate P
and the accelerating potential difference between the two electrodes is kept fixed, then the photoelectric current
is found to increase linearly with the intensity of incident radiation. Since the photoelectric current is directly
proportional to the number of photoelectrons emitted per second, this implies that the number of photoelectrons
emitted per second is proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.

2) Effect of potential. If we keep the intensity 𝐼1 and the frequency of incident radiation fixed, and increase the
positive potential (called accelerating potential) on plate A gradually, it is found that the photoelectric current
increases with the increase in accelerating potential till a stage is reached when the photoelectric current becomes
maximum and does not increase further with the increase in the accelerating potential. This maximum value of the
photoelectric current is called the saturation current. At this stage, all the electrons emitted by the plate C are
collected by the plate A.

3) Effect of frequency of incident radiation on stopping potential. To study the effect of frequency on
photoelectric effect, the intensity of incident radiation at each frequency is adjusted in such a way that the
saturation current is same each time when the plate A is gradually reduced to zero and then increased in the
negative direction till stopping potential is reached. The experiment is repeated with radiations of different
frequencies.
The value of stopping potential increases with the frequency of incident radiation. For frequencies v3 > v2 > v1 ,
the corresponding stopping potentials vary in the order V03 > V02 > V01 . This implies that greater is the maximum
kinetic energy of the photoelectrons and hence greater is the retarding potential required to stop such electrons
completely.

If we plot a graph between the frequency of incident radiation and the corresponding stopping potential for
different metals, we get straight line graphs. These graphs reveal the following facts :

(i) The stopping potential increases linearly with the frequency ν of the incident radiation for a given
2
 photosensitive material.
(ii) There exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency for which the stopping potential is zero.
The minimum value of the frequency of incident radiation below which the photoelectric emission stops
altogether is called threshold frequency.
(iii) For two different metals A and B, these graphs are parallel straight lines i.e., they have same slope. But the
threshold frequencies are different for the two metals.
The above observations imply two important facts :
(i) The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons increases linearly with the frequency of the incident
radiation, but is independent of its intensity.
(ii) For a frequency ν of the incident radiation less than the threshold frequency 𝜈𝑜 , no photoelectric emission is
possible , howsoever large is the intensity of incident radiation.

LAWS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION

Laws of photoelectric emission. On the basis of the experimental results on photoelectric effect, Lenard and Millikan
gave the following laws of photoelectric emission :
1) For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation, (above the threshold frequency), the
photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of light. The saturation current is directly proportional
to the intensity of incident radiation.
2) For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency below which no photoelectrons
are emitted, howsoever high is the intensity of incident radiation. This frequency is called threshold frequency.
3) Above the threshold frequency, the stopping potential or equivalently the maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity.
4) The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process. The time lag between the incidence of light radiation and
the emission of photoelectrons is very small, even less than 10−9 s.

EINSTEIN’S THEORY OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Einstein’s theory of photoelectric effect. Einstein explained photoelectric effect on the basis of Planck’s quantum theory
according to which a light radiation travels in the form of discrete photons. The energy of each photon is hv, where h is
Planck’s constant and ν is the frequency of light.
The main points of the Einstein’s theory of photoelectric effect are :
1) Photoelectric emission is the result of interaction of two particles – one a photon of incident radiation and the
other an electron of photosensitive metal.
2) The free electrons are bound within the metal due to restraining forces on the surface. The minimum energy
required to liberate an electron from the metal surface is called work function 𝑊𝑜 of the metal.
3) Each photon interacts with one electron. The energy hv of the incident photon is used up in two parts :
(a) a part of the energy of the photon is used in liberating the electron from the metal surface, which is equal to
the work function 𝑊𝑜 of the metal, and
(b) the remaining energy of the photon is used in imparting kinetic energy to the ejected electron.

4) Very few (< 1%) photons, whose energies are greater than 𝑊𝑜 , are capable of ejecting the photo-electrons.
By the conservation of energy,
Energy of the incident photon = Maximum K.E. of photoelectron + work function
1
Or hv = 2
2
𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝜙o
𝟏
or 𝐊 𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝐦𝐯𝐦𝐚𝐱
𝟐
= hv - 𝛟𝐨 ……..(1)
𝟐

If the incident photon is of threshold frequency ν0 , then its energy ℎν0 is just sufficient to free the electron from
the metal surface and does not give it any kinetic energy. So ℎνo = 𝑊0 . Hence
𝟏
𝐊 𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝟐 𝐦𝐯𝐦𝐚𝐱 = hv - 𝐡𝛎𝟎 = 𝐡(𝛎 − 𝛎𝟎 ) …….(2)

3
𝟐

Equations (1) and (2) are called Einstein’s photoelectric equations and can be used to explain the laws of
photoelectric effect as follows :
 1) Explanation of effect of intensity. The increase of intensity means the increase in the number of photons striking
the metal surface per unit time. As each photon ejects only one electron , so the number of ejected photoelectrons
increases with the increase in intensity of incident radiation.
2) Explanation of threshold frequency. If ν < ν0 i.e., the frequency of incident radiation is less than the threshold
frequency, the kinetic energy of photoelectrons becomes negative. This has no physical meaning. So photoelectric
emission does not occur below the threshold frequency.
3) Explanation of kinetic energy. If ν < ν0 , then
1
K max = 2 mν2max ∝ ν
i.e., above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons increases linearly with the
frequency ν of the incident radiation. Moreover, the increase in intensity increases only the number of incident
photons and not their energy. Hence the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is independent of the
intensity of incident radiation.
4) Explanation of time lag. Photoelectric emission is the result of an elastic collision between a photon and an
electron. Thus the absorption of energy from a photon by a free electron inside the metal is a single event which
involves transfer of energy in one lump instead of the continuous absorption of energy as in the wave theory of
light. Hence there is no time lag between the incidence of a photon and the emission of a photoelectron.

Determination of Planck’s constant and work function. According to Einstein’s photoelectron equation, the maximum
K.E. of a photoelectron is given by
𝐾max = hν - 𝜙0
If 𝑉0 is the stopping potential, then
K max = 𝑒𝑉0

∴ 𝑒𝑉0 = hν - 𝜙0

ℎ ϕ0
Or 𝑉0 = ( )ν − ……(1)
𝑒 e

We compare this equation with the straight line equation,

y = mx + c
It follows from equation (1) that 𝑉0 versus ν graph is a straight line,

ℎ
Clearly, slope of 𝑉0 − ν graph =
𝑒

To determine the slope, take two points A and B on the straight line graph. Then
AC ℎ
m = tan θ = =𝑒
BC

AC
∴ h=e× = e × slope of 𝑉0 − ν graph
BC

Thus , the Planck’s constant h can be determined.

𝜙0
Moreover, the intercept on vertical axis = −
e

∴ ϕ0 = e × Magnitude of the intercept on vertical axis.

In this way, the work function 𝜙0 can be determined.

DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION

Dual nature of radiation. The phenomena like interference, diffraction and polarization, etc., can be satisfactorily
explained only on the basis of wave nature of light. On the other hand, the phenomena like photoelectric effect, Compton

4
effect, etc., can be explained only in terms of quantum theory of light, i.e., by assuming particle nature of light. This shows
that light radiation has dual nature, i.e., it sometimes behaves like a wave and sometimes as a particle.
DUAL NATURE OF MATTER : DE-BROGLIE WAVES
Dual nature of matter : de-Broglie waves. In 1924, the French physicist Louis Victor de-Broglie (pronounced as de Broy)
put forward the bold hypothesis that material particles in motion should display wave-like properties. His reasoning was
based on the following two considerations :
1) The two physical quantities which govern all the forms of the physical universe are mass and energy.
The Einstein’s mass-energy relationship :
E = 𝑚𝑐 2 ,
shows that there is a complete equivalence between matter (mass) and radiation (energy). There must be a mutual
symmetry between matter (mass) and radiation.
2) Nature loves symmetry. Since radiation has dual nature, therefore, from symmetry considerations, de-Broglie predicted
that matter must also possess dual nature. Thus the particles like electrons, protons, neutrons, etc., should not only
behave like mass points but they should also exhibit wave nature when in motion.
The waves associated with material particles in motion are called matter or de Broglie waves and their
wavelength is called de Broglie wavelength.

de-Broglie’s wave equation. Considering photon as an e.m. wave of frequency ν , its energy from Planck’s quantum
theory is given by
E = hν …….(1)
where h is Planck’s constant. Considering photon as a particle of mass m, the energy associated with it is given by
Einstein’s mass-energy relationship as
E = 𝑚𝑐 2 …….(2)
From equations (1) and (2), we get
hν = 𝑚𝑐 2
ℎ𝑐 𝑐
Or
𝜆
= 𝑚𝑐 2 [∵ 𝜈 = ]
𝜆
ℎ ℎ
Or λ = =
𝑚𝑐 𝑝

Where λ is the wavelength of the radiation of frequency ν and p = mc, is the momentum of the photon. The above
equation has been derived for a photon of radiation. According to de Broglie’s hypothesis, it must be true for material
particles like electrons, protons, neutrons, etc. Hence a particle of mass m moving with velocity ν must be associated
with a matter wave of wavelength λ given by
h h
λ = p = mν ……(3)
This is de Broglie’s wave equation for material particles. It explains the dual nature of matter as it connects the
wave characteristic ‘λ’ with the particle characteristic ‘p’.
From de-Broglie’s equation, we find that
1. The wavelength of a moving particle is inversely proportional to its momentum.
1
i.e., λ∝p
2. If ν = 0, then λ = ∞. This implies that waves are associated with material particles only when they are in motion.
3. To be associated with a de Broglie wave, a particle need not have a charge. That is why, de-Broglie waves are also
known as matter waves.
4. de-Broglie waves cannot be electromagnetic in nature because electromagnetic waves are only associated with
accelerated charged particles.

DE-BROGLIE WAVELENGTH OF AN ELECTRON

de-Broglie wavelength of an electron. Consider an electron of mass m and charge e. Let ν be the final velocity attained
by the electron when it is accelerated from rest through a potential difference of V volts. Then kinetic energy gained by the
electron equals the work done on the electron by the electric field.
K.E. gained by the electron,
1 𝑝2
K = 2 𝑚𝜈 2 = 2 𝑚

work done on the electron = eV

𝑝2
∴ K= = eV

5
2𝑚

Or p = √2𝑚𝐾 = √2𝑚𝑒𝑉
Hence the de Broglie wavelength of the electron is

𝒉 𝒉 𝒉
λ=𝒑= =
√𝟐𝒎𝑲 √𝟐𝒎𝒆𝑽

Now h = 6.63 × 10−34 Js

m = 9.1 × 10−31 kg
e = 1.6 × 10−19 C

6.63 ×10−34
∴ λ=
√2 ×9.1 ×10−31 ×1.6 ×10−19V

12.3 ×10−10 𝟏𝟐.𝟑

= m= Å.
√V √𝐕

EXPERIMENTAL DEMONSTRATION OF WAVE NATURE OF ELECTRONS

Davisson and Germer experiment. In 1927, Davisson and Germer designed an experiment to study the wave properties of
electrons, which is shown in fig.

FIG. (1)
Here the electrons emitted by the hot filament of an electron gun are accelerated by applying a suitable potential
difference V between the cathode and anode. The fine collimated beam of electrons from the electron gun is directed
against the face of Ni crystal. The crystal is capable of rotation about an axis perpendicular to the plane of paper. The
electrons, scattered in different directions by the atoms of Ni crystal, are received by a movable detector which is just an
electron collector. Thus we measure scattered electron intensity as a function of the scattering angle ϕ , the angle between
the incidence and the scattered electron beam. The experiment is repeated for different accelerating potentials V.
Figs. 2 (a) to (e) show the results of Davisson and Germer experiment, when the accelerating voltage was varied
from 44 V to 68 V. Clearly, there is a strong peak corresponding to a sharp diffraction maximum in the electron
distribution at an accelerating voltage of 54 V and scattering angle 50ᵒ . The maximum of intensity obtained in a particular
direction is due to constructive interference of electrons scattered from different layers of the regularly spaced atoms of
the crystal.
From Fig. (1) the glancing angle θ is given by
θ + ϕ + θ = 180ᵒ
1
or θ = 90ᵒ - 2 ϕ = 90ᵒ - 25ᵒ = 65ᵒ ……..FIG.(2)
The interatomic separation for Ni crystal is
d = 0.914 Å
For first order ( n = 1) diffraction maximum, the Bragg’s law is
2d sin θ = λ

∴ λ = 2 × 0.914 × sin 65ᵒ

= 2 × 0.914 × 0.906 Å = 1.65 Å

From de-Broglie hypothesis, the wavelength associated with an

electron beam accelerated through 54 V must be
h 12.3 12.3
λ = mv = Å= Å
√V √54

= 1.66 Å

The experimentally measured wavelength is close to that estimated

from de-Broglie hypothesis. This proves the existence of de-Broglie
waves.

6
 NOTES ON ATOM

DISTANCE OF CLOSEST APPROACH : ESTIMATION OF NUCLEAR SIZE

An 𝛼-particle of mass m and initial velocity v moves directly towards the centre of the nucleus of an atom. As it
approaches the positive nucleus, it experiences Coulombic repulsion and its kinetic energy gets progressively
converted into electrical energy. At a certain distance 𝑟0 from the nucleus, the 𝛼-particle stops for a moment and
then begins to retrace its path, i.e., it is scattered through an angle of 180ᵒ . The distance 𝑟0 is called the distance
of closest approach. At this distance 𝑟0 , the entire initial kinetic energy of the 𝛼-particle gets converted into
electrostatic potential energy.

Now, charge on an 𝛼-particle, 𝑞1 = +2𝑒

Charge on a scattering nucleus, 𝑞2 = +𝑍𝑒
Where Z is the atomic number of foil atoms.
1
Initial kinetic energy of 𝛼-particle, 𝐾𝛼 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2

Electrostatic P.E. of 𝛼-particle and nucleus at distance 𝑟0 ,

𝑞1 𝑞2 2𝑒.𝑍𝑒
U=k. 𝑟0
= 𝑘. 𝑟0

By conservation of energy, 𝐾𝛼 = 𝑈

1 2𝑍𝑒 2
Or 𝐾𝛼 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑘.
2 𝑟0

𝟐𝒌𝒁𝒆𝟐 𝟒𝒌 𝒁𝒆𝟐
∴ 𝒓𝟎 = =
𝑲𝜶 𝒎𝒗𝟐

IMPACT PARAMETER

The scattering of an 𝛼-particle from a nucleus depends on its distance of closest approach to the nucleus or on an
equivalent length, called the impact parameter ‘b’ as shown in fig.

The impact parameter is defined as the perpendicular distance of the velocity vector of the 𝛼-particle from
the centre of the nucleus, when it is far away from the atom.
𝜃
1 𝑍𝑒 2 𝑐𝑜𝑡
b = 4𝜋𝜀 𝐾
2
0

𝜽
𝟏 𝒁𝒆𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒕
or b = 𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝟏
𝟐
𝟎 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐

The scattering experiments provide a method for investigating the nature of the forces involved.

BOHR’S QUANTISATION CONDITION

Bohr’s quantisation condition of angular momentum. Consider the motion of an electron in a circular orbit of
radius r around the nucleus of the atom. According to de Broglie hypothesis, this electron is also associated with
7
wave character. Hence a circular orbit can be taken to be a stationary energy state only if it contains an integral
number of de-Broglie wave lengths, i.e., we must have

2𝜋r = n 𝜆

De Broglie waves and hydrogen atom

(a) Only a certain number of (de Broglie) wavelengths would fit in the electron orbits, and
(b) Discrete standing waves (characteristic frequencies or wave-lengths) correspond to the discrete orbits in
Bohr’s theory.
ℎ
But de Broglie wavelength, 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣
𝑛ℎ
∴ 2𝜋r = 𝑚𝑣

The angular momentum L of the electron must be

𝒏𝒉
L = mvr 𝟐𝝅 , 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 … …

This is the famous Bohr’s quantisation condition for angular momentum. Thus only those circular orbits can
be the allowed stationary states of an electron in which its angular momentum is an integral multiple of h/2𝜋.

BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL: POSTULATES

Postulates of Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom.

(i) Nuclear concept. An atom consists of a small and massive central core, called nucleus around which
planetary electrons revolve. The centripetal force required for their rotation is provided by the
electrostatic attraction between the electrons and the nucleus.
(ii) Quantum condition. Of all the possible circular orbits allowed by the classical theory, the electrons are
permitted to circulate only in those orbits in which the angular momentum of an electron is an integral
ℎ
multiple of 2𝜋 ; ℎ being Planck’s constant. Therefore, for any permitted orbit,
𝑛ℎ
L = mvr = 2𝜋 , n = 1, 2, 3……..
Where L, m and v are the angular momentum, mass and speed of the electron, r is the radius of the
permitted orbit and n is positive integer called principal quantum number. The above equation is Bohr’s
famous quantum condition.
(iii) Stationary orbits. While revolving in the permissible orbits, an electron does not radiate energy. These
non-radiating orbits are called stationary orbits.
(iv) Frequency condition. An atom can emit or absorb radiation in the form of discrete energy photons only
when an electron jumps from a higher to a lower orbit or from a lower to a higher orbit, respectively. If
𝐸1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸2 are the energies associated with these permitted orbits, then the frequency v of the emitted or
absorbed radiation is given by
hv = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1
This is Bohr’s famous frequency condition.

Bohr’s Theory of hydrogen atom: Radii of permitted orbits.

According to Bohr’s theory, a hydrogen atom consists of a nucleus with a positive charge Ze, and a single electron
of charge –e, which revolves around it in a circular orbit of radius r. Here Z is the atomic number and for hydrogen
Z =1. The electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and the electron is

F=
𝑘 𝑍𝑒.𝑒
𝑟2
=
𝑘 𝑍𝑒 2
𝑟2 8
To keep the electron in its orbit, the centripetal force on the electron must be equal to the electrostatic attraction.
Therefore,

𝑚𝑣 2 𝑘 𝑍𝑒 2
= 2
𝑟 𝑟
𝑘 𝑍𝑒 2
Or 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑟
……………(1)

𝑘 𝑍𝑒 2
Or r= ………………..(2)
𝑚𝑣 2

Where m is the mass of the electron and v, its speed in an orbit of radius r.

Bohr’s quantisation condition for angular momentum is

𝑛ℎ
L = mvr = 2𝜋

𝑛ℎ
Or r = 2𝜋 𝑚𝑣 ………………….(3)

From equations (2) and (3), we get

𝑘 𝑍𝑒 2 𝑛ℎ
2
=
𝑚𝑣 2𝜋 𝑚𝑣
𝟐𝝅 𝒌 𝒁𝒆𝟐
Or v= ……………………..(4)
𝒏𝒉

Substituting this value of v in equation (3), we get

𝑛ℎ 𝑛ℎ
r = 2𝜋𝑚 . 2𝜋 𝑘 𝑍𝑒 2

𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐
or r= ………………..(5)
𝟒𝝅𝟐𝒎𝒌 𝒁𝒆𝟐

Clearly, the radii of the permitted orbits are proportional to 𝑛2 and increase in the ratio of 1 : 4: 9: 16….. the
parameter n is called the principle quantum number.
The radius of the innermost orbit of the hydrogen atom, called Bohr’s radius can be determined by putting Z = 1
and n = 1 in equation (5) and it is denoted by 𝑟0 .
ℎ2
∴ 𝑟0 = 4𝜋2𝑚 𝑘𝑒 2
(6.63 × 10−34 )2
= 𝑚
4𝜋 2×9.11 ×10−31 ×9 × 109 ×(1.6 ×10−19)2

= 5.29 × 10−11 𝑚 = 0.53 Å.

Speed of electron. From equation (4), the orbital speed of electron is

2 𝜋𝑘 𝑍𝑒 2
v= 𝑛ℎ

For hydrogen, Z = 1, therefore,

2 𝜋 𝑘𝑒 2 2𝜋 𝑘𝑒 2 𝑐
v= 𝑛ℎ
=( 𝑐ℎ
)
𝑛

or v=𝛼.𝑛
𝑐

9
 2 𝜋 𝑘𝑒 2
The quality 𝛼 = 𝑐ℎ
, is a dimensionless constant and is called fine structure constant. Its value is

2𝜋 ×9× 109 ×(1.6×10−19)2 1

𝛼 = 3 ×108 ×6.63 ×10−34
= 137

1 𝑐
∴ v = 137 . 𝑛
𝑐
For first orbit (n =1), v = 137

Thus the speed of the electron in the innermost orbit is 1/137 of the speed of light in vacuum, while the speed in the
outer orbits varies inversely with n.
Energy of the electron. It includes the electron’s kinetic energy and the electrostatic potential energy of the two
charges.
Kinetic energy of the electron in nth orbit is
1 𝑘 𝑍𝑒 2
K.E. = 𝑚𝑣 2 =
2
(𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1))
2𝑟

Potential energy of the electron in nth orbit is

𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑘 𝑍𝑒.(−𝑒) 𝑘 𝑍𝑒 2
P.E. = k = =−
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

Hence total energy of the electron in nth orbit is

𝑬𝒏 = 𝑲. 𝑬. +𝑷. 𝑬.
𝑘𝑍𝑒 2 𝑘𝑍𝑒 2 𝑘𝑍𝑒 2
= 2𝑟
− 𝑟
=− 2𝑟

𝑘𝑍𝑒 2 4𝜋 2 𝑚𝑘 𝑍𝑒 2
= 2
. 𝑛2 ℎ 2

Using equation (5)

𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝒌𝟐𝒁𝟐 𝒆𝟒
Or 𝑬𝒏 = − 𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐
……………..(6)

The negative value of the total energy indicates that the electron is bound to the nucleus by means of
electrostatic attraction and some work is required to be done to pull it away from the nucleus.
SPECTRAL SERIES OF HYDROGEN ATOM
Spectral series of hydrogen atom. From Bohr’s theory, the energy of an electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom
is given by

2𝜋 2 𝑚 𝑘 2 𝑍 2 𝑒 4 1
𝐸𝑛 = − . 2
ℎ2 𝑛
According to Bohr’s frequency condition, whenever an electron makes a transition from a higher energy level 𝑛2 to
a lower energy level 𝑛1 , the difference of energy appears in the form of a photon. The frequency v of the emitted
photon is given by

hv = 𝐸𝑛2 − 𝐸𝑛1

2𝜋 2𝑚 𝑘 2𝑒 4 1 1
or hv = ℎ2
[
𝑛12
− 𝑛2 ]
2

or v=
2𝜋 2 𝑚
ℎ3
𝑘 2𝑒 4
[
1
𝑛12
1
− 𝑛2 ]
2 10
As c = v𝜆 , therefore wave number 𝑣, which is the reciprocal of wavelength 𝜆, is given by
1 𝑣 2𝜋 2𝑚 𝑘 2 𝑒 4 1 1
𝑣= = = [ − ]
2 𝑐 𝑐ℎ 3 𝑛12 𝑛22

1 1
Or 𝑣 = 𝑅 [𝑛 2 − 𝑛 2 ]
1 2

2𝜋 2𝑚 𝑘 2𝑒 4
Where R = , is the Rydberg constant and its value is 1.0973 × 107 𝑚 −1 . The above equation is the Rydberg
𝑐ℎ 3
formula for the spectrum of hydrogen atom. This formula indicates that the radiation emitted by the excited
hydrogen atom consists of certain specific wavelengths or frequencies, the values of which depend on quantum
numbers 𝑛1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛2 .

As shown in Fig., the origin of the various series in the hydrogen spectrum can be explained as follows:

(i) Lyman series. If an electron jumps from any higher energy level 𝑛2 = 2, 3, 4 … …. to a lower energy
level 𝑛1 = 1, we get a set of spectral lines called lyman series which belong to the ultraviolet region of
the electromagnetic spectrum. This series is given by
1 1 1
𝑣 = 𝜆 = 𝑅 [12 − 𝑛2 ], 𝑛2 = 2, 3, 4 … ….
2
(ii) Balmer series. The spectral series corresponding to the transitions 𝑛2 = 3, 4, 5……… to 𝑛1 = 2, lies in
the visible region and is called Balmer series. For this series,
1 1 1
𝑣 = = 𝑅[ − ], 𝑛2 = 3, 4, 5 … ….
𝜆 22 𝑛22
(iii) Paschen series. If 𝑛2 = 4, 5, 6 … …. and 𝑛1 = 3, we get a spectral series in the infrared region which is
called Paschen series.
1 1 1
𝑣 = 𝜆 = 𝑅 [32 − 𝑛2 ], 𝑛2 = 4, 5, 6 … ….
2
(iv) Brakett series. If 𝑛2 = 5, 6, 7 … …. and 𝑛1 = 4, we get a spectral series in the infrared region which is
called Brackett series.
1 1 1
𝑣 = 𝜆 = 𝑅 [42 − 𝑛2 ], 𝑛2 = 5, 6, 7 … ….
2
(v) Pfund series. If 𝑛2 = 6, 7, 8 … …. and 𝑛1 = 5, we get a spectral series in the infrared region which is
called Pfund series.
1 1 1
𝑣 = 𝜆 = 𝑅 [52 − 𝑛2 ], 𝑛2 = 6, 7,8 … ….
2

ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM FOR HYDROGEN

Energy level diagram. It is a diagram in which the energies of the different stationary states of an atom are
represented by parallel horizontal lines, drawn according to some suitable energy scale. Such a diagram illustrates
more clearly the known facts about the stationary states and the emission or absorption of various spectral lines.

Energy levels of hydrogen. From Bohr’s theory, the total energy of an electron in nth orbit is given by
2𝜋 2 𝑚𝑘 2𝑍 2 𝑒 4
𝐸𝑛 = −
𝑛2 ℎ 2

For hydrogen Z = 1, therefore

2𝜋 2 𝑚𝑘 2 𝑒 4 1
𝐸𝑛 = −
ℎ2
. 2
𝑛
11
Energy of the electron in the first orbit (n = 1) is given by

2 × (3.14)2 × 9.11 × 10−31 × (9 × 109 )2 × (1.6 × 10−19 )4 1

𝐸1 = − . 2
(6.63 × 10−34 )2 1

21.76 ×10−19
= −21.76 × 10−19 𝐽 = − 1.6 × 10−19
𝑒𝑉

= −𝟏𝟑. 𝟔 eV [∵ 1eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J ]

Hence we can write,
𝐸 13.6
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛12 = − 𝑛2
𝑒𝑉

Setting n = 2, 3, 4, etc., we get the energies for the higher orbits as follows:
−13.6
𝐸2 = 22
= −𝟑. 𝟒 𝒆𝑽

−13.6
𝐸3 = 32
= −𝟏. 𝟓𝟏 𝒆𝑽
−13.6
𝐸4 = = −𝟎. 𝟖𝟓 𝒆𝑽
42

−13.6
𝐸5 = 52
= −𝟎. 𝟓𝟒 𝒆𝑽

−13.6
𝐸6 = 62
= −𝟎. 𝟑𝟖 𝒆𝑽

Clearly, an electron can have only certain definite values of energy while revolving in different orbits. This is
called energy quantisation.
The energy state corresponding to n =1, has the lowest energy equal to -13.6 eV. This state or orbit is called the
ground or normal state of the atom. Normally the electron in the hydrogen atom remains in the ground state.
When the hydrogen atom receives energy from outside by processes such as electron collisions, the electron
may make transition to some higher energy state like 𝐸2 , 𝐸3 , 𝐸4 , etc. Which are called the excited states.
LIMITATION OF BOHR’S THEORY
Limitations of Bohr’s theory. Although Bohr’s theory could successfully explain the spectrum of hydrogen, yet it
had the following shortcomings:

1. This theory is applicable only to hydrogen-like single electron atoms and fails in the case of atoms with two
or more electrons.
2. The Bohr model is applicable to hydrogenic atoms. It cannot be extended even to mere two electron atoms

12
such as helium. The analysis of atoms with more than one electron was attempted on the lines of Bohr’s
 model for hydrogenic atoms but did not meet with any success. Difficulty lies in the fact that each electron
interacts not only with the positively charged nucleus but also with all other electrons.
The formulation of Bohr model involves electrical force between positively charged nucleus and electron. It
does not include the electrical forces between electrons which necessarily appear in multi-electron atoms.
3. While the Bohr’s model correctly predicts the frequencies of the light emitted by hydrogenic atoms, the
model is unable to explain the relative intensities of the frequencies in the spectrum. In emission spectrum
of hydrogen, some of the visible frequencies have weak intensity, others strong. Why? Experimental
observations depict that some transitions are more favoured than others. Bohr’s model is unable to
account for the intensity variations.

EXCITATION AND IONISATION POTENTIALS

Excitation energy. The excitation energy of an atom is defined as the energy required by its electron to jump from
the ground state to any one of the excited states.

First excitation energy of hydrogen

= 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = −3.4 − (−13.6) = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟐 𝒆𝑽
Second excitation energy of hydrogen
= 𝐸3 − 𝐸1 = −1.51 − (−13.6) = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟎𝟗 𝒆𝑽.
Ionisation Energy. It is defined as the energy required to knock an electron completely out of the atom, i.e., the
energy required to take an electron from its ground state to the outermost orbit (n = ∞). After the removal of the
electron, the atom is left with positive charge and it is said to ionised.

Ionisation energy of hydrogen

= 𝐸∞ − 𝐸1 = 0 − (−13.6) = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔 𝒆𝑽.

Q. Write 2 features which fail the wave theory

FAILURE OF CLASSICAL WAVE THEORY

According to wave theory, light is an EMW consisting of electric & magnetic fields with continuous distribution of
energy over the region over which the wave extends , this wave picture of light couldn’t explain the base feature of
light as explained below.

1) Acc. to wave theory, when a wavefront of light strikes a metal surface the free 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 at the surface absorb
the radiant energy continuously. Greater the intensity of the radiation, greater are the amplitudes of electric &
magnetic field and greater is the energy density of the wave. Hence, higher intensity should liberate the photo
electrons with greater Kinetic energy but this is contrary to the experimental result that the max. Kinetic
energy of the photoelectrons does depend on the intensity of incident radiation

More energetic photo electrons emitted by blue light than by red light.
2) No matter what frequency of incident radiation is a light wave of sufficient intensity (over a sufficient time)
should be able to impart enough energy required to eject an 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 from metal surface, thus the wave
theory failed to explain the existence of threshold frequency.
3) The energy of light wave is smoothly & evenly distributed across its advancing wavefront. Each 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
intercepts an insignificantly small amount of this energy and so it should require a finite time to escape from
metal surface but actually the emission is almost instantaneous.

13
 NOTES ON NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY

NUCELAR BINDING ENERGY

We have seen that the nucleus is made up of neutrons and protons. Therefore it may be expected that the mass of the
nucleus is equal to the total mass of its individual protons and neutrons. However, the mass M is found to be always
less than this. For example, let us consider 168O ; a nucleus which has 8 neutrons and 8 protons. We have

Mass of 8 neutrons = 8 × 1.00866 u

Mass of 8 protons = 8 × 1.00727 u
Mass of 8 electrons = 8 × 0.00055 u
16
Therefore the expected mass of 8O nucleus
= 8 × 2.01593 u = 16.12744 u.
The atomic mass of 168O found from mass spectroscopy experiments is seen to be 15.99493 u. Substracting the mass
of 8 electrons (8 × 0.00055 u) from this, we get the experimental mass of 168O nucleus to be 15.99053 u,
Thus, we find that the mass of the 168O nucleus is less than the total mass of its constituents by 0.13691 u. The
difference in mass of a nucleus and its constituents, ∆ M, is called the mass defect, and is given by
∆M =[𝑍𝑚𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 ] − 𝑀

What is the meaning of the mass defect? It is here that Einstein’s equivalence of mass and energy plays a role. Since
the mass of the oxygen nucleus is less that the sum of the masses of its constituents (8 protons and 8 neutrons, in the
unbound state), the equivalent energy of the oxygen nucleus is less than that of the sum of the equivalent energies of
its constituents. If one wants to break the oxygen nucleus into 8 protons and 8 neutrons, this extra energy ∆M
C2 , has to supplied. This energy required Eb is related to the mass defect by

𝑬𝒃 = ∆ 𝑴 𝒄𝟐

CONCLUSION OF BINDING ENERGY CURVE

(i) The binding energy per nucleon, Ebn , is practically constant, i.e. practically independent of the atomic
number for nuclei of middle mass number (30 < A<170) . The curve has a maximum of about 8.75 MeV
for A = 56 and has a value of 7.6 MeV for A = 238.
(ii) Ebn is lower for both light nuclei (A<30) and heavy nuclei (A>170).
We can draw some conclusions from these two observations:
(i) The force is attractive and sufficiently strong to produce a binding energy of a few MeV per nucleon.
(ii) The constancy of the binding energy in the range 30 < A < 170 is a consequence of the fact that the
nuclear force is short-ranged. Consider a particular nucleon inside a sufficiently large nucleus. It will be
under the influence of only some of its neighbours, which come within the range of the nuclear force. If
any other nucleon is at a distance more than the range of the nuclear force from the particular nucleon it
will have no influence on the binding energy of the nucleon under consideration. If a nucleon can have a
maximum of p neighbours within the range of nuclear force, its binding energy would be proportional to
p. Let the binding energy of the nucleus be pk, where k is a constant having the dimensions of energy. If
we increase A by adding nucleons they will not change the binding energy of a nucleon inside. Since
most of the nucleons in a large nucleus reside inside it and not on the surface, the change in binding
energy per nucleon would sbe small. The binding energy per nucleon is a constant and is approximately
14
 equal to pk. The property that a given nucleon influences only nucleons close to it is also referred to as
saturation property of the nuclear force.
(iii) A very heavy nucleus, say A = 240, has lower binding energy per nucleon compared to that of a nucleus
with A = 120. Thus if a nucleus A = 240 breaks into two A = 120 nuclei, nucleons get more tightly bound.
This implies energy would be released in the process. It has very important implications for energy
production through fission.
(iv) Consider two very tight nuclei (A ≤10) joining to form a heavier nucleus. The binding energy per nucleon
of the fused heavier nuclei is more than the binding energy per nucleon of the lighter nuclei. This means
that the final system is more tightly bound than the initial system. Again energy would be released in such
a process of fusion.

NUCLEAR FORCE

(i) The nuclear force is much stronger than the Coulomb force acting between charges or the gravitational
forces between masses. The nuclear binding force has to dominate over the Coulomb repulsive force
between protons inside the nucleus. This happens only because the nuclear force is much stronger than the
coulomb force. The gravitational force is much weaker than even Coulomb force.
(ii) The nuclear force between two nucleons falls rapidly to zero as their distance is more than a feq
femtometres. This leads to saturation of forces in a medium or a large-sized nucleus, which is the reason
for the constancy of the binding energy per nucleon.
A rough plot of the potential energy between two nucleons as a function of distance is shown in the in fig.
the potential energy is a minimum at a distance r0 of about 0.8fm. This means that the force is attractive
for distances larger than 0.8fm and repulsive if they are separated by distances less than 0.8 fm.
(iii) The nuclear force between neutron-neutron, proton-neutron and proton-proton is approximately the same.
The nuclear force does not depend on the electric charge.

RADIOACTIVE DECAY LAW

The number of nuclei disintegrating per second of a radioactive sample at any instant is directly proportional to
the number of undecayed nuclei present in the sample at that instant.

Let
𝑁0 = the number of radioactive nuclei present initially at time t = 0 in a sample of radio-active substance.
N = the number of radioactive nuclei present in the sample at any instant t, and
dN = the number of radioactive nuclei which disintegrate in the small time interval dt.

According to radioactive law, the rate of decay at any instant is proportional to the number of undecayed nuclei,
i.e.,
𝑑𝑁
− ∝𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
Or − 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜆 𝑁 …………..(1)

Where 𝜆 is a proportionality constant called the decay or disintegration constant. Here the negative sign shows

15
that the number of undecayed nuclei, N decreases with time. The equation (1) can be written as
𝑑𝑁
𝑁
= −𝜆 𝑑𝑡
 𝑑𝑁
Integrating ∫ 𝑁
= −𝜆 ∫ 𝑑𝑡

Or 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 N = −𝜆 𝑡 + 𝐶 ……………(2)

Where C is a constant of integration.

At t = 0, N = 𝑁0 , therefore from equation (2), we get
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑁0 = 𝐶
Then the equation (2) becomes

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 N = −𝜆 𝑡 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑁0
N
Or 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 N0
= −𝜆 𝑡

N
Or N0
= e−𝜆 𝑡

Or N = N0 e−𝜆 𝑡 …………(3)

This equation represents the radioactive decay law. It gives the number of active nuclei left after time t.

Fig. Shows a graph between the number N of undecayed nuclei and time t. It revels the following features:

1. The number of active nuclei in a radioactive sample decreases exponentially with time. The disintegration
is fast in the beginning but becomes slower and slower with the passage of time.
2. The larger the value of decay constant 𝜆, the higher is the rate of disintegration.
3. Irrespective of its nature, a radioactive sample will take infinitely long time to disintegrate completely.

Decay or disintegration constant:

1
If in equation (3) , t = 𝜆 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

𝑁0 𝑁
N = 𝑁0 𝑒 −1 = 𝑒
0
= 2.718 = 0.368 𝑁0

𝑁0
Or N= 𝑒
= 36.8 % of 𝑁0 ………..(4)

The radioactive decay constant may be defined as the reciprocal of the time interval during which the number of
active nuclei in a given radioactive sample reduces to 36.8% (or 1/e times) of its initial value.

Decay constant may be defined in another way also, as follows:

𝑑𝑁
As − 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜆 𝑁
𝑑𝑁
−
∴ 𝜆= 𝑑𝑡
……………..(5)
𝑁

Thus the radioactive decay constant may be defined as the ratio of the instantaneous rate of disintegration to the

16
number of active nuclei present in the radioactive sample at the given instant.
Relation between half-life and decay constant. Let

𝑁0 = Number of radioactive nuclei present in the radioactive sample initially (at t = 0).

N = Number of radioactive nuclei left at any instant t.

𝑁0
At t = 𝑇1/2 , N = 2

Now N = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆 𝑡 , where 𝜆 is the radioactive decay constant.

𝑁0 1
∴ 2
= 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆 𝑇1/2 or 2
=𝑒 −𝜆 𝑇1/2

Or 𝑒 𝜆 𝑇1/2 = 2

Taking natural logarithm, we get

𝜆 𝑇1/2 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑒 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 2

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 2 2.303 log 2

𝑇1/2 = 𝜆
= 𝜆

2.303 ×0.3010
= 𝜆
[∵ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑒 = 1]

𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑
Or 𝑻𝟏/𝟐 = 𝝀
.

Thus the half-life of a radioactive substance is inversely proportional to its decay constant and is independent of
the number 𝑁0 , the number of radioactive nuclei present initially in the sample.

MEAN LIFE

The average time for which the nuclei of a radioactive sample exist is called mean life or average life of that
sample. It is equal to the ratio of the combined age of all the nuclei to the total number of nuclei present in the
given sample. It is denoted by 𝜏.
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑖
Mean life = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑖

RELATION BETWEEN MEAN LIFE AND DECAY CONSTANT.

Suppose a radioactive sample contains 𝑁0 nuclei at time t = 0. After time t, this number reduces to N. Furthermore,
suppose dN nuclei disintegrate in time t to t + dt. As dt is small, so the life of each of the dN nuclei can be
approximately taken equal to t.

∴ Total life of dN nuclei = t dN

𝑁
Total life of all the 𝑁0 nuclei = ∫0 0 𝑡 𝑑𝑁
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑁0 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑖
Mean life = 𝑁0

1 𝑁
Or 𝜏 = 𝑁 ∫0 0 𝑡 𝑑𝑁
0

As N = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆 𝑇

∴ dN = −𝜆 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆 𝑇 dt

When N = 𝑁0 , t = 0 and when N = 0, t = ∞.

Changing the limits of integration in terms of time, we get
1 ∞
𝜏 = 𝑁 ∫0 𝑡𝜆 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆 𝑇 𝑑𝑡
0
Here we have ignored the negative sign which just tells that N decreases with the passage of time t. Thus 17
 ∞
∞ 𝑡𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 ∞ 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝜏 = 𝜆 ∫0 𝑡 𝑒 −𝜆 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜆 [{ −𝜆
} − ∫0
−𝜆
𝑑𝑡]
0

∞
𝜆 ∞ ∞ 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
= 0 + 𝜆 ∫0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 dt = ∫0 𝑒 −𝜆 𝑇 𝑑𝑡 = { −𝜆
}
0

1 1
= − [𝑒 −∞ − 𝑒 0 ] = − [0 − 1]
𝜆 𝜆

𝟏
Or 𝜏=𝝀

𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑
Also 𝑻𝟏/𝟐 = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑 𝜏
𝝀

𝑻
𝟏/𝟐
Or 𝜏 = 𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟒 𝑻𝟏/𝟐.

DECAY RATE OR ACTIVITY OF A RADIOACTIVE SAMPLE.

The rate of decay or activity of a sample is defined as the number of radioactive disintegrations taking place per
second in the sample.
If a radioactive sample contains N radioactive nuclei at any time t, then its decay rate or activity R at the same
time t will be
𝑑𝑁
R=−
𝑑𝑡
The negative sign shows that the activity of the sample decreases with the passage of time.
According to the radioactive decay law,
𝑑𝑁
− 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜆 𝑁
∴ R=𝝀𝑵

As N = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆 𝑇 , so we can write

R = 𝜆 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆 𝑇

Or R = 𝑹𝟎 𝒆−𝝀 𝑻

UNITS OF RADIOACTIVITY.

The various units of rate of decay or activity of a radioactive substance are as follows:
1. Becquerel (Bq). The SI unit for activity is becquerel, named after the discoverer of radioactivity, Henry
Becquerel. One Becquerel is defined as the decay rate of one disintegration per second.
1 becquerel = 1 Bq = 1 decay per second
2. Curie (Ci). It is an older practical unit for activity named in honour of Madame Marie Sklodowska Curie
(1867-1934). One curie is the decay rate of 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per second.
1 curie = 1 Ci = 3.7 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 decays per second
= 3.7 × 1010 Bq
Some other units of activity in common use are
1 m Ci (milli curie) = 3.7 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕Bq
1 m Ci (micro curie) = 3.7 × 107 Bq
3. Rutherford (rd). One Rutherford is the decay rate of 106 disintegrations per second.
1 rd(Rutherford) = 𝟏𝟎𝟔 decays per second = 𝟏𝟎𝟔 Bq
1 Ci = 3.7 × 104 rd

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